CHME CFC-Free Refridgerator PDF

Pollution Prevention and
& Chemical Engineering

hATlOhAL POLLJTION PIIEVENTION CENTEH FOR rllGHEH EUJCATlOh
Open-Ended Problem: The Design of a

CFC-Free, Energy-Efficient Refrigerator
Samer F. Naser, Postdoctoral Research Fellow
Chemical Engirleering Department, Urliversity of Michigall
Gregory A. Keoleian, Assistant Research Scientist
School of Natural Resources and Envirorrrnent, nrld Mawager,
NPPC, Urrivcrsity of Michignn
Levi T. Thompson, Jr., Associate Professor
U-M Che~vicalEngit~eeringDepartmerrt, University of Michigatl
Edited by Jeffrey Handt

NPPC, University of M i c h i p
National Pollution Prevenllon Center for Higher Education University of Michigan May be reproduced Open-Ended Problem
Dana Building, 430 East Universily. Ann Arbor MI 48109-1 115 freely lor non-commercial August 1994
Phone: 313.764.1412 -Fax: 313.647.5841 E-mail: nppc@umich.edu educalional purposes.
Pollution Prevention and
a Chemical Engineering
NATIONAL POLLUTION PREVENTION CENTER FOR HIGHER EDUCATION
Open-Ended Problem: The Design of a

CFGFree. Energy-Efficient Refrigerator
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION & SUGGESTED USE

SECTION I
Interoffice Memo (December 2. 1992) ............................ 5
Interoffice Memo (December 9. 1992) ............................ 6
Technical Data Sheet ..........................................................8
References ......................................................................... 9
SECTION II
.
.
A Brief History of Refrigeration ................... ............ 11
Refrigerator Features: A Consumer Perspective ........ 12
The Ozone Depletion Problem ....................................... 13
Global Warming and the Refrigerator ......................... 16
Choosing a Refrigerant ................................................... 17
Factors Which InfIuence Energy Consumption .......... 20
Life Cycle Design .......................................................... 21
References .......................................................................... 23
SECTION II
..
Introduction .................................... .............................. 25
Alternate Refrigerants to be Considered ..................... 25
Refrigeration Cycle Components .................................. 25
Refrigeration Cycle Calculations ................................ 27
Resu 1ts/ Discussion
of Refrigeration Cycle Calculations ............................ 27
Refrigeration Load ........................................................ 29
Heat Exchanger Areas ..................................................... 29
Energy Consumption ................................................... 30
References ........................................................................ 35
APPENDICES
Appendix A ...................................................................... 37
Appendix B ....................................................................... 45
Appendix C .......................................................................89
Appendix D ..................................................................... 99
National Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education University of Michigan Open-ended Problem 1
.
Dana Building 430 East University. Ann Arbor MI 48109-1115
Phone: 313.764.1412 Fax: 313.647.5841 E-mail: nppc@urnich.edu
April 1994
PROBLEM INTRODUCTION
AND SUGGESTED USE
The discovery that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), widely
used as refrigerants, are causing ozone depletion, and
the increasing energy efficiency awareness brought
about in part by the Green House Effect (caused
mainly by the burning of fossil fuels) necessitates a
significantly different approach to the design of a
refrigerator. This case study will address these
important and current topics as well as the more
traditional topics involved in the design of a refrigera-
tion system. The following is an outline of the three
sections in this case study.
SECTION I: Problem Statement

The recently announced "Golden Carrot Program" to
develop a super-efficient refrigerator will be used as
the problem statement. The Super Efficient Refrigera-
tor Program, Inc. (SERP), a consortium of over thirteen
electric utilities, has announced n bonus of $30 million
to be awarded to the manufacturer that develops and
markets by 1995, a CFC-free refrigerator that is 25-50%
more efficient than the 1993 federal efficiency stan-
dard. The bonus would be paid per refrigerator sold,
at $50 per 100 KWh/year energy savings over the 1993
federal standard. A benefit of using this context to
pose the design problem is the introduction of the
concept of Demand-Side Management (DSM).
The problem is posed in the form of two memos. The

