ME-3309 Fluid Mechanics & Machinery

Chapter-4:
Principles of Similarity & Dimensional Analysis
Introduction
Engineering problems are very complex in nature. The theoretical solutions are
sometimes impossible. Even a theoretical model is developed then again it has to be
calibrated or validated by experiment. The experiments are the actual truth.
Sometimes experimenting by actual size is not possible due to economic advantage
(savings time, money, energy etc.). So Laboratory tests are usually carried out under
altered conditions of the operating variables from the actual ones in practice. It is
usually done by changing size and different properties like pressure, velocity, density
etc.
The pertinent questions arising out of this situation are:

1. How to apply the test results from laboratory experiments to the actual
problems?
2. Is it possible, to reduce the large number of experiments to a lesser one in
achieving the same objective?

Answer of the above two questions lies in the principle of physical similarity. This
principle is useful for the following cases:

1. To apply the results taken from tests under one set of conditions to another
set of conditions.
2. To predict the influences of a large number of independent operating
variables on the performance of a system from an experiment with a limited
number of operating variables.

Concept and Types of Physical Similarity

The primary and fundamental requirement for the physical similarity between two
problems is that the physics of the problems must be the same.
For an example, two flows: one is for free surface flow i.e. flow over a flat plate and
while the other is pipe flow both act on same pressure, velocity and temperature.
The flows are not physically similar.
For another example, two flows: one governed by viscous and pressure forces while
the other by gravity force cannot be made physically similar. Therefore, the laws of
similarity have to be sought between problems described by the same physics.

Definition of physical similarity as a general proposition.

Two systems, described by the same physics, operating under different sets of
conditions are said to be physically similar in respect of certain specified physical
quantities; when the ratio of corresponding magnitudes of these quantities between
the two systems is the same everywhere.
In the field of mechanics, there are three types of similarities which constitute the

Figure 4.1 Types of similarity

complete similarity between problems of same kind.

Geometric Similarity: If the specified physical quantities are geometrical dimensions,
the similarity is called Geometric Similarity.
Kinematic Similarity: If the quantities are related to motions, the similarity is called
Kinematic Similarity.
Dynamic Similarity: If the quantities refer to forces, then the similarity is termed as
Dynamic Similarity.
Geometric Similarity
Geometric Similarity implies the similarity of shape such that, the ratio of any length
in one system to the corresponding length in other system is the same everywhere.
This ratio is usually known as scale factor.
Therefore, geometrically similar objects are similar in their shapes, i.e., proportionate
in their physical dimensions, but differ in size.
In investigations of physical similarity,
 o The full size or actual scale systems are known as prototypes
o The laboratory scale systems are referred to as models
o Use of the same fluid with both the prototype and the model is not
necessary
o Model need not be necessarily smaller than the prototype. The flow of
fluid through an injection nozzle or a carburetor, for example, would be
more easily studied by using a model much larger than the prototype.
o The model and prototype may be of identical size, although the two
may then differ in regard to other factors such as velocity, and
properties of the fluid.
If l1 and l2 are the two characteristic physical dimensions of any object, then the
requirement of geometrical similarity is

Which is known as model ratio.

Figure 4.2 Geometric Similarity

Kinematic Similarity
Kinematic similarity refers to similarity of motion.
Since motions are described by distance and time, it implies similarity of lengths (i.e.,
geometrical similarity) and, in addition, similarity of time intervals.
If the corresponding lengths in the two systems are in a fixed ratio, the velocities of
corresponding particles must be in a fixed ratio of magnitude of corresponding time
intervals.
When fluid motions are kinematically similar, the patterns formed by streamlines are
geometrically similar at corresponding times.
For example, if Vx & Vy be the velocities of x & y direction during flow for both
prototype and model. Then the flows will be kinematically similar if,

𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥
( ) = ( )
𝑉𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑉𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙

Dynamic Similarity
Dynamic similarity is the similarity of forces.
In dynamically similar systems, the magnitudes of forces at correspondingly similar
points in each system are in a fixed ratio.
In a system involving flow of fluid, different forces due to different causes may act on
a fluid element. These forces are as follows:

Viscous Force (due to viscosity)

Pressure Force ( due to different in pressure)

Gravity Force (due to gravitational attraction)

Capillary Force (due to surface tension)

Compressibility Force ( due to elasticity)

According to Newton’s law, the resultant FR of all these forces, will cause the

acceleration of a fluid element. Hence

Moreover, the inertia force is defined as equal and opposite to the resultant
accelerating force

