Geologic Time Scale (GTS) - system of chronological dating that relates geological strata (stratigraphy) to

time. It is used by geologists, paleontologists, and other Earth scientists to describe the timing and
relationships of events that have occurred during Earth's history.

DIVISIONS OF GEOLOGICAL TIME:

EONS -are the largest intervals of geologic time. It spans hundreds to thousands of millions of years.

ERA -is a very long division of geological time, lasting tens of millions of years. Its beginning and end are
recognized by major changes in layers of rocks and fossils in the earth.

PERIOD -is one of several subdivisions of geologic time enabling cross-referencing of rocks and geologic
events from place to place.

EPOCH -is a subdivision of the geologic timescale that is longer than an age and shorter than a period.

PRECAMBRIAN SUPEREON
- This division of time, about seven-eighths of Earth's history, lasted from the first formation of the
planet (about 4.6 billion years ago) to the geologically sudden diversification of multicellular life
known as the Cambrian Explosion (usually dated at about 542 million years ago).
- (4600–541 million years ago)

Precambrian – is the name given for the first super eon of Earth’s history.

3 eons of Precambrian:
1. HADEAN EON
- geologic eon of the Earth predating the Archean
- began with the formation of the Earth about 4.6 billion years ago and ended 4 billion years ago

4 eras in the Hadean eon:

A. CRYPTIC ERA (EOHADEAN) (4600-4533 million years ago)
o an informal term that refers to the earliest geologic evolution of the Earth and Moon
o It is the oldest (informal) era of the Hadean eon
o begun close to 4533 million (about 4.533 billion) years ago when the Earth and Moon formed
B. BASIC GROUPS ERA (PALEHADEAN) (4533-4280 million years ago)
o It is the second era of the Hadean.
o End of the Early Bombardment Phase.
o Oldest known mineral (Zircon, 4,404 ± 8 Ma). Asteroids and comets bring water to Earth.
C. NECTARIAN ERA (MESOHADEAN) (4280-4130 million years ago)
o Possible first appearance of plate tectonics.
o gets its name from the lunar geologic timescale when the Nectaris Basin and other
greater lunar basins form by big impact events.
o Earliest evidence for life based on unusually high amounts of light isotopes of carbon, a
common sign of life.
D. EARLY IMBRIAN ERA (NEOHADEAN) (4130-4000 million years ago)
o Indirect photosynthetic evidence of primordial life.
o Oldest known rock (4,031 to 3,580 Ma).

2. ARCHEAN EON
- one of the four geologic eons of Earth history
- 4,000 to 2,500 million years ago (4 to 2.5 billion years ago).
- the Earth's crust had cooled enough to allow the formation of continents and life started to form.

4 eras in Archean eon:

A. EOARCHEAN ERA (4000-3600 million years ago)
o first era of the Archean Eon of the geologic record for which the Earth has a solid crust.
o beginnings of life on Earth have been dated to this era
B. PALEOARCHEAN ERA (3600-3200 million years ago)
o formerly known as early Archean
o The oldest ascertained life form of fossilized bacteria in microbial mats, 3,480 million
years old, found in Western Australia, is from this era.
o The first supercontinent Vaalbara formed during this period.
o During this era, a large asteroid, about 37 to 58 kilometres (23–36 mi) wide, collided with the
Earth in the area of South Africa about 3.26 billion years ago, creating the features known as
the Barberton greenstone belt.
 C. MESOARCHEAN ERA (3200-2800 million years ago)
o During this era, fossils from Australia show that stromatolites have lived on Earth
o The Pongola glaciation occurred around 2,900 million years ago
o The first supercontinent Vaalbara broke up during this era about 2,800 million years ago
o The earliest reefs date from this era, and were probably formed by stromatolites.
D. NEOARCHEAN ERA (2800-2500 million years ago)
o oxygenic photosynthesis first evolved, releasing an abundance of oxygen, that first reacted
with minerals and afterward was free to react with greenhouse gases of the atmosphere,
leaving the Earth's surface free to radiate its energy to space.
o known as oxygen catastrophe

3. PROTEROZOIC EON
- geological eon representing the time just before the proliferation of complex life on Earth
- name Proterozoic comes from Greek and means "earlier life"
- Greek root "protero-" means "former, earlier"
- "zoic-" means "animal, living being"
- 2500 Ma to 541 Ma (million years ago), and is the most recent part of the Precambrian Supereon
- It can be also described as the time range between the appearance of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere
and the appearance of first complex life forms

