6. Theorem of Ceva, Menelaus and Van Aubel.

Theorem 1 (Menelaus). If A1 , B1 , C1 are points on the sides BC, CA

and AB of a triangle ABC, then the points are collinear if and only if
|A1 B| |B1 C| |C1 A|
. . = 1.
|A1 C| |B1 A| |C1 B|

Proof Assume points are collinear.

First drop perpendiculars AA0 , BB 0 and CC 0

from the vertices A, B, C to the line A1 B1 C1 .
Then since AA0 , BB 0 and CC 0 are perpendic-
ular to A1 B1 , they are parallel (Figure 1).
Thus we get the following equalities of ratios

|A1 B| |BB 0 | |B1 C| |CC 0 |

= , =
|A1 C| |CC 0 | |B1 A| |AA0 |
|C1 A| |AA0 | Figure 1:
and = .
|C1 B| |BB 0 |

Multiplying these we get the required re-

sult.

|A1 B| |B1 C| |C1 A|

Conversely, suppose . . = 1.
|A1 C| |B1 A| |C1 B|
Now suppose lines BC and B1 C1 meet at the point A00 . Then

|A00 B| |B1 C| |C1 A|

. . = 1.
|A00 C| |B1 A| |C1 B|
|A1 B| |A00 B|
Thus = 00 ,
|A1 C| |A C|

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and so we conclude that the point A00 on the line BC coincides with the point
A1 . Thus the points A1 , B1 and C1 are collinear.
Definition 1 A line segment joining a vertex of a triangle to any
given point on the opposite side is called a Cevian.
Theorem 2 (Ceva) Three Cevians AA1 , BB1 and CC1 of a triangle ABC
(Figure 2) are concurrent if and only if
|BA1 | |CB1 | |AC1 |
. . = 1.
|A1 C| |B1 A| |C1 B|
Proof First assume that the Cevians are con-
current at the point M.

Consider the triangle AA1 C and apply Menelaus’ the-

orem. Since the points B1 , M and B are collinear,
|B1 C| |M A| |BA1 |
. . =1 . . . (a)
|B1 A| |M A1 | |BC|
Now consider the triangle AA1 B. The points C1 , M, C
are collinear so
|C1 A| |CB| |M A1 | Figure 2:
. . =1 . . . (b)
|C1 B| |CA1 | |M A|
Multiply both sides of equations (a) and (b) to get re-
quired result.

Conversely, suppose the two Cevians AA1 and BB1 meet at P and that
the Cevian from the vertex C through P meets side AB at C 0 . Then we have
|BA1 | |CB1 | |AC 0 |
. . = 1.
|A1 C| |B1 A| |C 0 B|
By hypothesis,
|BA1 | |CB1 | |AC1 |
. . = 1.
|A1 C| |B1 A| |C1 B|
|AC1 | |AC 0 |
Thus = 0 ,
|C1 B| |C B|
and so the two points C1 and C 0 on the line segment AB must coincide. The
required result follows.

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Theorem 3 (van Aubel) If A1 , B1 , C1 are interior points of the sides BC, CA
and AB of a triangle ABC and the corresponding Cevians AA1 , BB1 and
CC1 are concurrent at a point M (Figure 3), then
|M A| |C1 A| |B1 A|
= + .
|M A1 | |C1 B| |B1 C|
Proof Again, as in the proof of Ceva’s theo-
rem, we apply Menelaus’ theorem to the triangles AA1 C
and AA1 B.

In the case of AA1 C, we have

|B1 C| |M A| |BA1 |
. . = 1,
|B1 A| |M A1 | |BC|
and so
|B1 A| |M A| |BA1 |
= . . . . (c)
|B1 C| |M A1 | |BC| Figure 3:
For the triangle AA1 B, we have
|C1 A| |CB| |M A1 |
. . = 1,
|C1 B| |CA1 |M A|
and so
|C1 A| |M A| |CA1 |
= . . . . (d)
|C1 B| |M A1 | |BC|
Adding (c) and (d) we get
|B1 A| |C1 A| |M A| |M A|
+ = {|BA1 | + |A1 C|} = ,
|B1 C| |C1 B| |M A1 ||BC| |M A1 |
as required.

