Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides 1

Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides

Heimo Held, Wacker-Chemie GmbH, Werk-Burghausen, Burghausen, Federal Republic of Germany
(Sections 1.1 – 1.3.2, 1.4 – 1.7, and Chaps.2 and 3)
Alfred Rengstl, Wacker-Chemie GmbH, Werk-Burghausen, Burghausen, Federal Republic of Germany
(Section 1.3.3)
Dieter Mayer, Pharma Forschung Toxikologie, Hoechst Aktiengesellschaft, Frankfurt, Federal Republic of
Germany (Chap. 4)

1. Acetic Anhydride . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.3.2. Oxidation of Acetaldehyde . . . . . 8

1.1. Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.3.3. Carbonylation of Methyl Acetate . . 9
1.2. Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . 2 1.4. Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.1. Acetylation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.5. Quality Specifications . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.2. Dehydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.6. Storage and Transportation . . . . 12
1.2.3. Reactions of the α-Protons . . . . . 5 1.7. Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.4. Reactions of a Single Carbonyl 2. Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides . . 12
Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.1. Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.5. Production of Silver Ketenide . . . . 5 2.2. Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3. Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.3. Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.1. Ketene Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.4. Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.1.1. Production of Ketene . . . . . . . . . 6 3. Economic Aspects . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.1.2. Reaction of Ketene with Acetic Acid 7 4. Toxicology and Occupational
1.3.1.3. Pure Anhydride Distillation . . . . . 8 Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.1.4. Environmental Problems . . . . . . . 8 5. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

−195
1. Acetic Anhydride Density d 20
20 1.0838; d 20 1.3290; d −79
20 1.277;
d 15 50
4 (1.0870) up to d 4 (1.0443), see [1]
Refractive index n20
D 1.39038
Acetic anhydride [108-24-7], (CH3 CO)2 O, was n16
322nm 1.4174
16
first prepared by C. Gerhardt in 1852 by the n667.8nm 1.3897, see [2]
1
H NMR absorption see [3]
reaction of benzoyl chloride with molten potas- UV absorption
sium acetate. Today it is one of the most impor- maximum 217 nm
tant organic intermediates and is used widely in Specific heat capacity
(23 – 122 ◦ C) 1.817 J/g
both research and industry. Heat of vaporization
at 18.5 ◦ C 496.5 J/g
at 137 ◦ C 276.7 J/g
Heat of combustion at constant volume
1.1. Physical Properties at 25 ◦ C 1804.5 kJ/mol
Thermal conductivity
at 25 ◦ C 2.215 mJ cm−1 s−1 K−1 [4]
Acetic anhydride, C4 H6 O3 , M r 102.09, mp Electric conductivity
−73.1 ◦ C, bp 139.5 ◦ C (at 101.3 kPa), is a col- at 20 ◦ C 2.3×10−8 Ω−1 cm−1 [5]
Dielectric constant
orless liquid with a pungent odor and is strongly at 20 ◦ C 20.5
lachrymatory. The most important physical data Viscosity
◦
are given below. at 15 C 0.971 Pa s
at 30 ◦ C 0.783 Pa s
(for temperature dependence, see [2], [6])
Critical pressure 4680 kPa Cubic expansion coefficient
Critical temperature 296 ◦ C
at 18 ◦ C 1.13×10−9 K−1
Vapor pressure
Adiabatic compressibility
constant 4.86×108 cm2 /N
t, ◦ C 20 40 60 80 100 120
p, kPa 0.4 1.7 5.2 13.3 28.7 53.3 Molecular refraction 22.38 cm3

c 2005 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

10.1002/14356007.a01 065
2 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides
Surface tension
special reactions of acetic anhydride are sum-
marized in [9].
t, ◦ C 15 20 40 60 100 139.5
σ, mN/m 33.4 32.7 30.0 28.1 23.3 18.6

Acetic anhydride is miscible with polar sol-

vents and dissolves in cold alcohol with slow
decomposition. The solubility of acetic anhy-
dride in water at 20 ◦ C is 2.6 wt %, with slow
decomposition; the solubility of water in acetic
anhydride at 15 ◦ C is 10.7 wt %, with gradual
decomposition. An overview of the solubilities
of several anhydrous organic and inorganic com-
pounds is given in [7].
Data on the kinetics of hydrolysis in water or
aqueous mixtures of acids, bases, or organic sol-
vents, with or without additives and at different
temperatures, are given in [8]. Rate constants for
the solvolysis in alcohols or alcoholic mixtures
of organic solvents, with or without additives,
are also given.
Melting points of acetic acid – acetic anhy-
dride mixtures are as follows: Figure 1. Equilibrium curve: acetic acid – acetic anhydride

