BAM: Yeasts, Molds and Mycotoxins

Bacteriological Analytical Manual

Chapter 18
Yeasts, Molds and Mycotoxins
Authors: Valerie Tournas, Michael E. Stack, Philip B. Mislivec, Herbert A. Koch and Ruth
Bandler

The large and diverse group of microscopic foodborne yeasts and molds (fungi) includes several
hundred species. The ability of these organisms to attack many foods is due in large part to their
relatively versatile environmental requirements. Although the majority of yeasts and molds are
obligate aerobes (require free oxygen for growth), their acid/alkaline requirement for growth is
quite broad, ranging from pH 2 to above pH 9. Their temperature range (10-35°C) is also broad,
with a few species capable of growth below or above this range. Moisture requirements of
foodborne molds are relatively low; most species can grow at a water activity (aw) of 0.85 or less,
although yeasts generally require a higher water activity.

Both yeasts and molds cause various degrees of deterioration and decomposition of foods. They
can invade and grow on virtually any type of food at any time; they invade crops such as grains,
nuts, beans, and fruits in fields before harvesting and during storage. They also grow on processed
foods and food mixtures. Their detectability in or on foods depends on food type, organisms
involved, and degree of invasion; the contaminated food may be slightly blemished, severely
blemished, or completely decomposed, with the actual growth manifested by rot spots of various
sizes and colors, unsightly scabs, slime, white cottony mycelium, or highly colored sporulating
mold. Abnormal flavors and odors may also be produced. Occasionally, a food appears mold-free
but is found upon mycological examination to be contaminated. Contamination of foods by yeasts
and molds can result in substantial economic losses to producer, processor, and consumer.

Several foodborne molds, and possibly yeasts, may also be hazardous to human or animal health
because of their ability to produce toxic metabolites known as mycotoxins. Most mycotoxins are
stable compounds that are not destroyed during food processing or home cooking. Even though
the generating organisms may not survive food preparation, the preformed toxin may still be
present. Certain foodborne molds and yeasts may also elicit allergic reactions or may cause
infections. Although most foodborne fungi are not infectious, some species can cause infection,
especially in immunocompromised populations, such as the aged and debilitated, HIV-infected
individuals, and persons receiving chemotherapy or antibiotic treatment.

The dilution plating and the direct plating methods may be used to detect fungi in foods. The direct
plating method is more efficient than the dilution plating method for detecting individual mold
species, including most of the toxin producers, but it is less effective in detecting yeasts. It is also
used to determine whether the presence of mold is due to external contamination or internal
invasion. Methodology for testing the ability of isolates of toxigenic mold species to produce
mycotoxins on sterile rice water substrate is included here.
Enumeration of Yeasts and Molds in Food--Dilution Plating Technique

A. Equipment and materials

1. Basic equipment (and appropriate techniques) for preparation of sample homogenate,

see Chapter 1
2. Equipment for plating samples, see Chapter 3
3. Incubator, 25°C
4. Arnold steam chest
5. pH meter
6. Water bath, 45 ± 1° C

B. Media and Reagents

Media
1. Dichloran rose bengal chloramphenicol (DRBC) agar (M183)
2. Dichloran 18% glycerol (DG18) agar (M184)
3. Plate count agar (PCA), standard methods (M124); add 100 mg chloramphenicol/liter
when this medium is used for yeast and mold enumeration. This medium is not efficient
when "spreader" molds are present.
4. Malt agar (MA)(M185)
5. Malt extract agar (Yeasts and Molds) (MEAYM) (M182)
6. Potato dextrose agar (PDA), dehydrated; commercially available (M127)