first introduces the regulatory pressure driving the
conversion to the CFC-free energy efficient refrigera-
List of Acronyms tor. Manufacturer-supplied information in Appendix
ARI Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute A may be used to supplement this memo. The second
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, memo provides design specifications which can be
Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers
used by the students to begin work on the problem.
AV Adjusted Volume Material from Appendix B may be given to the
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon students at the discretion of the instructor.
COP Coefficient of Performance
DSM Demand-Side Management
SECTION II: Teaching Aids
EER Energy Efficiency Rating
CWP Global Warming Potential These are summaries of topics which are either directly
HCFC Hydrochlorofluorocarbon related to the design project or beyond the scope of this
HFC Hydrofluorocarbon design but also very important in that they provide
ODP Ozone-Depleting Potential either a background for the design or a future direc-
PAC Polyalkylene glycols tion. These may be given before the design project is
RE Refrigeration Effect started or as it progresses. The following is a brief
SERP Super-Efficient Refrigerator Program description of these teaching aids:
Open-ended Problem 2
April 1994
A BRIEF HISTORY OF REFRIGERATION SECTION Ill: Design Problem Solution
A brief survey of refrigeration technology from snow This section places more emphasis on comparing
use in ancient times to the current phaseout of CFCs. different alternatives and showing their advantages
and disadvantages rather than concentrating on a
REFRIGERATOR FEATURES single design. An attempt was made to keep the focus
on energy efficiency and CFC replacement as it affects
A Consumer Perspective: a survey of design features
energy efficiency. Graphs which can be easily used to
that consumers are usually most concerned with:
consider a multitude of options are included in this
reliability, appearance, noise, access, smells, initial
section. Hopefully they will give the inshuctor and the
cost, operating cost, defrost system, temperature
student insights into the interplay of the environmen-
uniformity, safety, environmental impact, etc.
tal and design issues.
THE OZONE DEPLETION PROBLEM
The problem and how it was discovered. Mechanism

of ozone depletion by CFCs. Ozone Depletion Poten-
tial (ODP) of current and prospective refrigerants.
GLOBAL WARMING
AND THE REFRIGERATOR
The Green House Effect and gases contributing to it.

Global Warming Potential (GWP) of current and
prospective refrigerants. Energy consumption and its
relation to the green house gases.
CHOOSING A REFRIGERANT
Criteria that help determine which refrigerant may be

used: safety, thermodynamic efficiency, compatibility
with compressor oil and material of construction, ODP,
GWP, cost, availability, etc. Some potentially good
choices for a refrigerant.
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE ENERGY

CONSUMPTION OF A REFRIGERATOR
Insulation and gaskets, CFC-free insulation, refrigera-

tion cycle used, electrical components.
LIFE CYCLE DESIGN
Introduction to the concept of life cycle analysis as

taking a literally global perspective when evaluating a
production process. The material in Appendix C,
which gives more details on the subject, may be given
to the students.
April 1994
-
April 1994
Section I:
Problem Statement
Frigid Whirl Corporation
Ann Arbor, Michigan
INTEROFFICE MEMO
DATE: December 2,1992
TO: J. Jones
Senior Research Engineer
FROM: S. Naser
Manager. Project Development
RE: Design of a new energy efficient CFC-free refrigerator.
As you know, the mounting evidence that Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are causing Stratospheric ozone depletion has
increased the pressure to discontinue their use. This drive to phase out CFCs is consistent with both our corporate
policy - we have to take care of our planet - and external demands from regulatory and public interest groups. As of
July 1992, venting of CFCs to the atmosphere is illegal.' Pressure is also increasing to not even consider what we had
counted on as short term substitutes (because of their lower ozone depletion potential) to CFCs:
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). I have enclosed some information furnished to us by two of our suppliers, Du Pont
and ICI Americas, on the regulations regarding CFCs and HCFCs.
The recent Copenhagen meeting held in November 1992 to revise the Montreal protocol has accelerated the phaseout
of CFCs and brought the schedule for this change more in accord with the deadline President Bush announced in
February of 1992 for the U.S. CFC production must drop to 25% of 1986 levels by January 1994 and is to be stopped
completely by January 1996. According to the Air-conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI), current world con-
sumption is already below 50% of 1986 level^.^ As for HCFCs, they are to be completely phased out by the year 2030.
Based on these developments and our emerging pollution prevention policy, management has decided that the
domestic refrigerator that we manufacture is not to use or contain any CFCs or HCFCs.
Iwould like you and your team to investigate alternative refrigerants for use in our product. Management is considering
participating in an incentive program which takes the form of a competition for a $30 million prize. The goal is to design
and build the most energy efficient, CFC-free domestic refrigerator on the market.= I will provide you with more detailed
information as soon as a decision is made.
.
April 1994
Ann Arbor, Michigan
INTEROFFICE MEMO
DATE: December 9, 1992