3 eras in the Proterozoic eon:

A. PALEOPROTEROZOIC ERA (2500-1600 million years ago)
o longest era of the Earth's geological history
o during this era the continents first stabilized

4 periods of Paleoproterozoic era:

a. Siderian period (2500 to 2300 million years ago)
b. Rhyacian period (2300-2050 million years ago)
 The Bushveld Igneous Complex and other similar intrusions formed during this
period.
 The Huronian (Makganyene) global glaciation began at the start of the Rhyacian
lasted 100 million years.
c. Rhyacian period (2050-1800 million years ago)
 The later half of the period was an episode of intensive orogeny on virtually
all continents.
 Two of the largest known impact events on Earth occurred during the Orosirian.
 At the very beginning of the period, 2023 Mya, a large asteroid collision created
the Vredefort impact structure.
 The event that created the Sudbury Basin structure occurred near the end of the
period, 1850 Mya.
d. Rhyacian period (1800-1600 million years ago)
 The period was characterized on most continents by either new platforms or
final cratonization of fold belts.
 By the beginning of the Statherian, the supercontinent Columbia had assembled.

B. MESOPROTEROZOIC ERA (1600-1000 million years ago)

o first period of Earth's history of which a fairly definitive geological record survives.
o The continental masses of the Mesoproterozoic were more or less the same ones that exist
today.

3 subdivided periods of Mesoproterozoic era:

a. Calymmian period (1600-1400 million years ago)
 expansion of existing platform covers, or by new platforms on
recently cratonized basements.
 The supercontinent Columbia broke up during the Calymmian some 1500 Mya.
b. Ecstasian period (1400-1200 million years ago)
 from Greek ἔκτασις (éktasis), meaning "extension")
 name refers to the continued expansion of platform covers during this period.
 first evidence of sexual reproduction.
 The 1.2 billion years old Hunting Formation on Somerset Island, Canada, dates from
the end of the Ectasian.
c. Stenian period (1200-1000 million years ago)
 name derives from narrow polymetamorphic belts formed over this period.
  The supercontinent Rodinia assembled during the Stenian. It would last into
the Tonian period.
 This period includes the formation of the Keweenawan Rift at about 1100 Mya.

C. NEOPROTEROZOIC ERA (1000-541 million years ago)

o Neoproterozoic the period of Earth's history that has produced most continental crust
according to Rino and co-workers

3 periods of Neoproterozoic:
a. Tonian period (1000-720 million years ago)
 Rifting leading to the breakup of supercontinent Rodinia, which had formed in the
mid-Stenian, occurred during this period, starting from 900 to 850 Mya.
 The first large evolutionary radiation of acritarchs occurred during the Tonian.
 The first metazoans (animals) are found in the late Tonian about 800 Mya.

b. Cyrogenian period (720-635 million years ago)

 The Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations occurred during the Cryogenian period, which
are the greatest ice ages known to have occurred on Earth.
 The main debate contests whether these glaciations covered the entire planet (the
so-called "Snowball Earth") or a band of open sea survived near the equator (termed
"slushball Earth").

c. Edicarian period (635-541 million years ago)

 spans 94 million years from the end of the Cryogenian Period 635 million years ago
(Mya), to the beginning of the Cambrian Period 541 Mya.
 It marks the end of the Proterozoic Eon, and the beginning of the Phanerozoic Eon.
 It is named after the Ediacara Hills of South Australia.

4. PHANEROZOIC EON
- current geologic eon in the geologic time scale, and the one during which
abundant animal and plant life has existed.
- It covers 544 million years to the present.
- Its name was derived from the Ancient Greek words (phanerós) and (zōḗ), meaning visible life.
- The time before the Phanerozoic, called the Precambrian super eon, is now divided into
the Hadean, Archaean and Proterozoic eons.

3 Eras of the Phanerozoic:

A. PALEOZOIC ERA (544-250 million years ago)
o “The Age of Invertebrates”
o A time in Earth's history when complex life forms evolved, took their first breath of oxygen on
dry land, and when the forerunners of all life on Earth began to diversify.

