EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE REVIEWER mantle, the temperatures range from

600 to 900 °C. In the lower mantle, the

temperature can reach over 4000 °C.
EARTH’S INTERNAL CONVECTION CURRENTS

THE CRUST
 The crust is a very thin layer that  Convection currents carry heat
measures between 0 and 60 km. from the hot inner mantle to the
 The outermost layer of the Earth. cooler outer mantle
 The thick continental crust, about 32  If the upper part of the mantle
km, makes up the land surface of the cools down, it becomes part of
Earth and is composed primarily of less the crust
dense materials such as granite; SiAl  Also, this process is responsible
 The thin oceanic crust has a depth of for earthquakes and other
5–10 km and is made up of basalt which geological processes
is denser than granite; SiMa

THE MANTLE
 Mohorovicic Discontinuity
- the boundary that separates
the Earth’s crust and the upper
mantle.
 The thickest layer of the Earth,
spanning almost 2900 km and making
up 84% of the Earth’s volume.
 It contains magma. It is primarily solid
but behaves as a viscous liquid.
 Geothermal gradient, the increase in THE CORE
temperature with depth. In the upper  Gutenberg Discontinuity
 - The boundary between the
Earth’s lower mantle and the outer
core.
 The core is at the center of the Earth. In
this region, the temperature is
hotter than the mantle. It is divided into
two parts: the outer core and the
inner core.
 The liquid outer core is 2300 km
thick. It is composed primarily of iron
and nickel. Temperature is around
4000–5700 °C. High temperature
causes the outer core to undergo
convection and rotates faster than
the planet: Dynamo effect.

 The inner core is a solid ball with a

radius of 1220 km. Like the outer core,
the inner core is made up of iron and
nickel, but in solid form. The
temperature is quite high at around
7000 °C.

 Lehmann Discontinuity
- the boundary between the
outer and inner core

EXOGENIC PROCESS
  a continuum of processes –
Weathering-Mass Wasting-Erosion- TYPES OF WEATHERING:
Transportation-Deposition  Physical or Mechanical Weathering
 these processes are carried through by - is the breaking up of rocks without
Geomorphic Agents: gravity, flowing changing the rock’s mineral
water (rivers), moving ice (glaciers), composition.
waves and tides (oceans and lakes), - No change in chemical composition
wind, plants, organisms, animals and of rocks
humans - Disintegration and decay of rocks
via weather elements: high
1. Degradation Processes-Also called temperatures, extreme cold and
Denudation Processes freeze-thaw cycles.
a. Weathering
b. Mass Wasting  FROST WEDGING
c. Erosion and Transportation - Water that enters through the cracks
and empty spaces of rocks expands
2. Aggradation Processes when it freezes.
a. Deposition – fluvial, eolian, glacial, coastal  INSOLATION/ THERMAL STRESS
- Resulted from continuous expansion
and contraction of rocks caused by
temperature change.
 ABRASION
- Wearing away of rocks by constant
collision of loose particles.
 UNLOADING/PRESSURE RELEASE
- Rocks brought to surface erode
away releasing confining pressure,
and allows the rock to expand, thus
exfoliating.
 SALT CRYSTALLIZATION/
 External processes that occur at or near HALOCLASTY
the surface of the Earth. - Force exerted by salt crystals that
 Exogenic processes are part of the rock formed as water evaporates from
pore spaces or cracks in rocks.
cycle.
 They are responsible for transforming
 Chemical Weathering
rocks into sediments.
- Chemical weathering or
WEATHERING decomposition, decomposes rocks
 Physical and chemical disintegration through chemical change in its
minerals.
and degradation of rocks.
- Often transforming them when
 In situ, no transportation involved
water interacts with minerals to
 Involves the mechanical or physical
create various chemical
disintegration and/or chemical
reactions.
decomposition that fragments rock
- When rocks are chemically
masses into smaller components that
changed, it can make them look
amass on-site, before being moved by
different.
gravity or transported by other agents
 The processes begin in microscopic
 OXIDATION
spaces, cracks, joints, faults, fractures,
lava vesicles and other rock cavities - Oxygen dissolved in water
will oxidize some materials.
 Reddish-brown rust will appear intense chemical, physical, and
on the surface of iron-rich biological processes and so
minerals, which easily crumbles indirectly enhancing the process
and weakens the rocks, of rock weathering.
corrosion.  FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE
- This process is known as OF WEATHERING
rusting.
- Many other metals oxidized and - CLIMATE- areas that are cold
hydrate to produce colored or dry tend to have low rates of
deposits, such as chalcopyrite chemical weathering, mostly
(CuFeS2) forming copper oxide physical.
or iron oxide. - ROCK TYPE- minerals that
 HYDROLYSIS constitute the rocks has different
- Mineral hydration, is a form of susceptibility to weathering.
chemical weathering that - ROCK STRUCTURE- presence
involves the attachment of H+ of joints, folds, faults, cleavage
and OH- to the atoms and disintegrate faster.
molecules of minerals. - TOPOGRAPHY- weathering
- It affects silicates and carbonate happens in steep slope that on
minerals. a gentle ones.
- The rock surface decomposes - TIME- length of exposure,
by increasing the pH of solution determines the degree of
through the release of hydroxide weathering.
ions.
 CARBONATION EROSION AND DEPOSITION
- Rainfall is acidic because atmospheric  EROSION
carbon dioxide dissolves in water - The incorporation and
producing weak carbonic acid. transportation of materials by
- Carbon dioxide dissolved in water reacts a mobile agent such as water,
with carbonate rocks to create a soluble wind, or ice.
product (calcium bicarbonate). - Natural process
- Carbonation occurs in rocks that - Humans activities have
contains CaCO3, such as limestone and increased by 10-40 times the
chalk. rate of erosion globally.
- The process speeds up with decrease - Excessive erosion causes
in temperature; colder water holds problems such as
more dissolved carbon dioxide gas. desertification, land
degradation, and
sedimentation of waterways.
 Biological Weathering
- Plants and animals as agents  AGENTS OF EROSION
of weathering.
- Roots physically break or wedge WATER
rock  SPLASH EROSION
- Lichens (algae and fungi living - Raindrops cause tiny particles
as single unit), remove minerals of soil to be detached and move
and weaken rock by releasing out.
acids  SHEET EROSION
- Burrowing animals can move - Uniform removal of soil in thin
rock fragments to the surface, layers by the forces of raindrops
exposing the rock to more and overland flow.
  GULLY EROSION - If the arch collapses, the
- The removal of soil along seaward part is still there and is
drainage lines by surface water a stack
runoff. - Sea stacks are erosional
 VALLEY EROSION remnants; with a cave cutting
- Continuous water flow alongside through, it's a sea arch.
land and move downward,
which deepens a valley.
 BANK EROSION
- The wearing away of the banks
of a stream or river. This is
distinguished from erosion of
the bed of the watercourse
WAVES