TO: J. Jones
Senior Research Engineer
FROM: S. Naser
Manager. Project Development
RE : Further information regarding the design of a new energy efficient CFC-free refrigerator.
Management has approved our participation in the 'Golden Carrot Program," a competition organized by the Super-
Efficient Refrigerator Program, Inc (SERP). SERP is a consortium of several utility companies, including Pacific Gas
and Electric Co., Southern California Edison Co., Long Island Lighting Co., Bonneville Power Administration, PacifiCorp,
Sacramento Municipal Utility District, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, Jersey Central Power and
Lighting Co., New England Electric Sewice, and the Wisconsin Center for Demand-Side-Management Research (itself a
group of Wisconsin utilities). These utilities have already pledged $30 million as part of an effort to reduce energy
consumption, a practice called Demand-Side-Management. This particular initiative is designed to encourage the
development and immediate production of an energy super-efficient, CFC-free domestic refrigerator.
Under this program, the winner of the competition will receive a rebate from SERP of $50 per 100 KWh/year energy
savings over the 1993 federal standard4 (to be detailed below) per refrigerator sold. The company will be required to
initially supply at least 100,000 units, to be allocated to the regions of the participating utilities in proportion to their
contribution to SERP. Units could be sold in other areas, but rebates would not apply to those sales. The units must
have automatic defrost and have a capacity of between 17.5 and 22.4 ft3.5 The manufacturer must have a prototype
ready by April 1993 and, if awarded the contract. start shipping units as early as 1994.O
Iwould like you to redesign our 18 ft3 top-of-the-line model GF-222 refrigerator, equipped with a top-mounted freezer
which currently uses CFC-12. Since Marketing reports that this model is selling well, we want to retain its following
features:
Open-ended Problem . 6
April 1994
Volume
Freezer: 5.0 fI3
Fresh Food Section: 13.0 ft3
Normal Operation Design Conditions:

Freezer Temperature: 5 OF
Fresh Food Temperature: 38 OF
Ambient Temperature: 90 OF
Pull Down Time: 2 minutes
Pull Down Time is defined as the time it takes to cool the air inside of the refrigerator from ambient to design conditions.
The estimate given here is based on literature values for an empty cabinet.
The refrigerator must be able to operate satisfactorily at the following extreme conditions:
Freezer Temperature: 0 OF
Fresh Food Temperature: 37 OF
Ambient Temperature: 110 OF
These extreme conditions are often used by consumer groups7 to rate refrigerators from different manufacturers.
The federal standard referred to above is the Department of Energy (DOE) level 4 energy efficiency standard4which
beginning in 1993 requires new refrigerators with automatic defrost to have the following maximum energy consump-
tion:
KWhIyear = 329 + 11-8 x AV
where the Adjusted Volume (AV) is defined as:
AV = volume of fresh food comparlment + 1.63 x volume of freezer
These standards are based on DOE simulations8 for refrigerators which utilize better insulation and more efficient
compressors than are conventionally used.
Ihave attached some technical data from our labs and some materials furnished by our supplier which I believe will be
of use to you. You should determine what changes we need to make in our refrigerator to both meet the specifications
above without using CFCs or HCFCs, and produce a refrigerator with an energy efficiency that can make our company
competitive in the "Golden Carrot" contest and still be commercially viable.
April 1994
Nomenclature DATA ON CURRENT REFRIGERATOR
l hi= internal heat transfer coefficient in Btu/hr-ft2-OF l uses R-12 as refrigerant
l U = overall heat transfer coefficient in Btu/hr-ft2-OF l fresh food section insulation is 1.5 inches of R-11
blown urethane foam

l m = mass flow rate of refrigerant in lb/hr
l freezer insulation is 1.85 inches of R-11 blown
l Cp= heat capacity of refrigerant in Btu/b•‹F urethane foam
l p = viscosity of refrigerant in Ib/ft-hr l depth: 22.1 inches, width: 26.5 inches, height: 53
l k = thermal conductivity of refrigerant in inches