Antibiotic solutions

Antibiotics are added to mycological media to inhibit bacterial growth. Chloramphenicol is

the antibiotic of choice, because it is stable under autoclave conditions. Therefore, media
preparation is easier and faster due to the elimination of the filtration step. The recommended
concentration of this antibiotic is 100 mg/liter medium. If bacterial overgrowth is apparent,
prepare media by adding 50 mg/liter chloramphenicol before autoclaving and 50 mg/liter
filter-sterilized chlortetracycline when the media have been tempered, right before pouring
plates.
Prepare stock solution by dissolving 0.1 g chloramphenicol in 40 ml distilled water; add this
solution to 960 ml medium mixture before autoclaving. When both chloramphenicol and
chlortetracycline are used, add 20 ml of the above chloramphenicol stock solution to 970 ml
medium before autoclaving. Then, prepare chlortetracycline stock solution by dissolving 0.5
g antibiotic in 100 ml distilled water and filter sterilize. Use 10 ml of this solution for each
990 ml of autoclaved and tempered medium. Refrigerate in the dark and re-use remaining
 stock solutions for up to a month. Stock solutions should be brought to room temperature
before adding to tempered medium.
C. Procedures:
Sample preparation

Analyze 25-50 g from each subsample; generally, larger sample sizes increase reproducibility
and lower variance compared with small samples. Test individual subsamples or composite
according to respective Compliance Program for the food under analysis. Add appropriate
amount of 0.1% peptone water to the weighed sample to achieve 10-1 dilution, then
homogenize in a stomacher for 2 min. Alternatively, blending for 30-60 sec can be used but
is less effective. Make appropriate 1:10 (1+9) dilutions in 0.1% peptone water. Dilutions of
10-6 should suffice.
Plating and incubation of sample
Spread-plate method. Aseptically pipet 0.1 ml of each dilution on pre- poured, solidified
DRBC agar plates and spread inoculum with a sterile, bent glass rod. DG18 is preferred when
the water activity of the analyzed sample is less than 0.95. Plate each dilution in triplicate.
Pour-plate method. Use sterile cotton-plugged pipet to place 1.0 ml portions of sample
dilution into prelabeled 15 × 100 mm Petri plates (plastic or glass), and immediately add 20-
25 ml tempered DG18 agar. Mix contents by gently swirling plates clockwise, then
counterclockwise, taking care to avoid spillage on dish lid. After adding sample dilution, add
agar within 1-2 min; otherwise, dilution may begin to adhere to dish bottom (especially if
sample is high in starch content and dishes are plastic) and may not mix uniformly. Plate each
dilution in triplicate.
From preparation of first sample dilution to pouring or surface-plating of final plate, no more
than 20 min (preferably 10 min) should elapse. Note: Spread plating of diluted sample is
considered better than the pour plate method. When the pour plate technique is used, fungal
colonies on the surface grow faster and often obscure those underneath the surface, resulting
in less accurate enumeration. Surface plating gives a more uniform growth and makes colony
isolation easier. DRBC agar should be used for spread plates only.
Incubate plates in the dark at 25°C. Do not stack plates higher than 3 and do not
invert. Note: Let plates remain undisturbed until counting.