6 periods in Paleozoic era:

a. Cambrian period (541 to 485 million years ago)
 Following the Precambrian mass extinction, there was an explosion of new kinds of
organisms in the Cambrian Period
 Many types of primitive animals called sponges evolved.
 Small ocean invertebrates called trilobites became abundant.

Series of Cambrian Geological System:

I. TERRENEUVIAN (541-521million years ago)
 lowermost and oldest series of the Cambrian geological system.
 base is defined by the first appearance datum of the trace fossil Treptichnus
pedum around 541 million years ago.
 top is defined as the first appearance of trilobites in the stratigraphic record
around 521 million years ago.

 FORTUNIAN (541-529 million years ago)

 CAMBRIAN STAGE 2 (529-521 million years ago)

II. Cambrian series 2 (521-509 million years ago)

 The beginning of the 2nd series of the Cambrian is marked by the
appearance of trilobites.
  Currently the oldest trilobite known is Lemdadella which marks the beginning
of the Fallotaspis zone.
 The end of the 2nd series of the Cambrian is marked by the first major biotic
extinction of the Paleozoic.
 CAMBRIAN STAGE 3 (521-514 million years ago)
 CAMBRIAN STAGE 4 (514-509 million years ago)

III. Cambrian series 3 (509-497 million years ago)

 The most promising fossil markers are the respective first appearances of
either trilobite species Ovatoryctocara granulata or Oryctocephalus indicus.

 CAMBRIAN STAGE 5 (509-504.5 million years ago)

 DRUMIAN (504.5-500.5 million years ago)
 GUZHANGIAN (500.5-497 million years ago)

IV. Furongian (497-485.4 million years ago)

 begin with the first appearance of the trilobite Glyptagnostus
reticulatus around 497 million years ago.
 The upper boundary is the first appearance of the conodont Iapetognathus
fluctivagus around 485.4 million years ago

 PAIBIAN (497-494 million years ago)

 JIANGSHANIAN(494-489.5 million years ago)
 CAMBRIAN STAGE 10(489.5-485.4million years ago)

B. Ordovician period (485.4 - 443.8 MILLION YEARS AGO)

 The oceans became filled with invertebrates of many types.
 first fish evolved and plants colonized the land for the first time.

I. EARLY ORDOVICIAN (485.4-470 million years ago)

 trilobites were joined by many new types of organisms

 TREMADOCIAN(485.4-477.7million years ago)

 FLOIAN(477.7-470 million years ago)

II. MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN (470-458.4 million years ago)

 large increase in the intensity and diversity of bioeroding organisms.This is
known as the Ordovician Bioerosion Revolution.
 It is marked by a sudden abundance of hard substrate trace fossils
 the trilobite-dominated Early Ordovician communities were replaced by
generally more mixed ecosystems

 DAPINGIAN(470-467.3 million years ago)

 DARRIWILIAN(467.3-458.4 million years ago)

III. LATE ORDOVICIAN (458.4-443.8 million years ago)

 life continued to flourish, but at and near the end of the period there
were mass-extinction events that seriously affected planktonic forms
 The Ordovician–Silurian Extinction Events may have been caused by an ice
age that occurred at the end of the Ordovician period, due to the expansion
of the first terrestrial plants, as the end of the Late Ordovician was one of the
coldest times in the last 600 million years of earth history.
 SANDBIAN(458.4-453 million years ago)
 KATIAN(453-445.2 million years ago)
 HIRNANTIAN (445.2-443.8 million years ago)

C. Silurian period (443.8 TO 419.2 MILLION YEARS AGO)

 Corals appeared in the oceans, and fish continued to evolve.
 On land, vascular plants appeared.

Divisions in Silurian Period:

I. LLANDOVERY EPOCH (443.8-433.4million years ago)
  The epoch follows the massive Ordovician-Silurian extinction events; the
second largest extinction event after the Permian-Triassic extinction
event millions of years later.