Btu/ ft-hr-OF
Anti-sweat Heater
Compressor l on 30% of the time
l clearance space = 5%of total volume l power = 19 watt
l compressor isentropic efficiency = 70%
Cabinet Heat Gains
l compressor motor efficiency = 80%
l internal heat transfer coefficient = 1.0 Btu/hr-ft2-OF
l volumetric efficiency (excluding losses due to based on inside area

clearance volume) = 90%
l external heat transfer coefficient = 1.47 Btu/hr-f?-OF
l speed = 60 revolutions/second based on outside area
l freezer gasket heat transfer coefficient = 0.0055 Btu/

Evaporator
hr-in-OF
l h, = 515.2 (Cp/p)O.' k0.6m
l fresh food section gasket heat transfer coefficient =
l U = 1/( (0.98/h,) + 0.092) 0.0014 Btu/hr-in-OF
l fan power = 10 watt l gasket heat transfer coefficients are based on gasket
length
CONDENSER
l ignore corner effects
l hi= 592.5 (Cp/p)O" koAm
l freezer and fresh food section are separated by 3
l U = 1/( (0.86/h,) + 0.079) inches of insulation

l fan power = 14 watt assume no heat transfer occurs across the insulation
DESUPERHEAT PART OF CONDENSER

Pressure Drops
l hi = 10.3 (Cp/p)OIk" m
l ignore pressure drops due to flow
l U = 1/( (0.86/hi) + 0.079)
assume isenthalpic expansion in the expansion valve
Interchanger
U=40
14 OF superheating
Open-ended Problem . 8
April 1994
'qndustry Awaits EPA Guidelines on CFCs."
ASHRAE Journal, July 1992.
Editof s Page. HeatinglPipinglAir Conditioning ]ournull

January 1993.
"'A $30-million Super-efficient Refrigerator." Electrical

World, July 1992.
' Federal Register, Rules and Regulations. November

17,1989, pp. 47935 - 47938.
Scuterund, A. J. and J. Coriano. "Stumbling Blocks to

Energy Efficiency and CFC Phase-out." Appliance
Manufac turer, April 1992.
Environmental Protection Agency, Multiple Path-

ways to Super-efficient Refrigerators. DRAFT, Febru-
ary 1992.
'"Refrigerators: A Comprehensive Guide to the Big

White Box." Consumers Report, July 1992, pp. 456-465.
' Department of Energy - Technical Support Document

DOEKE-0277.1989, Chapter 3.
April 1994
Open-ended Problem. 10
April 1994
Section II:
Teaching Aids
A BRIEF HISTORY OF REFRIGERATION