Counting of plates
Count plates after 5 days of incubation. If there is no growth at 5 days, re-incubate for another
48 h. Do not count colonies before the end of the incubation period because handling of plates
could result in secondary growth from dislodged spores, making final counts invalid. Count
plates containing 10-150 colonies. If mainly yeasts are present, plates with 150 colonies are
usually countable. However, if substantial amounts of mold are present, depending on the
type of mold, the upper countable limit may have to be lowered at the discretion of the analyst.
Report results in colony forming units (CFU)/g or CFU/ml based on average count of
triplicate set. Round off counts to two significant figures. If third digit is 6 or above, round
off to digit above (e.g., 456 = 460); if 4 or below, round off to digit below (e.g., 454 = 450).
If third digit is 5, round off to digit below if first 2 digits are an even number (e.g., 445 =
440); round off to digit above if first 2 digits are an odd number (e.g., 455 = 460). When
 plates from all dilutions have no colonies, report mold and yeast counts (MYC) as less than
1 times the lowest dilution used.
Isolate individual colonies on PDA or MA, if further analysis and species identification is
necessary.
Enumeration of Molds in Foods--Direct Plating Technique
for Foods That Can Be Handled with Forceps
(Dried Beans, Nuts, Whole Spices, Coffee and Cocoa Beans, etc.)
A. Equipment and materials
1. Freezer, -20° C
2. Beakers, sterile, 300 ml
3. Forceps, sterile
4. Arnold steam chest
5. Water bath, 45 ± 1° C
6. Incubator, 25° C
B. Media and Reagents
1. Dichloran rose bengal chloramphenicol (DRBC) agar (M183)
2. Dichloran 18% glycerol (DG18) agar (M184)
3. Antibiotic solutions (see previous section)
4. NaOCl (commercial bleach) solution, 10%
5. Sterile distilled water
C. Analysis of non-surface-disinfected (NSD) foods
Sample and media preparation
Before plating, hold sample at -20° C for 72 h to kill mites and insects that might interfere
with analysis.
Prepare DRBC agar as described in the appendix. If DRBC is not available, or the water
activity of the analyzed sample is less than 0.95, use DG18 agar. Media should be prepared
no more than 24 h prior to use.
Plating and incubation of sample
From each sample, transfer about 50 g into a sterile 300 ml beaker. Using 95% ethanol-flamed
forceps place intact food items on surface of solidified agar, 5-10 items per plate (depending
on size of food item) 50 items total per sample.
Flame forceps between plating of each item. Use several forceps alternately to avoid
overheating. Do not plate visibly moldy or otherwise blemished items.
Align 3-5 plates in stacks and identify with sample number plus date of plating. Incubate
stacks, undisturbed in the dark at 25°C for 5 days. If there is no growth at 5 days of incubation,
re-incubate for another 48 h to allow heat- or chemically-stressed cells and spores enough
time to grow.
 Reading of plates
Determine occurrence of mold in percentages. If mold emerged from all 50 food items,
moldiness is 100%; if from 32 items, moldiness is 64%. Determine percent occurrence of
individual mold genera and species in like manner. Experienced analysts may
identify Aspergillus, Penicillium and most other foodborne mold genera directly on medium
with low power (10-30X) magnification.
D. Analysis of surface-disinfected (SD) foods