GLACIER
- Glacier is a moving body of ice on land
that moves downslope or outward from
an area of accumulation (Monroe et al.,
2007).
- Abrasion- debris in the basal ice
scrapes along the beds. It yields glacial
polish and glacial striations.
- Waves are classified based on - Plucking- fractured bedrocks are
generation force: wind-generated incorporated into the ice.
waves, tsunami, tides, storm surges, - Effects of glacial erosion varies
and seiches. depending on: rate of movement,
- Coastal erosion thickness of the ice, and Nerodibility of
-Hydraulic action, when air in a joint, the surface.
suddenly compressed by a wave.
-Wave pounding, sheer energy of the
wave hitting the cliff or rock.
-Abrasion, scraping, mostly effective
and rapid way of shoreline erosion.
-Corrosion, dissolving of rock through
carbonic acid.

 SEA WAVES WIND

- Sea caves result where an - Wind forms by differences in pressure
easily eroded piece of rock is due to differential heating of the
removed atmosphere.
 SEA ARCH - Wind carries dust, sand, and volcanic
- A sea arch happens when a sea ash from one point to another.
cave or two goes all the way - Wind erodes by:
through. -Deflation, removal of loose, fine
particles at the surface.
 SEA STACKS -Abrasion, grinding action and
sandblasting.
 with each other and the slope
itself.
-Transitional mass wasting
event, changing from a pure
rock fall to something more like
a rapid flow of material as the
material moves further from the
base of a slope.
GRAVITY  SLIDES
- Mass wasting, the downslope -slides have in common is that the mass
movements of soil, rock, and regolith of sediment/rock sticks together as a
under the direct influence of gravity coherent block as it travels down slope
(Tarbuck et al., 2014). along a tilted plane or surface of
- Mass wasting moves materials from weakness.
higher to lower elevations. -Ultimately, as the moving slide mass
comes to a sudden stop, it may break
MASS WASTING apart and continue down slope as a type
- The downslope movement of rock, of flow.
regolith, and soil under a direct influence - Rock Slide
of gravity. -Due to pre-existing plane or
- slope movement or mass movement weakness within a slope. Such
TYPES OF MASS WASTING planes of weakness are either
 FALLS flat sedimentary surfaces,
- Involve a single rock or thousands of planes of cleavage, or a fracture
rocks. within a body of rock.
-Travel at a high rate of speed down a - Slumps
very steep slope -Force exerted by salt crystals
-If the slope is vertical or overhung, that formed as water evaporates
rock(s) will drop straight downward, from pore spaces or cracks in
fragmenting when they hit the base of rocks.
the slope.
-Over time, this forms a body of angular
rubble called talus, a distinctive
transition from the steep slope to flatter
ground.
-Rock fall
- Simplest and most
obvious form of mass
wasting.
- Materials fall freely in the air.
-Occurs only in a very steep
cliff.  FLOW
-Talus, resulting mound of - Of the three basic types of mass
debris at the bottom of the fall. wasting, flows are the most complex,
- Rock Avalanche both in terms of how they originate and
- Type of fall usually forms when how they move.
a massive rock fall explodes -Unlike slides, in which the material
apart on contact with a slope. sticks together as a coherent mass as it
-As this occurs, thousands of moves down slope, flows are
rocks continue their flying characterized by internal movements
trajectories down slope, colliding of individual grains (tiny like silt or
 sand up to large boulders and small  GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
blocks of crust) within the flow itself. - It is the rate of increasing
-The internal flow movements of temperature with respect to
individual grains can be fast and increasing depth in Earth's
chaotic if the flow originates from a interior.
steep slope, or if it contains a lot of - This gradient is due to outward
water. heat flow from a hot interior.
- Or, grain movements can be very slow - The depth has a directly
and somewhat predictable if the slope proportional relationship to
surface is very gradual in its angle. the temperature.
- Primary cause of "convection
- Rock Avalanche current"
-As the avalanching rocks begin  CONVECTION CURRENT
to slow and lose energy, the - Convection carries heat to the