People discovered the value of cold environments in constantly condensing such volatile fluids, and
preserving foods very early in history. The inhabitants bringing them again and again into operation without
of Crete were aware of this in 2000 B.C. It is said that waste." It does not seem that Perkins followed
Alexander the Great had his soldiers served snow- through on his invention.
cooled drinks in the hot summers of Petra from the
winter snow stored in trenches covered with branches. Next came the air cycle (expansion and compression
Many ancient civilizations where snow was not only with no evaporation and condensation) refrigera-
abundant used clay pottery, which allows some stored tion machine, invented by J. Gorrie in 1845. Since the
water to permeate the surface and evaporate, cooling refrigerant used was air, it did not need to be in a
the water inside. In areas where snow was available, it closed cycle; thus the cold air was injected into the
was stored for the warmer seasons or transported to enclosure to be cooled. By 1860 F- Carre was selling
warmer areas where it could be of more value. An ice 500-pound-aday ammonia water absorption refrigera-
transport industry flourished in the nineteenth century, tion machines. Interestingly, the source of energy for
taking natural ice from North America to the West these machines was not mechanical but heat from
Indies, Europe, India, and Australia. Ice from Norway firewood, coal, or gas. The refrigerant, ammonia, goes
was also transported to the warmer southern parts of through the same steps it would in a vapor compres-
Europe. The use of natural ice or snow was comple- sion cycle except that there is no compressor. The
mented by the addition of various salts known since ammonia vapor is condensed under elevated pressure
antiquity (table salt, salt peter, etc.) which lower the in a condenser which rejects heat to the atmosphere,
freezing temperature of water to a degree that depends and then the liquefied ammonia is expanded through a
on the salt and its concentration. This practice com- capillary tube into the evaporator where it absorbs
bined with various natural insulating materials heat, producing the refrigeration effect and becoming a
allowed temperatures below 32 O F (0 OC)to be achieved gas. The ammonia gas is then mixed with water where
and maintained. it is absorbed and rejects its heat of solution. The
ammonia-rich solution is pumped to the generator,
The birth of mechanical refrigeration occurred in the where a high temperature heat input causes the
middle of the eighteenth century when W. Cullen ammonia to desorb under elevated pressure. This high
demonstrated the making of ice by the evaporation of pressure ammonia gas goes to the condenser and
ethyl ether when its pressure was mechanically repeats the cycle, while the weak ammonia solution is
reduced. In 1810, Sir John Lesley used the first sulfuric returned to the absorber and repeats its cycle.
acid-water pair absorption refrigeration cycle to
produce ice. In 1834, J. Perkins patented the first vapor The first commercial application of the vapor compres-
compression machine. He described his invention: sion cycle occurred in the middle of the nineteenth
,What I claim is an arrangement whereby I am enabled century and was pioneered by A. Twining and J.
to use volatile fluids for the purpose of producing the Harrison, who used ethyl ether as the refrigerant.
cooling or freezing of fluids, and yet at the same time Since then, various refrigerants were used: carbon
dioxide (T. Lowe, 1866), ammonia (D. Boyle, 1872), and
.
Open-ended Problem 1 1
April 1994
sulfur dioxide (R.Pictet, 1874). By the end of the food compartment temperature of 37 to 38 OF.
nineteenth century electricity was being used to power
refrigeration machinery. The first automatic house- TEMPERATURE UNIFORMITY
hold refrigerator, using sulfur dioxide, debuted in
Unless a refrigerator can maintain a uniform tempera-
1918. By 1930 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) had been
ture in its interior, some foods will freeze when they
proposed and demonstrated. Since then, CFCs have
are not supposed to and others will me1t. Consumer
replaced all other refrigerants in vapor compression
Reports tests' indicate that top freezer type models are
cycle-based machines.
best in this regard.
REFRIGERATOR FEATURES: TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION

A CONSUMER PERSPECTIVE A refrigerator should have enough reserve capacity to
cope with unexpected adverse conditions such as a
Refrigerator Types summer heat wave or a not completely closed door.
The most popular type of refrigerator has the freezer ICE MAKING
occupying the top section (top mounted freezer). This
type of refrigerator is available with the widest The freezer should be able to make ice within a
selection of capacities, styles, and features. It generally reasonable time. Consumer Reports rates 4 hours as
costs less to operate than other types of refrigerators excellent and 8 hours as excessively long.
with similar features and capacities. Its claimed
capacity comes closest to matching its actual capacity. CONDENSATION CONTROL
The eye-level freezer makes things in it easy to reach Most refrigerators have an anti-sweat heater which is
while making vegetables and other items normally an electric heating strip that prevents condensation
stored in the bottom shelves harder to reach. This type around the doors (especially between freezer and fresh
of refrigerator has wide shelves which makes things food doors) in humid weather. An "energy saver''
easy to reach in general. switch can be used to turn off this heater in dry
The second most popular refrigerator is the side-by- weather.
side type, in which the freezer is located vertically, OPERATING COST
beside and along the fresh food compartment. It is
slightly more expensive to run than the top freezer The refrigerator consumes a large portion of a
models. Its freezer is larger than comparable top or household's electricity. Top freezer models cost about
bottom freezer models. Easy access is distributed eighty to ninety dollars per year to operate (using the
between the freezer and fresh food section. Shelves are National Average Electricity Rate). Side-by-side and
narrower, however, making things harder to reach. bottom freezer types cost a few dollars more to run.
The black on yellow sticker required on all refrigera-
The least popular refrigerator type has the freezer
tors, which is the Department of Energy's ''Energy
occupying the bottom part of the refrigerator. Bottom
Guide," can be used by consumers to compare differ-
freezer models of this type are not available in as wide
ent refrigerator models from different manufacturers
a selection and features as the other two models. This
as to their energy efficiency and consequently their
type of refrigerator is most likely more expensive to
operating cost.
buy and to operate. The fresh food section is easier to
reach while the freezer is not. A necessary pull-out
basket in the freezer reduces its capaaty. AN EPA SURVEY
Following are some of the results of a survey taken
A Refrigerator's Important Features from an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
TEMPERATURE BALANCE study2 designed to assess consumers1attitudes to-
wards tradeoffs involved in more energy efficient
A refrigerator should be able to maintain a freezer refrigerators:
temperature of anywhere between 0-5 OF and a fresh
April 1994
'What is the importance of the following features in THE OZONE DEPLETION PROBLEM
your decision to purchase a refrigerator?" (10 = Very
important", 0 = ''Not important") Today's computer images of the ozone hole over
Antarctica drive home the reality of the problem which
Feature was suspected, in theory, twenty years ago. Ln 1974
initial cost two chemists, Dr. F. Sherwood Rowland and Dr. Mario
Molina, theorized that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
better seals
could be destroying the stratospheric ozone and thus
storage space / interior volume depleting the earth's protective shield against ultravio-
width of available kitchen space let radiation from the sun. Ozone is made up of three
oxygen atoms. It is formed in the stratosphere by the
energy efficiency sun's radiation, which breaks up an oxygen molecule
mobility into its two mnstituent atoms. These atoms, being
very reactive, immediately react with oxygen mol-
interior volume
ecules to form ozone. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet
movable shelves radiation in the wavelength range of 290-320 nanom-
operating cost eters. This radiation is harmful not only to earth's
surface life, but also its aquatic life. It could cause skin
height of available kitchen space cancer in humans, retard plant growth, and harm near-
depth of available kitchen space surface marine life. To understand the Rowland-
Molina theory, which is still valid today, we need to
freezer location (top, bottom, or side)
take a closer look at CFCs.
doesn't break easily
CFCs are simple compounds which contain only
sturdier doors chlorine, fluorine, and carbon atoms. Another related
easier to clean underneath family of compounds is hydrochlorofluorocarbons
easier to clean seals (HCFCs), which contains hydrogen in addition to the
ozone-destroying atom chlorine. HCFCs are not as
deep door shelves damaging to the ozone layer as CFCs are. Two of the
type of shelves most commonly used CFCs are R-1 1 which has the
structure CCl,F, and R-12 whose structure is CCl,F,.
kick plate is secure Currently, R-11 is used in air conditioning and indus-
environmental impact trial chillers while R-12 is used in domestic and
freezer room industrial refrigeration. CFCs are very stable, non-
toxic, noncorrosive, and nonflammable compounds
larger crispers with excellent thermodynamic properties, all reasons
makes more ice for their widespread use in refrigeration, air condition-
ing, insulation material manufacture, and as propel-
controls odors
lants in some countries. Their stability close to the
changeable color panels earth's surface (lower atmosphere) is in part to blame
ice/water service for their troublesome nature. CFCs diffuse to the
upper atmosphere (the stratosphere, 15-40 kilometers
bottom freezer above the earth's surface), where exposure to the
makes different shaped ice strong levels of radiation present in the stratosphere
causes these normally stable compounds to break up
and release reactive chlorine atoms. The chlorine acts
as a catalyst which, in its reaction-regeneration cycle,
both destroys an ozone molecule by taking its third
oxygen, and prevents one from forming by reacting
with atomic oxygen. At the end of this process, the
chlorine atom is ready to repeat the cycle again and