% acetic 100 80 60 40 20 10 1.2.1. Acetylation

acid
mp,◦ C 16.7 5.4 −5.8 −19.8 −44.8 −68.1
O-Acetylation. Acetic anhydride is particu-
larly suitable for the esterification of alcohols,
The vapor-liquid equilibrium curve for mix- a reaction that is difficult or impossible with
tures of acetic acid and acetic anhydride is shown acetic acid. Acetic acid is set free in the course
in Figure 1; this is of great importance in in- of the reaction. Bases and strong acids as well
dustry. Further vapor – liquid equilibria, for ex- as salts, such as sodium acetate, are suitable
ample, with water, benzene, diketene, propi- as catalysts. Examples of the reaction with hy-
onic acid, pyrimidine, and water + acetic acid are droxyl groups are the formation of acetyl cel-
given in [8]. lulose, acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin), and glyc-
Safety data: erol triacetate (→ Cellulose Esters, → Salicylic
Flash point 52.5 – 53 ◦ C (closed cup, ASTM Acid, → Glycerol).
56−70, DIN 51755) Carboxylic Acid reactions are described
Ignition temperature 315 ◦ C
Explosive limits in air in Chap. 2 (→ Carboxylic Acids, Aliphatic;
(20 ◦ C, 101.3 kPa) → Carboxylic Acids, Aromatic).
Hydrogen peroxide reacts with acetic anhy-
dride to give peracetic acid [79-21-0] or diacetyl
peroxide [110-22-5], depending on the molar ra-
1.2. Chemical Properties
tio of the reactants:
Acetic anhydride undergoes a large variety of
(CH3 CO)2 O + 2 H2 O2
2 CH3 CO3 H
chemical reactions and is by far the most re-
searched aliphatic carboxylic acid anhydride. In (CH3 CO)2 O + H2 O2
CH3 COOH + CH3 CO3 H
about half of the several thousand relevant publi- (CH3 CO)2 O + CH3 CO3 H
CH3 CO-OO-COCH3
cations and patents over the last 25 years, acetic
+ CH3 COOH
anhydride was used for the acetylation of OH or
NH groups (at least for the primary step). Many
 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides 3

N-Acetylation. Acetylation of compounds of the latter group is the acetylation of 2,3-

containing NH groups yields acetamides follow- dimethylbutadiene tricarbonyl iron in the pres-
ing the general equation: ence of aluminum chloride [15] to give the
following complex:
RR
NH + (CH3 CO)2 O → RR
N-COCH3 + CH3 COOH

where R, R = H or alkyl.
Amines. Aliphatic amines usually react
without heating. Aniline gives acetanilide
(→ Aniline), the acetyl group of which pre-
vents oxidation during subsequent nitration.
The reaction of ketones with acetic anhy-
N-Acetylation generally occurs faster than the
dride using boron trifluoride as a catalyst gives
acetylation of OH groups. Therefore partial
β-diketones [16]. Triacetylmethane [815-68-9]
acetylation of compounds with several func-
can be synthesized directly from isopropenyl
tional groups is possible. Examples of such
acetate, acetic anhydride, and aluminum chlo-
reactions are the production of N-acetylamino
ride catalyst [17]. In the same way, unsaturated
acids, such as N-acetylmethionine-S-oxide (1)
methyl ketones can be produced by acetylation
[10] and of N-acetylanthranilic acids (2) [11].
of olefins with acetic anhydride in the presence
of zinc chloride as catalyst [18]:

Amides and Carbamides. Aliphatic and aro-

matic carboxylic acid amides as well as car-
bamides with a free NH group can be acety-
lated with acetic anhydride. Strong acids, such
as sulfuric acid, are most often used as catalysts. Acetylation of Mineral Acids. The reac-
The breadth of application of this reaction can tion of nitric acid with acetic anhydride gives
be seen from the following products: N,N,N ,N - acetyl nitrate [591-09-3], which is used often
tetraacetylethylenediamine [10543-57-4] [12], as a nitrating agent in organic chemistry. For
(CH3 CO)2 NCH2 CH2 N(COCH3 )2 example, it is used in the production of 2-nitro-
and 2,4,6,8-tetraacetylazabicyclo [3.3.1] cyclohexanone [4883-67-4], a precursor of ε-
nonane-3,7-dione [13]: caprolactam [19]. Acetyl nitrate can be synthe-
sized also from dinitrogen pentoxide and acetic
anhydride.
Other strong acids that form mixed anhy-
drides include sulfuric acid [20], sulfonic acids
[21], and hydrochloric acid. The reaction of
acetic anhydride with phosphorous acid leads to
1-hydroxyethane-1,1-diphosphonic acid [22]:
C-Acetylation. Compounds with reac-
tive CH bonds can be acetylated with
acetic anhydride, with the aid of a cata-
lyst if necessary. Examples are the produc-
tion of ethyl α-cyanoacetoacetate [634-55-9],
CH3 COCH(CN)COOC2 H5 , (catalyst: K2 CO3 )
[14] and the Friedel-Crafts reaction of acetic Acetylation of Oxides. Acetic anhydride re-
anhydride with aromatic hydrocarbons, for acts with antimony trioxide to give antimony tri-
example, with benzene to form acetophe- acetate, Sb(OCOCH3 )3 [5692-86-4] [23]. The
none (→ Ketones), as well as with unsatu- corresponding reaction with chromium trioxide
rated hydrocarbons. An interesting example
4 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides

leads to chromyl acetate solutions [24], which 1,4-Diacetoxy-2-butene [18621-75-5] can be

often are used to oxidize olefins and hydrocar- obtained from butadiene in a similar manner
bons and which may occasionally explode [25]. [36].