internal behavior of the mass
surface of the mantle much
becomes more like a fluid. Mass
faster than heating by
will slow down, and cease.
"conduction".
- Debris Flow
- A convecting mantle is an
-Debris flows usually contain a
essential feature of plate
high water content which
tectonics, because the higher
enables them to travel at fairly
rate of heat transfer is
high velocity for some distance
necessary to keep the
from where they originated.
asthenosphere weak.
-Creep
-Slopes creep due to the
ORIGIN OF EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT
expansion and contraction of
 ACCRETIONARY HISTORY
surface sediment, and the pull
- A lot of Earth’s heat is leftover
of gravity.
from when our planet formed
due to catastrophic accretionary
ENDOGENIC PROCESS
collision; the bombardment of
- Unlike exogenic processes (destructive),
planetesimals heated Earth to a
Endogenic Processes are seen to be
molten state.
"building" & "transforming" process,
 GRAVITATIONAL
leading to the formation of lithospheric
plates, mountains, volcanoes, and new - The gravitational pull off the
layers of rocks. planet towards its center is not
only vital to keep the materials
compacted, compressed but
also helps in adding pressure to
the molten substances.
 FRICTION
- Earth's Interior is on the
constant move due to
convection current; creating
heat as product of collision is
inevitable.
 RADIOACTIVITY
- Radioactivity contributes 44% to
the Earth's heat. Unstable or
radioactive like Uranium (U-235
&2 U-238), Potassium- 40 and
Thorium-232
 ISOSTASY or hot water and steam,
- The balance between gravity including volcanoes, geysers,
and buoyancy on the Earth's and fumaroles.
lithosphere, as it floats on the
asthenosphere. WHY VOLCANOES ERUPT?
- Changes in the lithosphere's - The explosivity of an eruption depends
weight can cause it to rise or on the composition of the magma.
sink. - A thin and runny magma, let gases
o As mountains are eroded, escape easily, magma flows out of the
the area may rise (uplift) volcano.
o As sediments are deposited - If magma is thick and sticky, gases
at the mouth of a river, the cannot escape easily. Pressure builds
area may sink (subsidence) up until the gases escape violently and
- This causes the crust to bend, explode.
and rock to deform.
 MAGMATISM  PLUTONISM
- The formation and movement of - is the process by which magma
magma under the Earth's rises through the crust and
surface. crystallizes as an intrusive
igneous rock beneath the
- It is a direct reflection of a
Earth's surface. Pluton is a
planet's internal thermal state
generic word for any igneous
and its chemical and physical
intrusive rock body.
constitution.
- Magmatism is closely linked to
PLUTONIC FORMATIONS
tectonism, which itself is directly
Vertical plutonic intrusions are called "dikes";
linked to the larger-scale
Horizontal intrusions are called "sills"
process of thermal convection
within the mantle and core.
MAGMA
- Is a hot semi-solid molten material,
that can push through holes or cracks in
the crust, causing a volcanic eruption.

MAGMA IS FORMED:
- Magma can be characterized based on
 METAMORPHISM
its mineral composition: basaltic,
- Mineralogical and structural
andesitic, or rhyolitic.
- Hot rocks begin to melt deep down adjustments of solid rocks to
beneath the surface, different minerals physical and chemical
has different melting point. conditions differing from
- Magma formation is usually found in: those under which the rocks
o Subduction zones originally formed (protolith).
Changes produced by surface
o Volcanoes
conditions such as compaction
o Mid-ocean ridges
are usually excluded. The most
important agents of
 VOLCANISM metamorphism include
- Volcanism is any of various temperature, pressure, and
processes and phenomena fluids.
associated with the surficial
discharge of molten rock
(magma), pyroclastic fragments,
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
 CONTACT METAMORPHISM
- Temperature-dominated
transformation, cause by
magma intrusions
Ex. Hornfels, Quartzite, Marble
 PRESSURE METAMORPHISM
- Occurs when sediments are
buried deep under the ground;
pressure is dominant and
temperature plays a smaller
role.
 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
- Both heat and pressure play a
role. This is typically found in
mountain-building regions.