 RHUDDANIAN(443.8 - 440.8 million years ago)

 AERONIAN (440.8 - 438.5 million years ago)
 TELYCHIAN(438.5- 433.4 million years ago)

II. WENLOCK (433.4-427.4 million years ago)

 sometimes referred to as the Wenlockian
 The Wenlock Limestone is one of the best-studied Silurian formations of the
world and is noted for its abounding variety of excellently preserved fossils
 The top of the Wenlock Series is defined by the base of the overlying Ludlow
Series and is underlain by the Llandovery Series

 SHEINWOODIAN (433.4-430.5 million years ago)

 HOMERIAN (430.5-427.4 million years ago)

III. LUDLOW SERIES (427.4-423 million years ago)

 represents all those rocks on a global basis deposited during the Ludlow
Epoch
 The base of the Ludlow Series was formally defined in 1980 on authority of
the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) with a global stratotype
section and point (GSSP) in the quarry at Pitch Coppice on the south side of
the Ludlow-Wigmore Road, 4 km (2.5 miles) southwest of Ludlow.
 The top of the Ludlow Series is defined by the base of the overlying Pridoli
Series.

 THE GORSTIAN (427.4-425.6 million years ago)

 LUDFORDIAN STAGE (425.6-423 million years ago)

IV. PRIDOLI EPOCH (423-419.2 million years ago)

 The earliest known simple vascular land plants, of the genus Cooksonia,
typically occur in the lower portions of the Pridoli Series in many parts of the
world.

D. Devonian period (419.2 TO 358.9 MILLION YEARS AGO)

 The first seed plants evolved
 In the oceans, fish with lobe fins evolved

I. EARLY DEVONIAN (419.2-393.3 million years ago)

 the first ammonoids appeared, descending from bactritoid nautiloids

 LOCHKOVIAN (419.2-410.8 million years ago)

 PRAGIAN(410.8-407.6 million years ago)
 EMSIAN(407.6-393.3 million years ago)

II. MIDDLE DEVONIAN (393.3-382.7 million years ago)

 During this time the jawless agnathan fishes began to decline in diversity in
freshwater and marine environments partly due to drastic environmental
changes and partly due to the increasing competition, predation and diversity
of jawed fishes.

 EIFELIAN(393.3-387.7 million years ago)

 GIVETIAN (387.7-382.7 million years ago)

III. LATE DEVONIAN (382.7-358.9 million years ago)

 the first forests took shape on land.
 The first tetrapods appeared in the fossil record in the
ensuing Famennian subdivision, the beginning and end of which are marked
with extinction events. This lasted until the end of the
Devonian, 358.9± 2.5 million years ago.
  FRASNIAN (382.7-372.2 million years ago)
 FAMENNIAN (372.2-358.9 million years ago)

E. Carboniferous period (358.9 TO 298.9 MILLION YEARS AGO)

 Widespread forests of huge plants left massive deposits of carbon that eventually
turned to coal.
 The first amphibians evolved to move out of the water and colonize land.
 Soon after amphibians arose, the first reptiles evolved.

I. MISSISSIPPIAN (358.9-323.2million years ago)

 also known as Lower Carboniferous or Early Carboniferous
 subperiod in the geologic timescale or a subsystem of the geologic record
 It is the earliest/lowermost of two subperiods of the Carboniferous period
 named because rocks with this age are exposed in the Mississippi River
valley.
 period of marine transgression in the Northern Hemisphere: the sea level
was so high that only the Fennoscandian Shield and the Laurentian Shield
were dry land.

 TOURNAISIAN (358.9-346.7 million years ago)

 VISEAN (346.7-330.9 million years ago)
 SERPUKHOVIAN (330.9-323.2 million years ago)

II. PENNSYLVANIAN (323.2-298.9 million years ago)

 also known as Upper Carboniferous or Late Carboniferous
 the younger of two subperiods (or upper of two subsystems) of the
Carboniferous Period.
 the rock beds that define the Pennsylvanian are well identified, but the exact
date of the start and end are uncertain by a few hundred thousand years.
 named after the U.S. state of Pennsylvania, where the coal-productive beds
of this age are widespread.

 BASHKIRIAN (323.2-315.2 million years ago)

 MOSCOVIAN (315.2-307 million years ago)
 KASIMOVIAN (307-303.7 million years ago)
 GZHELIAN (303.7-298.9 million years ago)

F. Permian period (298.9 to 251.9 million years ago)

 All the major land masses collided to form a supercontinent called Pangaea.
 Temperatures were extreme, and the climate was dry
 Plants and animals evolved adaptations to dryness, such as waxy leaves or leathery
skin to prevent water loss.
 The Permian Period ended with a mass extinction.

I. CISURALIAN EPOCH (298.9-272.95 million years ago)

 marked by the appearance of beetles and flies.