Acetylation of Salts. Various salts react Production of Mixed Diacyl Peroxides. Di-
with carboxylic acid anhydrides in the same acyl peroxides can be made by the reaction of
way as the corresponding free acids [26]: oxygen with mixtures of aliphatic aldehydes and
acetic anhydride in the presence of sodium ac-
Li-C ≡ CR + (CH3 CO)2 O etate [37]:
→ CH3 CO-C ≡ CR + CH3 COOLi

With barium peroxide, diacetyl peroxide

[110-22-5] is obtained [27]:
Reaction with N-Oxides. Reactions with
BaO2 + (CH3 CO)2 O −→ (CH3 CO)2 O2 + BaO N-oxides lead to a variety of products, depend-
ing on the type of N-oxide. From pyridine-
A general method of producing vinyl ketones is
N-oxide, 2-acetyloxypyridine is obtained [38].
the reaction of vinyl magnesium bromides and
However, 4-picoline-N-oxide yields a mixture
acetic anhydride [28]:
of 4-acetyloxymethylenepyridine and 3-acetyl-
oxy-4-methyl- pyridine [39]. In the Polonovski
reaction of N-oxides, formaldehyde and unsat-
urated aldehydes are formed as well as the acid
amides [40], as in the following example:
Production of Acetoxy Silanes. Acetic an-
hydride reacts with silanes according to the
equation:

where X = H, Cl [29]; OR [30]; NR2 [31].

Reaction with S-Oxides. The reduction of
Addition to Heterocyclic Compounds with sulfoxides to sulfides with acetic anhydride is
Ring Cleavage. These reactions differ only for- known as the Pummerer reaction [41]:
mally from those described above. Examples
are the production of ethylene glycol diacetate CH3 SOR + (CH3 CO)2 O
[111-55-7] from ethylene oxide in the presence → CH3 COOCH2 SR + CH3 COOH
of strongly acidic [32] or basic [33] catalysts and
the production of oxymethylene diacetates from An interesting use of this reaction is the
trioxane [34]. oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols,
even when sterically hindered, by mixtures of
Oxidative Addition to Carbon-Carbon dimethylsulfoxide (or tetramethylene sulfoxide)
Double Bonds. Oxidative addition leads to the and acetic anhydride, to give the corresponding
corresponding diacetates, as for example in the carbonyl compounds [42]:
addition of ethylene, which leads to ethylene
glycol diacetate [35]:
 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides 5

Production of Acylals and Vinyl Acetates.

Aldehydes react with acetic anhydride in the
presence of acid catalysts to form acylals:

RCHO + (CH3 CO)2 O −→ RCH(OCOCH3 )2

If R has an α-hydrogen atom available, the cor- Alkyl cyanides can be made by dehydrating
responding vinyl acetate forms by elimination aldoximes with acetic anhydride [49].
of acetic acid. The temperature required for the RCH=NOH + (CH3 CO)2 O −→ RCN + 2 CH3 COOH
reaction can be lowered by adding catalysts [43–
45]. Acetic anhydride serves as a dehydrating agent
in a large number of cyclization reactions.

1.2.3. Reactions of the α-Protons

The Perkin reaction is used for the production of
A similar process is particularly suitable α, β-unsaturated acids from aromatic aldehydes,
for the synthesis of 2,2-dichlorovinyl acetate such as benzaldehyde, in the presence of potas-
[36597-97-4]. Here, in the absence of an α- sium acetate or sodium acetate. This reaction
proton, cleavage of the acetic acid moiety is fa- is also suitable for synthesizing cinnamalacetic
cilitated by the presence of zinc [46]: acid [50]:

Other examples of this type of reaction are the

Boron Trifluoride. Acetic anhydride and oxidative carboxymethylation with acetic anhy-
substituted acetic anhydrides can be converted dride and oxidizing agents [51] and the conver-
into acetyl ketones via a boron trifluoride com- sion of long-chain alkenes to the corresponding
plex that decomposes in warm water [16], [47]. carboxylic acid derivatives [52].

1.2.4. Reactions of a Single Carbonyl Group

1.2.2. Dehydration
In some cases, it is possible to make just one
Acetic anhydride is used as a dehydrating agent, of the carbonyl groups of acetic anhydride par-
for example, in the explosives industry. The ticipate in a reaction. Examples are the reaction
most important example of dehydration is in the with hydrogen cyanide, in the presence of a base,
production of hexogen (1,3,5-trinitrohexahydro- to form (3) [53] and in the presence of Grignard
1,3,5-triazine) [121-82-4] [16]: reagent (RMgBr) to form (4) [54]:

1.2.5. Production of Silver Ketenide

In the production of the nitroester of 1,2,4,5-
tetrahydroxy-3,6-dinitrocyclohexane [48], the Silver acetate and acetic anhydride react at room
water-binding property of the anhydride is used temperature in pyridine to form a pyridine com-
again: plex of silver ketenide. When an excess of an-
hydride is used, silver ketenide is obtained after
6 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides

fractional distillation of pyridine and acetic acid 1.3.1. Ketene Process

[55], [56]:
The ketene process for the production of acetic
anhydride proceeds in two steps: the thermal
cleavage of acetic acid to form ketene and the
reaction of ketene with acetic acid:

CH3 COOH → CH2 =C=O + H2 O

∆H = 147 kJ/mol
1.3. Production
CH2 =C=O + CH3 COOH → (CH3 CO)2 O
History. The oldest process for making ∆H = − 63 kJ/mol
acetic anhydride is based on the conversion of
sodium acetate with an excess of an inorganic
chloride, such as thionyl chloride, sulfuryl chlo-
ride, or phosphoryl chloride. In this process,
half of the sodium acetate is converted to acetyl 1.3.1.1. Production of Ketene
chloride, which then reacts with the remaining
sodium acetate to form acetic anhydride: Thermal Cleavage of Acetic Acid. Hot
acetic acid vapor is broken into ketene and water
CH3 COONa + X-Cl −→ CH3 COCl + XONa at 700 – 750 ◦ C in the presence of traces of phos-
phoric acid catalyst. The pressure in the reactor
CH3 COONa + CH3 COCl −→ (CH3 CO)2 O + NaCl is generally reduced so that the ketene can be
isolated before it reacts with acetic acid or with
where X = SOCl, SO2 Cl, POCl2 . water. The cleavage takes place in a multicoil
A further development, the conversion of reactor with coils made of highly heat-resistant
acetic acid with phosgene in the presence of alu- steel alloys. The alloy Sicromal, containing
minum chloride, has the advantage that it allows 25 % Cr, 20 % Ni, and 2 % Si, is particularly
continuous operation: suitable. Triethyl phosphate is employed as the
catalyst [57].
2 CH3 COOH + COCl2 −→ (CH3 CO)2 O + 2 HCl + CO2 Figure 2 shows how the vacuum process op-
erates. Acetic acid is fed continuously into the
Two other methods also were used in the past: evaporator (a). The acetic acid vapor leaving the
the cleavage of ethylidene diacetate to form acet- evaporator passes over the catalyst evaporator
aldehyde and acetic anhydride in the presence (b), which is supplied continuously with cata-
of acid catalysts, such as zinc chloride, and the lyst, and thence into the ketene oven (c). The
reaction of vinyl acetate with acetic acid on pal- acetic acid is heated (d) and then cleaved (e).
ladium(II) contacts to form acetaldehyde and As soon as the cracked gases have left the oven,
acetic anhydride [16]. Not one of these processes ammonia is added to prevent the ketene from
is now of any industrial importance. reacting with the water or with the remaining
Today, acetic anhydride is made mostly by ei- acetic acid. For the same reason, and also to re-
ther the ketene process or the oxidation of acet- move condensable gases, the hot gas is cooled in
aldehyde. Production by another process, the combined water and brine condensers (f), (g). A
carbonylation of methyl acetate (Halcon pro- 40 – 48 % aqueous solution of acetic acid con-
cess), was begun in 1983. In Western Europe, denses at about 0 ◦ C and is separated (h) from the
77 % of acetic anhydride is made by the ketene cleavage gas (0 – 10 ◦ C). About 4 – 8 % of this
process and 23 % by the oxidation of acetalde- acetic acid results from the reaction of the con-
hyde. Since production by the Halcon process densed acetic anhydride with water. This process
began at the Tennessee-Eastman plant, 25 % of has been developed by the Consortium für Elek-
acetic anhydride in the United States has been trochemische Industrie, the research institute of
made by this process and 75 % by the ketene Wacker-Chemie.
process.
 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides 7

(a) and (b), which are filled with Raschig rings

[62]. The circulation is maintained by centrifu-
gal pumps and the heat of reaction removed by
coolers (f). Most of the ketene is absorbed in
scrubber (a), the rest in scrubber (b). The liquid
mixture leaving scrubber (a) contains 85 – 90 %
raw anhydride and is collected in (g), cooled and
used in scrubber (c) to wash the off-gas from (b).
The off-gas from (c) is finally washed with brine-
Figure 2. Cleavage of acetic acid by the vacuum process
cooled, dilute acetic acid in scrubber (d) in order
a) Acetic acid evaporator; b) Catalyst evaporator; c) Ketene to remove acid.
oven; d) Convection zone; e) Cleavage zone; f) Water cooler;
g) Brine cooler; h) Separator; i) Receiver

The construction of the ketene oven de-

pends strongly on the power required. In small
ovens (ca. 50 t/month), separate preheating and
cleaving ovens are preferred. The acetic acid is
cleaved in a spiral tube which is usually electri-
cally heated. Ovens of medium size (up to ca.
700 t/month), however, are often constructed as
single-chamber ovens, generally heated with gas
or oil. For capacities of 700 t/month, product loss
is to be expected. This is because of the unsatis-
factory pressure conditions in the cleavage zone. Figure 3. Scrubber process
Ovens with much greater capacities work satis- a), b), c), d) Scrubbers; e) Centrifugal pumps; f) Coolers;
factorily with three- and four-chamber systems g) Collecting vessel; h) Vacuum pump; i) Ring – balance
manometer
and partial gas flows [58]. It is also possible to
operate several ovens with acetic acid supplied
from a central evaporator. Wacker Process (Liquid-ring pump pro-
cess) (see Fig. 4). The ketene emerging from
Thermal Cleavage of Acetone. This varia- the separator (Fig. 2) is pumped through a Nash
tion of the ketene process (cleavage of acetone Hytor liquid-ring pump (a) at about 13 – 20 kPa.
into ketene and methane [59]) has no economic It reacts in the pump, at about 45 – 55◦ C, with
significance for the manufacture of acetic anhy- acetic acid. At the same time, the liquid-ring
dride today. pump provides the vacuum required for the
acetic acid cleavage. Reaction and compression
heat are removed by passing the raw anhydride
1.3.1.2. Reaction of Ketene with Acetic Acid through a cooler (c). This serves simultaneously
as separator for the off-gas from the cleavage
Two processes are available for the reaction of reactor. The off-gas is burnt in the ketene oven
ketene with acetic acid. The classical scrub- after passing the measuring point (d) or is led
ber process is being replaced gradually by the to a flare system. The raw anhydride (90 %) is
Wacker process with liquid-ring pumping [60]. collected continuously. Part of the anhydride is
A further process [61], in which the reaction oc- returned to the reaction pump, where it is used as
curs at higher temperatures, has not yet gained the reaction medium. Advantages of this process
industrial importance. stem from the impressive simplicity of the appa-
ratus and operation, which lead to high reliability
Scrubber Process (see Fig. 3). The ketene and the possibility of producing raw anhydride
emerging from the separator (Fig. 2) is absorbed of higher purity [60].
by glacial acetic acid circulating in scrubbers
8 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides

acid is required, taking account of the reconcen-

trated dilute acetic acid. The yield is over 96 %
at about 75 % cleavage.