Perform disinfection in clean laboratory sink, not stainless steel, free from any acid residues,
with tap water running (precautions against chlorine gas generation). Wear rubber gloves and
transfer about 50 g of sample into a sterile 300 ml beaker. Cover with 10% chlorine
(commercial bleach) solution for 2 min, while swirling beaker contents gently but constantly
in clockwise-counterclockwise motion. Decant 10% chlorine solution and give beaker
contents two 1-min rinses with sterile distilled water. Prepare plates; plate sample, incubate,
and read plates as in non-surface disinfected direct plating method, above. Compare NSD and
SD results from the same sample to determine if moldiness was due mainly to surface
contamination or to internal invasion and growth. Isolate individual colonies on PDA or MA.

Fluorescence Microscopy Procedure for

Quantitation of Viable and Nonviable Yeasts in Beverages

Methods for counting viable yeasts by plating are described above. A direct microscopic procedure
for counting nonviable and viable yeasts in beverages and other liquid samples is presented here.
Quantitating yeast cells by microscopy eliminates the need for extended incubation, thus reducing
the analytical time required. All yeasts can be counted, and living and dead yeast cells can be
differentiated.

1. Millipore disk filter holders for standard syringes

2. Millipore filters: AABG, 0.8 µm, black, gridded; 25 mm diameter
3. Syringes, disposable
4. Pipets
5. Forceps
6. Bibulous paper
7. Microscope slides and 24 × 24 mm coverslips
8. Fluorescence microscope: blue excitation; l0X eyepieces with Howard mold count or other
eyepiece grid; 20× or 40× objective
 Reagents
1. Aniline blue; 1% in M/15 K2HPO4 (M/15 is equivalent to 11.6 g/L), adjusted to pH 8.9
with K3PO4. A stock solution can be made; age improves fluorescence.
2. NaOH; 25 g in 100 ml water
 Sample preparation for filterable liquids (e.g. water and grape juice)
Filter aliquot (usually 10 ml) of sample through Millipore filter (AABG, 0.8 µm, black,
gridded).(Portion size can be increased or decreased, depending on level of contamination).
Use Millipore disk filter holder which attaches to standard syringe. Make sure that syringe is
accurate. If not, remove plunger, attach syringe to filter holder, and pipette 10 ml into syringe.
Press all of sample through filter. Do this with air cushion of about 3 ml between plunger and
sample. Keep filter holder vertical to ensure even distribution of sample over filter. Remove
filter from filter holder and place on microscope slide; grid should be parallel to edges of slide
to facilitate counting.
 Sample preparation for non-filterable liquids that clog the filter (e.g. orange juice)
To suppress background interference in fluorescence microscope, mix 4 ml sample with 1 ml
sodium hydroxide (25 g in 100 ml water). Shake well and wait 10 min. Place Millipore filter
(AABG, 0.8 µm, black, gridded) on a piece of bibulous paper and spread 0.1 or 0.01 ml
(depending on level of contamination) of sample over filter. When filter surface is dry, place
filter on microscope slide, keeping grid parallel to edges of slide to facilitate counting.
 Microscopic counting procedure
Cover filter with a drop of aniline blue, 1% in M/15 (11.6 g/L) K2HPO4, adjusted to pH 8.9
with K3PO4. Spread aniline blue stain over whole filter with glass rod or coverslip without
touching filter itself. Wait about 5 min; then cover filter with 24 × 24 mm coverslip.
Count yeasts, using fluorescence microscope with blue excitation. Use 10X eyepiece with
Howard mold count or other eyepiece grid, and 20X (or 40X) objective. Count 3 squares of
eyepiece grid in each field of filter not covered by gasket. Count budding yeasts as 1 cell if
daughter cell is obviously smaller than mother cell. If they are approximately equal in size,
count them as 2 cells. Count all yeasts located completely within an eyepiece square and all
yeasts touching left and lower border of eyepiece square. Do not count yeasts touching right
and upper borders.
This method also differentiates dead (heat- or formaldehyde-killed) and living yeast cells. Dead
cells show fairly uniform fluorescence, and plasma may be granular. In living cells, the cell
wall stains brighter and is more defined than the plasma, which is less prominent and uniformly
stained.
 Calculations to determine number of yeasts per ml
Determine area of filter covered by 1 square of eyepiece grid, using objective (stage)
micrometer. For filtered samples, the working area of the Millipore filter (portion not covered
by the gasket) is 380 mm2. For nonfiltered samples, it is the entire filter, or 491 mm2, since no
gasket is used.
 NOTE: For non-filterable liquids, volume includes only net amount used and not volume of
NaOH added (i.e., 80% of total volume applied to filter).
 For background information on the method, including photographs of dead and living yeast
cells, see Koch et al., ref. 8, below.

Methods for Determining Toxin Production by Molds

A. Equipment and materials
1. Erlenmeyer flasks, 300 ml, wide-mouth
2. Cotton, nonabsorbent
3. Funnels, short-stem glass, 90-100 mm diameter
4. Filter paper, 18 cm diameter, folded (Schleicher & Schuell No. 588)
5. Boiling chips, silicon carbide
6. Fume hood equipped with steam bath; air-flow rate, 100 cubic ft/min
7. Blender, high speed, explosion-proof
8. Thin layer chromatographic apparatus or high-performance liquid chromatograph
9. Incubator, 22-25°C
B. Media and reagents
1. Long or short grain polished rice
2. Chloroform for extraction of aflatoxins, ochratoxins, sterigmatocystin,
xanthomegnin, luteoskyrin, patulin, penicillic acid, citrinin, T-2 toxin, zearalenone
3. Methanol for extraction of deoxynivalenol
4. Appropriate mycotoxin standards
5. NaOCl solution, 5%
C. Toxin production