=-
So the equation can be expressed as,

For dynamic similarity, the magnitude ratios of these forces have to be same for both
the prototype and the model. The inertia force is usually taken as the common
one to describe the ratios as (or putting in other form we equate the the non
dimensionalised forces in the two systems)

The Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional Analysis is a technique by which any physical problem experimentation
time can be reduced by reducing the number dimensional variable involved in the
problem to non-dimensional variable.
For an example, if the Reynolds number, Re = ρVDh /µ is considered as the
independent variable, in case of a flow of fluid through a closed duct of hydraulic
diameter Dh, then a change in Re may be caused through a change in flow velocity V
only. Thus a range of Re can be covered simply by the variation in V without varying
other independent dimensional variables ρ,Dh and µ. So varying Reynolds number all
the effects of the variables is utilized.
A method of determining these dimensionless parameters by a mathematical
technique is known as dimensional analysis.
There are two existing approaches of dimensional analysis:
o one due to Buckingham known as Buckingham's pi theorem
o other due to Rayleigh known as Rayleigh's Indicial method

Dimensions of Physical Quantities

All physical quantities are expressed by magnitudes and units.

For example, the velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle are 8m/s and 10m/s 2
respectively. Here the dimensions of velocity and acceleration are ms-1 and ms-2
respectively.
In SI (System International) units, the primary physical quantities which are
assigned base dimensions are the mass, length, time, temperature, current and
luminous intensity. Of these, the first four are used in fluid mechanics and they are
symbolized as M (mass), L (length), T (time), and θ (temperature).
 Any physical quantity can be expressed in terms of these primary quantities by
using the basic mathematical definition of the quantity.
 The resulting expression is known as the dimension of the quantity.

Let us take some examples:

1. Dimension of Stress

Shear stress is defined as force/area. Again, force = mass × acceleration

Dimensions of acceleration = Dimensions of velocity/Dimension of time.

Dimension of area = (Length)2 =L2

Hence, dimension of shear stress

2. Dimension of Viscosity
Consider Newton's law for the definition of viscosity as

or,
The dimension of velocity gradient du/dy can be written as
Dimension of du/dy= dimension of u/dimension of y = (L / T) = L T -1
The dimension of shear stress is given in Eq. (19.1).
Hence dimension of

Dimensions of Various Physical Quantities in Tabular Format

Physical Quantity Dimension

Mass M
Length L
Time T
Temperature θ
Velocity LT -1
Angular velocity T -1
Acceleration LT -2
Angular Acceleration T -2
Force, Thrust, Weight MLT -2
Stress, Pressure ML -1T -2
Momentum MLT -1
Angular Momentum ML2T -1
Moment, Torque ML2T -2
Work, Energy ML2T -2
Power ML2T -3
Vorticity, Shear Rate T -1
Velocity Potential L2T -1
Density ML-3
Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity ML -1T -1
Coefficient of Kinematic Viscosity L2T -1
Surface Tension MT -2
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity ML -1T -2

Buckingham's Pi Theorem

Assume, a physical phenomenon is described by m number of independent variables

like x1 , x2 , x3 , ..., xm
The phenomenon may be expressed analytically by an implicit functional relationship
of the controlling variables as
(a)

Now if n be the number of fundamental dimensions like mass, length, time,

temperature etc. involved in these m variables, then according to Buckingham's p
theorem -
The phenomenon can be described in terms of (m - n) independent dimensionless
groups like π1 ,π2 , ..., πm-n , where pi terms, represent the dimensionless parameters
and consist of different combinations of a number of dimensional variables out of
the m independent variables defining the problem.
Therefore, the analytical version of the phenomenon given by Eq. (a) can be reduced
to

According to Buckingham's pi theorem

This physically implies that the phenomenon which is basically described by m
independent dimensional variables, is ultimately controlled by (m-n) independent
dimensionless parameters known as π terms.

Determination of π terms
 A group of n (n = number of fundamental dimensions) variables out of m
(m = total number of independent variables defining the problem)
variables is first chosen to form a basis so that all n dimensions are
represented. These n variables are referred to as repeating variables.
 Then the pi terms are formed by the product of these repeating variables
raised to arbitrary unknown integer exponents and anyone of the excluded
(m -n) variables.

For example, if x1 x2 ...xn are taken as the repeating variables. Then

 ...................................

 The sets of integer exponents a1, a2 . . . an are different for each pi term.
 Since pi terms are dimensionless, it requires that when all the variables in any
pi term are expressed in terms of their fundamental dimensions, the exponent
of all the fundamental dimensions must be zero.
 This leads to a system of n linear equations in a1 a2 . . . an which gives a unique
solution for the exponents. This gives the values of a1 a2 . . . an for each pi
term and hence the pi terms are uniquely defined.