1.3.1.4. Environmental Problems

No significant environmental problems arise

Figure 4. Wacker process (Liquid – ring pump process) with the processes described above. The off-gas
a) Liquid – ring pump; b) Pump; c) Cooler; d) Measuring occurring in the production of ketene consists
point
of ca. 45 % carbon monoxide, 15 – 20 % carbon
dioxide, ca. 15 % ethylene, ca. 10 % methane,
ca. 7 % propylene, and less than 1 % acetic acid
1.3.1.3. Pure Anhydride Distillation and ethane. The remainder is air. The off-gas
can be burnt in the ketene oven saving energy
The raw anhydride can be distilled either con- (ca. 10 %), or led to a flare system. There are no
tinuously or discontinuously. In discontinuous wastewater problems.
distillation, three fractions are obtained:
Forerun (1 %) is about 40 % acetic acid; the
rest consists of volatile liquids, particularly 1.3.2. Oxidation of Acetaldehyde
methyl acetate and acetone.
Middle run (about 10 %). Depending on the Acetic anhydride can be obtained directly by
quality of the column, it contains 30 – 60 % liquid-phase oxidaton of acetaldehyde. The per-
acetic anhydride; the rest is acetic acid. acetic acid formed from oxygen and acetalde-
Pure Anhydride. Using discontinuous distil- hyde reacts under suitable conditions with a sec-
lation at normal pressures, the purity of the ond molecule of acetaldehyde to form acetic an-
anhydride cannot exceed 99 % (the remainder hydride and water [64]:
is acetic acid) because, at the still temperature
required, a certain amount of decomposition
occurs. These difficulties can be overcome by
operating under reduced pressure. Rapid removal of the reaction water and the
use of suitable catalysts are essential in this pro-
For continuous distillation, two or three cess. Mixtures of acetic acid and acetic anhy-
columns are used, depending on the required dride are always obtained; their ratio can be var-
number of fractions (forerun and middle run are ied within wide limits by changing the reaction
separated). The middle run portion is returned conditions. Generally, the highest possible an-
to the reactor as reagent acid. The residue of the hydride yield is sought.
distillation contains small amounts of tarry prod- Because of the rapid hydrolysis of acetic an-
ucts and is worked up continuously in a Sambay hydride above 60 ◦ C, the process is operated
evaporator. preferably between 40 ◦ C and 60 ◦ C [65]. Suit-
A newer continuous and energy-saving vac- able catalysts are combinations of metal salts
uum process works with two evaporators and [66]. Particularly important are mixtures of man-
only one column [63]. ganese acetate and copper acetate [67], of cobalt
The Wacker process, described above (see acetate and nickel acetate, and of cobalt and cop-
Fig. 4), is also particularly suitable as a workup per salts of higher fatty acids [68]. Manganese
process. Waste acids, such as those from cel- acetate should hinder the formation of explosive
lulose acetylation, can be processed after con- amounts of peracetic acid during the oxidation
centration without difficulty. No auxiliary ma- of acetaldehyde. For increasing the rate of oxi-
terials are necessary, only energy in the form dation, the use of pure oxygen at a pressure of
of gas, oil, or electric current. The process has several hundred kilopascals instead of air has
been adopted by many firms. For the production been proposed [69].
of 100 kg acetic anhydride, about 122 kg acetic
 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides 9

The strongly exothermic reaction requires ef- aldehyde is introduced at the top of this column.
ficient cooling. For this purpose, the addition of The condensates from both the cooler (b) and
low-boiling solvents has been found to be of as- the column (c) are distilled to obtain the prod-
sistance. Methyl and ethyl acetates are favored uct. Acetaldehyde is recovered from the branch
because they form azeotropic mixtures with wa- stream (d) of the non-condensable gas. The other
ter (but not with acetic acid or acetic anhydride) part of the gas flow is supplemented with air and
and hence allow a rapid, continuous separation returned to the reactor.
of the water formed in the reaction. The ratio
of acetic anhydride to acetic acid in the product
depends on the ratio of ethyl acetate to acetalde-
hyde in the initial mixture (Table 1).
Table 1. Formation of acetic anhydride by oxidation of acetaldehyde