Into 300 ml wide-mouth Erlenmeyer flask, add 50 g rice and 50 ml distilled water. Plug
flasks with cotton and autoclave 20 min at 121°C and 15 psi. Aseptically multispore-
inoculate separate cooled flasks with individual mold isolates. Incubate inoculated flasks
at 22-25°C until entire surface is covered with growth, and mycelium has penetrated to
bottom of flask (15-20 days). To each flask, add 150 ml chloroform (150 ml methanol if
toxin in question is deoxynivalenol), using short-stem glass funnel inserted alongside
unremoved cotton plug (to minimize mold spore dissemination). Heat flask contents in
fume hood on steam bath until solvent begins to boil. (Conduct all subsequent steps in
fume hood.) With spatula, break up moldy rice cake and transfer flask contents into
explosion-proof blender and blend at high speed for 1 min. Filter blender contents through
filter paper inserted into short-stem glass funnel. Collect filtrate in 300 ml Erlenmeyer
flask. Return rice cakes to blender, add 100 ml unheated solvent and blend 1 min at high
speed. Filter as above and combine filtrates. Add boiling chips to flask containing filtrates
and evaporate with steam to 20-25 ml. If analysis is not to follow immediately, evaporate
 to dryness and store flask in the dark. Rinse all glassware, etc., used for extraction in 5%
NaOCl solution before soap and water cleansing. Submerge rice cake in 5% NaOCl
solution for 72 h before autoclaving and disposal.
D. Toxin analysis

Appropriate mycotoxin standards are required for both qualitative and quantitative
analysis of toxin. Use either thin layer chromatography as described in references 16 or 17
or high performance liquid chromatography,as described in reference 15a, to determine
mycotoxins extracted from mold cultures. Naturally occurring mycotoxins in foods or
feeds can best be determined by methods described in Official Methods of Analysis (16).

References
5. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 1990. Official Method of Analysis, 15th ed.,
AOAC Arlington, VA.
6. Barnett, H.L. 1960. Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi, 2nd ed. Burgess, Minneapolis.
7. Beneke, E.S., and A.L. Rogers. 1971. Medical Mycology Manual, 3rd ed. Burgess,
Minneapolis.
8. Cole, R.J. (ed.) 1986. Modern Methods in the Analysis and Structural Elucidation of
Mycotoxins. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
9. Durackova, Z., V. Betina, and P. Nemec. 1976. Systematic analysis of mycotoxins by thin-
layer chromatography. J. Chromatogr., 116: 141-154.
10. Gilman, J.C. 1957. A Manual of Soil Fungi, 2nd ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames,
IA.
11. King, A.D. Jr, J.I. Pitt, L.R. Beuchat, and J.E.L. Corry (eds.) 1986. Methods for the
Mycological Examination of Food. Plenum Press, New York.
12. Koch, H.A., R. Bandler, and R.R. Gibson, 1986. Fluorescence microscopy procedure for
quantitation of yeasts in beverages. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 52: 599-601.
13. Lodder, J. 1970. The Yeasts, a Taxonomic Study, 2nd ed. North-Holland Publishing Co.,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
14. Milivec, P.B. 1977. The genus Penicillium, pp. 41-57. In: Mycotoxic Fungi, Mycotoxins,
and Mycotoxicoses, Vol. 1. T.D. Wyllie and L.G. Morehouse (eds.). Marcel Dekker, New
York.
15. Pitt, J.I., A.D. Hocking, R.A. Samson and A.D. King, 1992. Recommended methods for
mycological examination of foods, pp. 365-368. In: Modern Methods in Food Mycology,
R.A. Samson, A.D. Hocking, J.I. Pitt, and A.D. King (eds.). Elsevier, Amsterdam.
16. Raper, K.B., and D.I. Fennell. 1965. The genus Aspergillus. William & Wilkins,
Baltimore.
17. Raper, K.B., and C. Thom. 1968. A Manual of the Penicillia. Hafner, New York.
 18. Rodricks, J.V., C.W. Hesseltine, and M.A. Mehlman,(eds.) 1977. Mycotoxins in Human
and Animal Health. Pathotox, Park Forest South, IL.
19. Samson, R.A., A.D. Hocking, J.I. Pitt and A.D. King, 1992. Modern Methods in Food
Mycology. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
20. Scott, P.M. 1995. Chapter 49, Natural Toxins. pp 49-1 to 49-49. Official Methods of
Analysis, 16th ed. AOAC International, Gaithersburg, MD.
21. Stack, M.E. 1996. Toxins, pp. 1033-1045. In: Handbook of Thin-Layer Chromatography,
2nd ed., J. Sherma and B. Fried (eds.). Marcel Dekker, New York.