Examples
1. Medians AA1 , BB1 and CC1 intersect at the centroid G and then
|GA|
= 2,
|GA1 |
since
|A1 B| |B1 C| |C1 A|
1= = = .
|A1 C| |B1 A| |C1 B|

3
2. The angle bisectors in a triangle are concurrent at the incentre I of
the triangle. Furthermore, if A3 , B3 and C3 are the points on the sides
BC, CA and AB where the bisectors intersect these sides (Figure 4),
then
|A3 B| c |B3 C| a |C3 A| b
= , = and = .
|A3 C| b |B3 A| c |C3 B| a
|IA| |C3 A| |B3 A|
Then = +
|IA3 | |C3 B| |B3 C|
b c b+c
= + = .
a a a

Figure 4:

3. Let AA2 , BB2 and CC2 be the altitudes of a triangle ABC. They are
concurrent at H, the orthocentre of ABC (Figure 5.)
We have
|A2 B| b
|AA2 | cot(B)
=
|A2 C| b
|AA2 | cot(C)
b
tan(C)
=
b
tan(B)
and similarly
|B2 C| b
tan(A)
= ,
|B2 A| b
tan(C)
|C2 A| b
tan(B)
= .
|C2 B| b
tan(C)

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 Figure 5:

Multiplying the 3 ratios, we get concurrency of the altitudes. Further-

more,

|HA| |C2 A| |B2 A| b

tan(B) b
tan(C)
= + = +
|HA2 | |C2 B| |B2 C| b
tan(A) b
tan(A)
b + tan(C)
tan(B) b
=
b
tan(A)
b + C).
sin(B b cos(A)
b
=
b cos(C)
cos(B) b sin(A)
b
b cos(A)
sin(180◦ − A) b b
cos(A)
= = .
b cos(C)
cos(B) b sin(A)
b b cos(C)
cos(B) b

Lemma 1 Let ABC be a triangle and A1 a point on the side BC so

that
|A1 B| γ
=
|A1 C| β
Let X and Y be points on the sides AB and AC respectively and let M be
the point of intersection of the line segments XY and AA1 (Figure 6). Then
|XB| |Y C| |A1 M |
β( ) + γ( ) = (β + γ)( ).
|XA| |Y A| |M A|
Proof First suppose that
XY is parallel to the side BC. Then
|XB| |Y C| |M A1 |
= = ,
|XA| |Y A| |M A|

Figure 7:
 Figure 6:

and so result is true for any β and

γ.

Now suppose the lines XY and BC in-

tersect at a point Z.

Consider the triangle AA1 B (Figure

7). Since M, X and Z are collinear,
|Y C| |M A| |ZA1 |
. . = 1.
|Y A| |M A1 | |ZC|

|XB| |Y C|
Then β( ) + γ( )
|XA| |Y A|
|M A1 ||ZB| |M A1 ||ZC|
= β( ) + γ( )
|M A||ZA1 | |M A||ZA1 |
|M A1 |
= {β|ZB| + γ|ZC|}
|M A||ZA1 |
|M A1 |
= {β|ZA1 | − β|BA1 | + γ|ZA1 | + γ|A1 C|}
|M A||ZA1 |
|M A1 |
= (β + γ) .|ZA1 |,
|M A||ZA1 |
|BA1 | γ
since = ,
|A1 C| β
|M A1 |
= (β + γ) , as required.
|M A|

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Theorem 4 Let ABC be a triangle with three cevians AA1 , BB1 and
CC1 intersecting at a point M (Figure 8).