Ethyl acetate: Acetaldehyde Acetic anhydride

acetaldehyde in conversion, % yield based on
starting mixture acetaldehyde, %

20 : 80 80 13.5
30 : 70 80 57
60 : 40 80 64 Figure 5. Acetaldehyde oxidation
70 : 30 80 68.5 a) Reactor; b) Condenser; c) Column; d) Branch
stream (acetaldehyde recovery from non-condensable gas);
In practice, a 1 : 2 mixture of acetaldehyde e) Pump
and ethyl acetate is oxidized with the addition of Both towers and vessels are suitable as reac-
0.05 to 0.1 % cobalt acetate and copper acetate tors if the heat of reaction can be dissipated. The
at 40 ◦ C; the ratio of Co:Cu is 1:2. The ratio of process of Distillers Co. [69] is shown in Fig-
acetic anhydride to acetic acid obtained is 56:44, ure 6 as an example. The off-gas contains com-
whereas on oxidizing in the absence of ethyl ac- bustible low-boiling products, such as acetalde-
etate this ratio is only 20:80 [16]. The optimiza- hyde, and solvents, such as methyl acetate and
tion of other reaction conditions can also lead to ethyl acetate. These can be flared off.
an increase in the acetic anhydride-acetic acid
ratio. For example, at 55 ◦ C and atmospheric
pressure, a ratio of 80:20 was achieved [70]. At
a higher temperature (62 – 90 ◦ C, 200 – 300 kPa,
acetaldehyde concentration in the final mixture
of up to 40 %) a ratio of 75:25 was obtained at
high aldehyde conversion [71].
Other suitable low-boiling solvents are
Figure 6. Reactor for the acetaldehyde oxidation (Distillers
methylene chloride, diisopropyl ether, cyclohex- Co.)
anone, or ethylidene diacetate. Nonvolatile es- a) Reactor tubing; b) Cooling bath; c) Separator; d) Circu-
ters also can be used as diluents, provided they lation pump
do not have to be removed from the reaction
zone. These include alkyl benzoates and alkyl
phthalates [72].
The acetaldehyde oxidation is illustrated in 1.3.3. Carbonylation of Methyl Acetate
Figure 5 by the process of Usines de Melle [73].
The gas mixture containing oxygen and acet- The thermal decomposition of acetic acid to
aldehyde is pumped into the reactor (a). The ox- form ketene requires a large amount of energy,
idation takes place in the liquid phase and in a disadvantage of the conventional process for
the presence of catalysts. The reactor effluent is the production of acetic anhydride. Moreover,
sent through a water-cooled condenser (b) con- processes based on synthesis gas have been de-
structed as a separator; non-condensable gases veloped that allow the manufacture of products
are sent to the packed column (c). Fresh acet- from coal that were hitherto produced from oil.
An important example is the acetic acid produc-
10 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides

tion process developed by Monsanto (→ Acetic The methyl acetate is dried with acetic an-
Acid). hydride [77] and is sent to a reactor (b) lined
In 1973 Halcon patented the carbonylation of with Hastelloy. Carbon monoxide is compressed
methyl acetate in the presence of a rhodium cata- (a) to the reaction pressure and then added.
lyst to form acetic anhydride [74]. However, the The reaction proceeds continuously at 175 ◦ C
first plant (Eastman-Kodak Co., in Kingsport, in the presence of a catalyst consisting of
Tenn., USA) using this process was not put into RhCl3 · 3 H2 O, CH3 I, and LiI. The considerable
operation before 1983. Because no exact de- amount of heat generated by the reaction is re-
scription of the process has so far been available, moved by heat exchange and is used both for
the following details are based upon information preheating methyl acetate and for the production
from the patent literature. of low-pressure steam. The unreacted carbon
Methyl acetate is carbonylated to acetic an- monoxide leaves the top of the reactor, is freed
hydride in the liquid phase at a temperature of of condensable gases (methyl iodide, methylac-
160 – 190 ◦ C and at a carbon monoxide partial etate, acetic anhydride, acetic acid, and ethyli-
pressure of 2 – 5 MPa: dene diacetate) by cooling (f), and is then recir-
culated. However, part of the circulating gas is
separated from the main stream to avoid buildup
of inert gases, which may be present in the car-
The starting material, methyl acetate, can be bon monoxide. The side stream is washed (g)
produced by esterification of acetic acid with with a countercurrent of pure acetic anhydride;
methanol. However, the methyl acetate obtained in this way, the loss of methyl iodide in the off-
as a byproduct of the acetic acid synthesis from gas can be kept below 0.1 % [78]. This acetic
methanol and carbon monoxide is used prefer- anhydride is combined with the top condensate
ably. from the reactor (b), supplemented with fresh
Catalysts. Rhodium [74] and nickel com- catalyst as required, and recirculated. The liquid
pounds [75], activated by CH3 I, HI, LiI, I2 , or reaction product leaving the reactor is expanded
other iodides, are particularly appropriate as cat- and subjected to flash distillation (c) [78]. To
alysts. Rhodium catalysts have about a tenfold prevent catalyst decomposition, this distillation
higher activity than nickel catalysts. The selec- is performed in a carbon monoxide-hydrogen at-
tivity is higher than 95 % for both catalysts. Their mosphere at about 500 kPa [79]. At the bottom
activities and lifetimes are increased by mix- of the evaporator (c) a stream of liquid contain-
ing the carbon monoxide used for the synthesis ing the catalyst is separated and recirculated into
with 2 – 7 % hydrogen. Chromium compounds the carbonylation reactor. The vapor leaving the
have been used to shorten the induction phase of top of the evaporator is condensed and passed
the reaction [74]. Kinetic investigations on the over adsorbers (d) to remove traces of rhodium
rhodium system have shown that the reaction is and iodine compounds.
zero order with respect to the methyl acetate and The raw anhydride is purified by distillation
carbon monoxide concentrations [76]. As possi- in three consecutive and continuously operating
ble byproducts, only acetic acid and ethylidene columns (e). In the first column, methyl iodide
diacetate are mentioned. and methyl acetate are distilled overhead and
The process also can start from dimethyl ether recirculated to the carbonylation reactor. In the
[74]. In this case, dimethyl ether is first car- second column, acetic acid is distilled overhead.
bonylated to methyl acetate, which is then con- The bottom product is distilled in a third column
verted to acetic anhydride by using more carbon to acetic anhydride of 99 % purity. The bottom
monoxide in the same reactor: product of the third column contains ethylidene
diacetate and unidentified high-boiling compo-
nents. To further reduce the iodide content of the
pure anhydride, a solution of potassium acetate
in acetic anhydride is added to the top of the
Process Description. The carbonylation column [80].
method is illustrated by the Halcon process, Other processes. Other processes and cata-
shown schematically in Figure 7. lysts for the carbonylation of methyl acetate have
 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides 11