 ASSELIAN (298.9-295 million years ago)

 SAKMARIAN (295-290.1 million years ago)
 ARTINSKIAN (290.1-283.5 million years ago)
 KUNGURIAN (283.5-272.95 million years ago)

II. GUADALUPIAN (272.95-259.1 million years ago)

 marked by the presence of gymnosperms.

 ROADIAN (272.95-268.8 million years ago)

 WORDIAN (268.8-265.1 million years ago)
 CAPITANIAN (265.1-259.1 million years ago)

III. LOPINGIAN (259.1-251.9 million years ago)

 marked by the formation of the Pangea supercontinent.
  WUCHIAPINGIAN (259.1-254.14 million years ago)
 CHANGHSINGIAN (254.14-251.9 million years ago)

B. MESOZOIC ERA (251.9-66 million years ago)

o known as the "age of the dinosaurs”\
o Besides dinosaurs,

1) Triassic period (251.9-201.3 MILLION YEARS AGO)

 First dinosaurs branched off from the reptiles and colonized the land, air, and water.
 Huge seed ferns and conifers dominated the forests, and modern corals, fish,
and insects evolved.
 Pangaea started to separate into Laurasia and Gondwanaland.

3 epochs of Triassic Period:

I. EARLY TRIASSIC (251.9-247.2 million years ago)
 Rocks are collectively known as the Lower Triassic, which is a unit
in chronostratigraphic.

 INDUAN (251.9-251.2 million years ago)

 OLENEKIAN (251.2-247.2 million years ago)

II. MIDDLE TRIASSIC (247.2-237 million years ago)

 There were no flowering plants, but instead there were ferns and mosses.
 Small dinosaurs began to appear like Nyasasaurus and the
ichnogenus Iranosauripus.

 ANISIAN (247.2-242 million years ago)

 LADINIAN (242-237 million years ago)

III. LATE TRIASSIC (237-201.3 million years ago)

 The Triassic-Jurassic extinction event began during this epoch and is one of
the five major mass extinction events of the Earth.
 The extinction event that began during the Late Triassic resulted in the
disappearance of about 76% of all terrestrial and marine life species, as well
as almost 20% of taxonomic families.

 CARNIAN (237-227 million years ago)

 NORIAN (227-208.5 million years ago)
 RHAETIAN (208.5-201.3 million years ago)

2) THE JURASSIC PERIOD (201.3–145 million years ago)

 Began after the mass extinction that ended the Triassic Period.
 This mass extinction allowed dinosaurs to flourish in the Jurassic Period.
 This was the golden age of dinosaurs.
 The earliest birds evolved from reptile ancestors, and all the major groups of
mammals evolved, though individual mammals were still small in size.
 Flowering plants appeared for the first time, and new insects also evolved to pollinate
the flowers. The continents continued to move apart, and volcanic activity was
especially intense.

I. EARLY JURASSIC (201.3-174.1 million years ago)

 ends at the start of the Middle Jurassic
 Certain rocks of marine origin of this age in Europe are called "Lias" and that
name was used for the period as well, in 19th-century geology.
 In southern Germany rocks of this age are called Black Jurassic.

 HETTANGIAN (201.3-199.3 million years ago)

 SINEMURIAN (199.3-190.8 million years ago)
 PLIENSBACHIAN (190.8-182.7 million years ago)
 TOARCIAN (182.7-174.1 million years ago)
 II. MIDDLE JURASSIC (174.1-163.5 million years ago)
 one of the key periods in the evolution of life on earth.
 Many groups, including dinosaurs and mammals, diversified during this time.
 Pangaea began to separate into Laurasia and Gondwana, and the Atlantic
Ocean formed.
 A subduction zone on the coast of western North America continues to create
the Ancestral Rocky Mountains.

 AALENIAN (174.1-170.3 million years ago)

 BAJOCIAN (170.3-168.3 million years ago)
 BATHONIAN (168.3-166.1 million years ago)
 CALLOVIAN (166.1-163.5 million years ago)

III. LATE JURASSIC (163.5-145 million years ago)

 Pangaea broke up into two supercontinents, Laurasia to the north,
and Gondwana to the south.
 The result of this break-up was the spawning of the Atlantic Ocean. this time,
the Atlantic Ocean was relatively narrow.