In selecting the repeating variables, the following points have to be considered:

1. The repeating variables must include among them all the n fundamental
dimensions, not necessarily in each one but collectively.
2. The dependent variable or the output parameter of the physical phenomenon
should not be included in the repeating variables.

See the Example

Consider pressure drop in a tube of length , hydraulic diameter d, surface roughness , with fluid of
density ρ and viscosity μ moving with average velocity ν

This can be expressed as

f (P, U, d, , ρ, μ) = 0

Now m=7 since the phenomenon involves 7 independent parameters.

We select ρ, U, d as repeating variables (so that all 3 dimensions are represented)

Now 4 π (7 - 3) parameters are determined as

Now basic units

All Π parameters M0 L0 T0

The above four equations yield

a1= -1; b1 = - 2; c1= 0

a2= -1; b2 = - 1; c2= -1
a3= 0; b3 = 0; c3= -1
a4= 0; b4 = 0; c4= -1

Thus writing

implies

Therefore,

is called relative roughness

Similarly, other sets of Π parameters can be chosen to describe the phenomena.

Thus though it does not give the actual relationship, but it puts the data in a compact
form.
This analysis will be clear if another practical example is solved.
 See another practical example
Problem: A torpedo shaped missile (object) 900 mm diameter is to move in air at 60
m/s and its drag is to be estimated from tests in water on a half scale model.
Determine the necessary speed of the model and the drag of the full scale object if
that of the model is 1140 N.
Viscosities: Densities:
Air = 1.86×10-5 Pa-s Air = 1.20 kg/m3
Water = 1.01×10-3 Pa-s Water = 1000 kg/m3

Soln:
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠, 𝐹 = 𝑓(𝐷, 𝑉, 𝜌, 𝜇)
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐹 = 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜌 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
µ = 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑆𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠, 𝜑(𝐹, 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝜌, 𝜇) = 0

𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝑚 = 5

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑛 = 3

𝑆𝑜, 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖 (𝜋)

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒, (𝑚 − 𝑛) = 5 − 3 = 2

𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑛 = 3

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝜌 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)

𝑆𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖 (𝜋) 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒,

𝜋1 = 𝐷 𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐 𝐹 (1)
𝜋2 = 𝐷 𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐 𝜇 (2)
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 (𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠),
𝐷→𝐿
𝑉 → 𝐿𝑇 −1
𝜌 → 𝑀𝐿−3
𝜇 → 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1
𝐹 → 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
𝜋1 → 𝜋2 → 𝑀 0 𝐿0 𝑇 0

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1) & (2) 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒,

𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = 𝐿𝑎 (𝐿𝑇 −1 )𝑏 (𝑀𝐿−3 )𝑐 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 (3)
𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = 𝐿𝑎 (𝐿𝑇 −1 )𝑏 (𝑀𝐿−3 )𝑐 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 (4)

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (3) & (4),

𝑎 = −2, 𝑏 = −2, 𝑐 = −1 & 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐 = −1 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦

Putting the values of a, b & c into equations (1) & (2),

𝜋1 = 𝐷 −2 𝑉 −2 𝜌−1 𝐹
𝐹
𝑜𝑟, 𝜋1 =
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐷 2
& 𝜋2 = 𝐷 −1 𝑉 −1 𝜌−1 𝜇
𝜇
𝑜𝑟, 𝜋2 =
𝜌𝑉𝐷

𝐹 𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑆𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜, 𝑓(𝜋1 , 𝜋2 ) = 𝑓( , )
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐷2 𝜇

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑏𝑒𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐷𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐷𝑝
𝑆𝑜, =
𝜇𝑚 𝜇𝑝

1000×𝑉𝑚 ×450 1.2×60×900

𝑜𝑟, =
1.01×10−3 1.86×10−5

𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝑚 = 7.82 𝑚⁄𝑠 (𝐴𝑛𝑠. )

𝐹𝑚 𝐹𝑝
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, =
𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 2 𝐷𝑚 2 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 2 𝐷𝑝 2
 1140 𝐹𝑝
𝑜𝑟, =
1000×7.822 ×4502 1.2×602 ×9002

𝑜𝑟, 𝐹𝑝 = 322 𝑁 (𝐴𝑛𝑠. )

Exercise Problem

1. A 1/6 model automobile is tested in a wind tunnel with same air

properties as the prototype. The prototype automobile runs on the roads
at a velocity of 60 km/hr. For dynamically similar conditions, the drag
measured on the model is 500 N. Determine the drag of the prototype and
the power required to overcome this drag.
(500N, 8.33 KW)