Figure 7. Halcon process for the production of acetic anhydride

a) Compressor; b) Carbonylation reactor; c) Evaporator; d) Adsorber; e) Distillation column; f) Condenser; g) Scrubber

been patented by various companies: Hoechst water, which is determined by the Karl Fischer
[81] (rhodium catalyst), Air Products and Chem- method.
icals Co.[82] (rhodium catalyst), Mitsubishi Gas In the aniline method [85], the total acid con-
and Chemical Co. [83] (nickel catalyst), and tent is first determined. After addition of aniline
Rhône-Poulenc [84] (nickel catalyst). Several to a second sample, the aniline number is es-
patents also describe the carbonylation of esters tablished with alkali and the acetic anhydride
of higher alcohols and carboxylic acids. This re- content determined from the difference.
action results in the formation of the correspond- A rapid determination of the anhydride con-
ing mixed anhydrides [74], [83]. tent can be obtained from the refractive index.
Environmental problems do not arise. The If the temperature remains constant to within
off-gas from the acetic anhydride production ± 0.05 ◦ C, the precision obtainable is ± 0.2 %.
contains large quantities of carbon monoxide, Gas chromatography also is recommended for
some inert gases (nitrogen, rare gases, and car- purity determination. Analytical methods are
bon dioxide), and traces of hydrogen, methane, discussed in detail in [86].
methyl iodide, and methyl acetate. It can be
burned. There are no problems with waste water.
1.5. Quality Specifications
Acetic anhydride is marketed with more than
1.4. Analysis 95 % purity; the normal product is over 98 %
pure, but it is marketed also as over 99 % pure.
A very reliable method for determining the con- The color number (APHA) should be below 10
tent of acetic anhydride consists of mixing sto- (DIN 53409). The nonvolatile part should not
ichiometric quantities of the sample and water, exceed 0.003 %. The product also should con-
then heating carefully to reflux temperature. Af- tain as few substances as possible that reduce
ter completion of the reaction, two drops of con- permanganate. According to American Chem-
centrated sulfuric acid are added, and the mix- ical Society specifications, for example, a 2 g
ture is boiled for 20 min to insure that the last sample should not decolorize 0.4 ml of a 0.1 N
traces of the anhydride have reacted. The an- potassium permanganate solution within 5 min.
hydride content is calculated from the unused In particular applications, the impurities that
12 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides

can be oxidized by potassium chromate are also 3) Explosives, particularly hexogen production
of interest. They may not consume more than (see Section 1.2.2.).
200 ppm of oxygen. The contents of phosphate, 4) The production of certain types of brake flu-
sulfate, chloride, aluminum, and iron may not ids.
exceed 1 ppm each. Heavy metals should be ab- 5) The production of auxiliaries for drilling flu-
sent. ids.
6) The detergent industry, for the produc-
tion of cold – bleaching activators such as
1.6. Storage and Transportation tetraacetylethylenediamine [12].
7) The dyeing industry, where acetic anhydride
For storage and transportation of pure acetic an- is used chiefly in mixtures with nitric acid as
hydride, tanks made of aluminum, stainless steel a nitrating agent. Here, the solvent and de-
(18 % Cr, 8 % Ni, and 2 % Mo), or polyethylene hydrating properties of acetic anhydride are
normally are used, although glass or enamel con- used.
tainers also may be employed. Iron is highly re- 8) In the preparation of organic intermediates,
sistant to acetic anhydride, provided moisture is such as chloroacetylchloride, diacetyl perox-
excluded. Therefore it is possible to use iron in ide, higher carboxylic anhydrides, acetates,
the production and workup in certain instances, and the boron trifluoride complex.
for example, in pumps and tanks. 9) In the production of pharmaceuticals, such as
Because there are no international arrange- acetylsalicylic acid, p-acetylaminophenol,
ments for the storage of dangerous goods, acetanilide, acetophenacetin, theophyllin,
the specifications of individual countries must acetylcholine chloride, sulfonamides, a
be observed. Also, acetic anhydride (EG-no. number of hormones and vitamins, and the x-
607−008−00−9) is subject to various industrial ray contrast agent 2,4,6-triiodo-3,5-diacetyl-
working regulations, for example, Appendix I, amidobenzoic acid.
no. 1.1 of the EEC Guidelines. 10) In the food industry, mainly in the acetylation
of animal and plant fats, in order to obtain the
Transportation. IMDG-Code, class 8, UN- desired solubilities; in the production of ace-
no. 1715; United Kingdom: Blue Book: Corro- tostearins, the edible packing materials; and
sive, IMDG-Code E 8018; United States: DOT to clarify plant oils.
Safety Act, Title 46 and Title 49; Cor. M; Eu- 11) Flavors and fragrances (production of esters
rope: RID, ADR, and ADNR: class 8, no. 21 e and cumarin).
(from 1985: class 8, no. 32 e), RN 801, 2801, and 12) Herbicides such as metolachlor (Dual) and
6801, respectively. International air transporta- alachlor (Lasso).
tion: IATA-DGR, class 8, UN-no. 1715, RAR
art. no. 9, Cor. M.
2. Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides
1.7. Uses 2.1. Physical Properties
Acetic anhydride is used chiefly as an acetylat- Important mixed anhydrides, that is, anhydrides
ing and dehydrating agent; it is used on a large with two different fatty acid radicals, are com-
scale for the acetylation of cellulose. Other areas piled in Table 2. The lower anhydrides can be
of application for acetic anhydride are: distilled partly undecomposed at reduced pres-
1) The production of poly(methylacrylimide) sure. At high temperature they disproportion-
hard foam, where acetic anhydride is used ate fairly rapidly into the symmetrical anhy-
for binding the ammonia that is liberated on drides. Only acetoformic anhydride distills (at
conversion of two amide groups to an imide 127 – 130 ◦ C) at normal pressure, although with
group. partial decomposition to acetic acid and car-
2) Acetylated plastic auxiliaries, such as glyc- bon monoxide. The first four mixed anhydrides
erol triacetate, acetyl tributyl citrate, and have odors very similar to pure acetic anhydride;
acetyl ricinolate. acetic isovaleric anhydride has a fruitlike odor.
 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides 13
Table 2. Mixed fatty acid anhydrides