 OXFORDIAN (163.5-157.3 million years ago)

 KIMMERIDGIAN (157.3-152.1 million years ago)
 TITHONIAN (152.1-145 million years ago)

3) CRETACEOUS PERIOD (145 – 66 million years ago)

 Dinosaurs reached their peak in size and distribution.
 Tyrannosaurus Rex, weighed at least 7 tons.
 By the end of the Cretaceous, the continents were close to their present locations.
 Earth’s overall climate was warm; even the poles lacked ice.
 The period ended with the dramatic extinction of the dinosaurs

I. EARLY CRETACEOUS (145-100.5 million years ago)

 During this time many new types of dinosaurs appeared or came into
prominence
 Angiosperms (flowering plants) appear for the first time.
 Birds appear for the first time.

 BERRIASIAN (145-139.8 million years ago)

 VALANGINIAN (139.8-132.9 million years ago)
 HAUTERIVIAN (132.9-129.4 million years ago)
 BARREMIAN (129.4-125 million years ago)
 APTIAN (125-113 million years ago)
 ALBIAN (113-100.5 million years ago)

II. LATE CRETACEOUS (100.5-66 million years ago)

 the climate was warmer than present, although throughout the period a
cooling trend is evident.
 The tropics became restricted to equatorial regions and northern latitudes
experienced markedly more seasonal climatic conditions.
 Due to plate tectonics, the Americas were gradually moving westward,
causing the Atlantic Ocean to expand.

 CENOMANIAN (100.5-93.9 million years ago)

 TURONIAN (93.9-89.8 million years ago)
 CONIACIAN (89.8-86.3 million years ago)
 SANTONIAN (86.3-83.6 million years ago)
 CAMPANIAN (83.6-72.1 million years ago)
 MAASTRICHTIAN (72.1-66 million years ago)

C. CENOZOIC ERA (66 million years ago-Present)

o “The Age of Mammals”
o The smaller mammals that survived were able to grow and become dominant life on Earth.
o Human evolution also all happened during the Cenozoic Era.
o It got much cooler and drier than the Mesozoic Era climate.
3 Period of Cenozoic Era:
1) PALEOGENE PERIOD (66 -23.03 million years ago)
 It is the beginning of the Cenozoic Era of the present Phanerozoic Eon
 most notable for being the time during which mammals diversified from relatively
small, simple forms into a large group of diverse animals in the wake of
the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that ended the
preceding Cretaceous Period.

3 epochs:
i. PALEOCENE EPOCH (66 – 56 million years ago)
 Saw the recovery of the earth.
 The continents began to take their modern shape, but all the continents and
the subcontinent of India were separated from each other.
 Afro-Eurasia was separated by the Tethys Sea
 Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the isthmus had not yet
formed
 Featured a general warming trend, with jungles eventually reaching the
poles.
 oceans were dominated by sharks as the large reptiles that had once
predominated were extinct.
 Archaic mammals filled the world such as creodonts

 DANIAN (66-61.6 million years ago)

 SELANDIAN (61.6-59.2 million years ago)
 THANETIAN (59.2-56 million years ago)

ii. EOCENE EPOCH (56-33.9 million years ago)

 Early-Eocene, species living in dense forest were unable to evolve into larger
forms, as in the Paleocene.
 temperature was 30 degrees Celsius with little temperature gradient from
pole to pole
 Mid-Eocene, the Circumpolar-Antarctic current between Australia and
Antarctica formed.
 This disrupted ocean currents worldwide and as a result caused a global
cooling effect, shrinking the jungles.
 Late Eocene saw the rebirth of seasons, which caused the expansion of
savanna-like areas, along with the evolution of grass

 YPRESIAN (56-47.8 million years ago)

 LUTETIAN (47.8-41.2 million years ago)
 BARTONIAN (41.2-37.8 million years ago)
 PRIABONIAN (37.8 -33.9million years ago)

iii. OLIGOCENE EPOCH (33.9-23.03 million years ago)

 the expansion of grass which had led to many new species to evolve,
including the first elephants, cats, dogs, marsupials and many other species
still prevalent today.
 Many other species of plants evolved in this period too.
 A cooling period featuring seasonal rains was still in effect.
 Mammals still continued to grow larger and larger.