Media
Dichloran 18% glycerol (DG18) agar (M184)

Reagent Quantity
Glucose 10.0 g
Peptone 5.0 g
KH2PO4 1.0 g
MgSO4·7H2O 0.5 g
Dichloran (2,6-dichloro-4-nitroaniline) 1.0 ml
solution (0.2% (w/v) in ethanol)
Chloramphenicol 0.1 g
Agar 15.0 g
Distilled water 800 ml

Mix above items and steam to dissolve agar, then bring volume to 1000 ml with distilled water.
Add 220 g glycerol (analytical reagent grade), and sterilize by autoclaving at 121°C for 15 min.
Temper medium to 45° C and pour plates under aseptic conditions. The final aw of this medium
is 0.955. DG18 agar is used as a general purpose mold enumeration medium and is preferred
when the aw of the analyzed food is less than 0.95. The low water activity of this medium
reduces interference by bacteria and fast-growing fungi. When both yeasts and molds must be
enumerated, DRBC agar should be used.
Dichloran rose bengal chloramphenicol (DRBC) agar (M183)

Reagent Quantity
Glucose 10.0 g
Bacteriological peptone 5.0 g
KH2PO4 1.0 g
Reagent Quantity
MgSO4·7H2O 0.5 g
Rose bengal (5% aqueous soln., w/v) 0.5 ml
Dichloran (0.2% in ethanol, w/v) 1.0 ml
Chloramphenicol 0.1 g
Agar 15.0 g
Distilled water 1.0 liter

Final pH should be 5.6

Mix ingredients, heat to dissolve agar and sterilize by autoclaving at 121°C for 15 min. Temper
to 45 ± 1° C in a water bath and pour plates.
Notes: DRBC agar is especially useful for analyzing samples containing "spreader" molds
(e.g. Mucor,Rhizopus, etc.), since the added dichloran and rose bengal effectively slow down
the growth of fast-growing fungi, thus readily allowing detection of other yeast and mold
propagules, which have lower growth rates.
Media containing rose bengal are light-sensitive; relatively short exposure to light will result
in the formation of inhibitory compounds. Keep these media in a dark, cool place until used.
DRBC agar should be used for spread plates only.
Malt Agar (MA) (M185)

Reagent Quantity
Malt extract, powdered 20.0 g
Agar 20.0 g
Distilled water 1.0 liter
Mix ingredients, steam to dissolve agar and sterilize for 15 min at 121° C. Temper medium to
45° C and pour plates under aseptic conditions. To prepare slants dispense 5-6 ml of steamed
medium (before autoclaving) into each of several 16 × 125 mm screw-cap tubes, loosely cap
tubes and sterilize as above. After autoclaving lay tubes in a slanting position and let them cool.
This medium is recommended as a general maintenance medium.

Malt Extract Agar (Yeasts and Molds)(MEA) (M182)

Reagent Quantity
Malt extract, powdered 20.0 g
Glucose 20.0 g
Peptone 1.0 g
Agar 20.0 g
Reagent Quantity
Distilled water 1.0 liter
Mix ingredients, heat to dissolve agar and sterilize at 121° C for 15 min. Temper media to 45°
C and pour plates under aseptic conditions. Dehydrated MEA is commercially available, but
since more than one MEA formula exists, check for the appropriate composition. This medium
is recommended for the identification of Aspergillusand Penicillium.

Hypertext Source: Bacteriological Analytical Manual, 8th Edition, Revision A, 1998. Chapter
18.