Anhydride Formula bp or mp,◦ C Preferred

production
method
(Section 2.3)

Acetoformic anhydride HCOOCOCH3 bp 32 (at 2.7 kPa) 3

Acetic propionic anhydride CH3 COOCOC2 H5 bp 25 – 27 (at 0.15 kPa) 3
(decomposes at 30 ◦ C)
Acetic butyric anhydride CH3 COOCO(CH2 )2 CH3 – 3
Acetic isobutyric anhydride CH3 COOCOCH(CH3 )2 – 3
Acetic valeric anhydride CH3 COOCO(CH2 )3 CH3 (decomposes above 130 ◦ C) 3
Acetic isovaleric anhydride CH3 COOCOCH2 CH(CH3 )2 – 3
Acetic 2,2-dimethylpropanoic anhydride CH3 COOCOC(CH3 )3 – 3
Acetic hexanoic anhydride CH3 COOCO(CH2 )4 CH3 – 3
Acetic octanoic anhydride CH3 COOCO(CH2 )6 CH3 – 3
Acetic hexadecanoic anhydride CH3 COOCO(CH2 )14 CH3 mp 62.5 (decomposes on 2,3
crystallization from polar
solvents)
Acetic octadecanoic anhydride CH3 COOCO(CH2 )16 CH3 – 3
Butyric tetradecanoic anhydride CH3 (CH2 )2 COOCO(CH2 )12 CH3 mp 52.7 2
Hexanoic dodecanoic anhydride CH3 (CH2 )4 COOCO(CH2 )10 CH3 mp 42.4 2
Octanoic decanoic anhydride CH3 (CH2 )6 COOCO(CH2 )8 CH3 mp 16 2

2.2. Chemical Properties 3) Reacting ketene with a carboxylic acid [92–

94].
Acetoformic anhydride [2258-42-6] acts as a The latter two processes are more useful
formylation agent in acylation reactions. In the than the first. According to the patent litera-
other mixed acetic – fatty acid anhydrides, the ture, mixed anhydrides also can be produced by
higher acyl group is more reactive; for exam- carbonylating the corresponding esters (Section
ple, in the reaction with benzene in the presence 1.3.3).
of aluminum chloride, compound (5) is formed
preferably.
2.4. Uses
Acetoformic anhydride often is used as a formy-
lating agent. Acetic propionic [13080-96-1] and
acetic butyric [7165-13-1] anhydrides are used
where R = alkyl. in the production of acylated cellulose.
Branching of the higher acyl group at its
α position leads to a decrease in the yield of
the acylbenzene (5) in favor of acetophenone 3. Economic Aspects
(6) [87]. From acetic chloroacetic anhydride,
mainly ω-chloroacetophenone is formed [87]. Production data are given in Table 3. Annual
Changes in reaction conditions have little influ- capacity data for acetic anhydride are as fol-
ence on the ratio of reaction products. lows: Western Europe (1978) 357 000 t, (1980)
362 000 t, (1996) 500 000 t; United States (1980)
905 000 t, (1982) 929 000 t, (1996) 1 000 000 t,
2.3. Production (2001) 1 160 000 t. No data for the mixed anhy-
drides are available.
Three processes are generally employed for pro-
ducing mixed anhydrides:
4. Toxicology and Occupational
1) The reaction of acetic anhydride with a Health
higher organic acid [88].
2) Heating an acyl chloride with a fatty acid salt, In acute oral studies in rats, an LD50 value of
usually a sodium or potassium salt [89–91]. 1780 mg/kg was determined for acetic anhy-
14 Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides
Table 3. Production of acetic anhydride (in kt) [95], [96], [97], [98]

1961 1971 1974 1979 1980 1981 1982 1989 1990 1996 2001

United States 571 686 741 567 481 778 830 1000 1160
Germany∗) 32 47 74 91 85 77 76 108 112
Japan 33 96 115 114 150 145 144 205 1160

∗) 1961 - 1989 Fed. Rep. of Germany

dride. The dermal LD50 in rabbits is 4000 mg/kg 5. References

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in rats [100]. The lowest published lethal con- 1. D. T. Lewis, J. Chem. Soc. 1940, 33.
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Acetoacetic Acid → Oxocarboxylic Acids