 RUPELIAN (33.9-28.1 million years ago)

 CHATTIAN (28.1-23.03 million years ago)

2) NEOGENE PERIOD (23.03 -2.58 million years ago)

 which means “new born”
 emphasize that the marine and terrestrial fossils found in the strata of this time were
more closely related to each other than to those of the preceding period, called
the Paleogene

i. MIOCENE EPOCH (23.03-5.33 million years ago)

 grass spread further, dominating a large portion of the world, at the expense
of forests.
  Kelp forests evolved, encouraging the evolution of new species, such as sea
otters.
 Apes evolved into 30 species.
 The Tethys Sea finally closed with the creation of the Arabian Peninsula,
leaving only remnants as the Black, Red, Mediterranean and Caspian Seas

 AQUITANIAN (23.03-20.44 million years ago)

 BURDIGALIAN (20.44-15.97 million years ago)
 LANGHIAN (15.97-13.82 million years ago)
 SERRAVALLIAN (13.82-11.63 million years ago)
 TORTONIAN (11.63-7.246 million years ago)
 MESSINIAN (7.246-5.33 million years ago)

ii. PLIOCENE EPOCH (5.33-2.58 million years ago)

 dramatic climactic changes, which ultimately led to modern species and
plants.
 The Mediterranean Sea dried up for several million years (because the ice
ages reduced sea levels, disconnecting the Atlantic from the Mediterranean,
and evaporation rates exceeded inflow from rivers).

 ZANCLEAN (5.33-3.6 million years ago)

 PIACENZIAN (3.6-2.58 million years ago)

3) QUARTENARY PERIOD (2.58 million years ago-Present)

 Shortest geological period in the Phanerozoic Eon.

i. PLEISTOCENE EPOCH (2.58 million -11,700 years ago)

 marked by ice ages as a result of the cooling trend that started in the Mid-
Eocene.
 Meanwhile, Africa experienced a trend of desiccation which resulted in the
creation of the Sahara, Namib, and Kalahari deserts

 GELASIAN (2.58-1.8million years ago

 CALABRIAN (1.8-0.781 million years ago)
 CHIBANIAN (0.781-0.126 million years ago)
 TARANTIAN (0.126 million years ago-11,700 years ago)

ii. HOLOCENE EPOCH (11,700 years ago-present)

 All recorded history and "the history of the world" lies within the boundaries of
the Holocene epoch.
 Human activity is blamed for a mass extinction that began roughly 10,000
years ago, though the species becoming extinct have only been recorded
since the Industrial Revolution.
 sometimes referred to as the "Sixth Extinction". Over 322 species have
become extinct due to human activity since the Industrial Revolution.

Ages under Holocene:

 PREBOREAL
 BOREAL
 ATLANTIC
 SUBBOREAL
 SUBATLANTIC
 CHRONS

Continental Drift Theory

- Movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other, thus appearing to "drift" across the ocean
bed

SCIENTISTS BEHIND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEORY:

Abraham Ortelius
-First to theorize the continental drift (1596)
Written in his work:
 “The shapes of continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean seem to fit together”
 “The Americas were "torn away from Europe and Africa ... by earthquakes and floods”
  "The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves, if someone brings forward a map of the world and
considers carefully the coasts of the three [continents]."

Roberto Mantovani
-Scientist behind Expanding Earth Theory
Written in his work:
 This continent broke due to volcanic activity caused by thermal expansion, and the new continents
drifted away from each other because of further expansion of the rip-zones, where the oceans now
lie

Frank Bursley Taylor

- Continental Drift without expansion
Written in his work:
 “The continents were moved into their present positions by a process of "continental creep”

Alfred Wegener
-Fully developed Continental Drift Theory (1912)
-His theory wasn’t accepted due to lack of force acting on continental plates
Suggested in his work:
 Continents had been pulled apart by the centrifugal pseudoforce
 The velocity of continental motion, 250 cm/year

Scientist who opposed the Continental Drift Theory

James Dwight Dana
"The continents and oceans had their general outline or form defined in earliest time. This has been
proved with respect to North America from the position and distribution of the first beds of the Silurian –
those of the Potsdam epoch. … and this will probably prove to the case in Primordial time with the other
continents also"

Modern Evidences
• Opposite side mountains fit together
Example: Appalachian Mountains (United States) and Caledonian Mountains (Scotland) fit together
• Distinct species and fossils are found in different continents
Example: Mesosaurs, a freshwater reptile found only South America and Africa during the Permian period
could be found on many continents