Figure 8:

Furthermore suppose
|A1 B| γ |B1 C| α |C1 A| β
= , = and = .
|A1 C| β |B1 A| γ |C1 B| α
If X and Y are points on the sides AB and AC then the point M belongs to
the line segment XY if and only if
|XB| |Y C|
β( ) + γ( ) = α.
|XA| |Y A|
Proof By van Aubel’s theorem:
|AM | |C1 A| |B1 A|
= +
|A1 M | |C1 B| |B1 C|
β γ β+γ
= + = .
α α α
Now suppose M belongs to the line segment XY. Then by the previous lemma
|XB| |Y C| |A1 M |
β( ) + γ( ) = (β + γ)
|XA| |Y A| |M A|
α
= (β + γ)( ) = α, as required.
β+γ
For converse, suppose XY and AA1 intersect in point M 0 . We will show that
M 0 coincides M.

By the lemma,

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 |XB| |Y C| |A1 M 0 |
β( ) + γ( ) = (β + γ)( ).
|XA| |Y A| |M 0 A|
By hypothesis, we have
|XB| |Y C|
β( ) + γ( ) = α.
|XA| |Y A|
Thus
|A1 M | α
= ,
|AM | β+γ
and so M and M 0 coincide. Thus M must lie on the line segment XY.
Corollary 1 If G is the centroid of the triangle ABC and so α = β =
γ = 1, then G belongs to the line segment XY if and only if
|XB| |Y C|
+ = 1.
|XA| |Y A|
Corollary 2 If I is the incentre of the triangle ABC then the values
of α, β and γ are given in terms of the sidelengths of the triangle as
α = a, β = b and γ = c.
Thus I belongs to XY if and only if
|XB| |Y C|
b( ) + c( ) = a.
|XA| |Y A|
Corollary 3 If H is the orthocentre of the triangle ABC then the
ratios on the sides are given by
b
α = tan(A), b and γ = tan(C.)
β = tan(B) b

Then we get that H belongs to the line segment XY if and only if

b |XB| b |Y C| ) = tan(A).
b
(tan(B))( ) + (tan(C))(
|XA| |Y A|
We also get the following result which was a question on the 2006 Irish
Invervarsity Mathematics Competition.
Theorem 5 Let ABC is a triangle and let X and Y be points on the
sides AB and AC respectively such that the line segment XY bisects the area
of ABC and the points X and Y bisects the perimeter (Figure 9). Then the
incentre I belongs to the line segment XY .

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 Proof Let x = |AX| and y = |AY |.

Then
a+b+c
x+y = . . . (a)
2

where a, b and c are lengths of sides.

Furthermore, Figure 9:
1 area(AXY ) b
xy sin(A)
= = ,
2 area(ABC) b
bc sin(A)
so
bc
xy = . . . (b).
2

|XB| |Y C|
Consider b( ) + c( )
|XA| |Y A|
c−x b−y
= b( ) + c( )
x y
1 1
= b( + ) − b − c
x y
a+b+c 2
= bc( . )−b−c
2 bc
= a.

Thus by Corollary 2, incentre I belongs to the line XY.

Theorem 6 Let ABC be an equilateral triangle and X, Y and Z points

on the sides BC, CA and AB respectively (Figure 10). Then the minimum
value of

|ZX|2 + |XY |2 + |Y Z|2

is attained when X, Y, Z are the midpoints of the sides.

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 Figure 10:

1
Proof Consider {|ZX|2 + |XY |2 + |Y Z|2 }
3

1
We have {|ZX|2 + |XY |2 + |Y Z|2 }
3
|ZX| + |XY | + |Y Z| 2
≥( ),
2
by Cauchy − Schwarz inequality,
|A1 B1 | + |B1 C1 | + |C1 A1 | 2
≥( ),
3

where A1 B1 C1 is the orthic triangle of ABC. (This result was proved in

chapter 5 on orthic triangles.)

If l is the common value of the sides of ABC then the orthic triangle A1 B1 C1
l
is also equilateral and sidelengths are . Thus
2
|A1 B1 | + |B1 C1 | + |C1 A1 | 2
( ) = |A1 B1 |2
3
|A1 B1 |2 + |B1 C1 |2 + |C1 A1 |2
= .
3
The required result follows.

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