again.
April 1994
Between 1974 and 1978 mounting evidence on the How could these man-made compounds have such a
potential destructive effect of releasing CFCs into the profound effed on the atmosphere? Why doesn't the
atmosphere and increasing public pressure resulted in ozone layer replenish itself? How does the ozone layer
a ban on the use of CFCs as propellants in aerosol deal with chlorine released from natural sources such
products (e.g. spray cans) by the U.S. and some other as sea water and volcanoes? The concentration of
governments. This resulted in the elimination (in ozone in the stratosphere is controlled by a photo-
theory) of one of the major souroes of CFCs in the chemical steady state in which the ultraviolet radiation
atmosphere. The problem lay dormant with many produces ozone, which is consumed by various other
countries continuing to use CFCs in aerosols and other reactions resulting in a constant steady state ozone
applications. By 1985, annual worldwide CFC produc- concentration.12 The introduction of chlorine into the
tion was rising by 3%2 In 1986,23% of all CFCs stratosphere causes this steady state to shift to a lower
produced were being used as refrigerants, 28% as ozone concentration dependent on how much chlorine
propellants, 26% for foam insulation blowing, and 21% is present. Since a chlorine atom is not consumed in
as solvents for cleaning applications. any of these reactions, it can destroy an estimated
100,000 ozone molecules. It also means that there is a
The increased use of CFCs led to the 1985Vienna cumulative effed as more chlorine from CFCs enters
Convention, which called on partidpants to formulate the stratosphere to add to that which is already
a plan for action to determine the danger CFCs posed present. The atmospheric life of CFCs ranges from 60-
to the atmosphere and means of dealing with that 500 years, which means that many CFCs released will
threat. Unfortunately, an outcome which reflected the eventually find their way to the stratosphere.13 Chlo-
lack of urgency and ignorance of the enormity of the rine from natural sources such as volcanoes never
problem prevailed on that occasion. That same year, a reaches the stratosphere12because of its affinity for
team of British scientists published data which showed water. This affinity causes it to dissolve and eventu-
that an ozone hole had been developing over Antarc- ally fall as rain. CFCs act as a Trojan Horse by allow-
tica since 1980. Their findings were confirmed by ing chlorine to enter the stratosphere before it becomes
others. This discovery brought a sense of urgency to active.
deal with the problem.
With the effects of CFCs on the ozone layer estab- Alternatives to CFCs
lished, unprecedented international action started to
As replacements for CFCs, another class of haloginated
take place. In 1987 the Montreal Protocol was signed
compounds which is less harmful to the ozone layer,
by most of the world's industrialized countries. The
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), has been pro-
agreement called for a freeze on the production and
posed as a short term solution. HCFCs have an
consumption of CFCs starting in 1989, and a gradual
phaseout to end in the year 2000 with the total elimina- atmospheric life of 2-20 years as opposed to the 60-500
years of CFCs. It appears, however, that both industry
tion of CFCs. In the US., the new Clean Air Act of
and government are moving to bypass HCFCs and use
1990 mandated sharper cuts in CFC production but
alternatives to CFCs which have no effect on the ozone
maintained the total phaseout date of the year 2000. In
layer. This is evidenced in the recent Copenhagen
February of 1992, President Bush moved up the total
Revision to the Montreal Protocol. These revisions
phaseout date for the U.S. to the end of 1995. In
have put in place binding restrictions on HCFCs which
November of 1992, the Copenhagen Revision of the
will cap their consumption beginning in 1996 to the
Montreal Protocol brought the world phaseout sched-
ule in line with that of the US.' The U.S. Environmen- reported level of use at that time plus 3%of the CFC
use level.' A complete phaseout is mandated by the
tal Protection Agency (EPA) is formulating regulations
year 2030. Countries not complying will have trade
and certification p r o d u r e s S b for the recovery and
sanctions imposed on them. The outlook for eliminat-
recycle of CFCs since venting of ozone-depleting
compounds became illegal at the start of July 1992 ing CFCs is good: worldwide CFC output has dropped
from 1.13 million metric tons in 1986 down to 680
(violations cany fines of up to $25,000 a day7 ). Several
thousand metric tons in 1991." Industry has already
companies are already advertising CFC Banks and
introduced compounds which have no effect on the
recycle programs in antidpation of a CFC
"CTUIICh-"B ,9,10.11 ozone layer and is investing and committing to finding
and using alternatives to CFCS.~'J~
.
April 1994
The class of replacement compounds that industry has domestic refrigerator are so small (on the order of what
focused on is hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Because is present in two disposable agarette lighters) as to
they contain no chlorine atoms, these compounds have preclude the risk of explosion.
no effect on the ozone layer. They have many similari-
ties to CFCs but also several differences. Other To compare refrigerants with respect to their effect on
alternative refrigerants outside of the fluorocarbon the ozone layer, a numeric parameter has been devel-
family have been largely ignored; some postulate the oped which incorporates: a molecule's potential to
reason being i n d u s w s desire to sell patentable participate in the ozone depletion process, its atmo-
chemicals. One such alternative is propane. Work in spheric life span, and the time horizon considered for
England and Germany on refrigerators which use future ozone depletion.'= This parameter, normalized
p r ~ p a n e ' ~ , indicates
~ ~ , ' ~ the feasibility of using this with respect to R-11, is called the Ozone Depletion
substitute, whose only problem is flammability. Potential (ODP) of a compound. As this parameter is
Developers claim, however, that the amounts used in a still evolving, there will be some inconsistency in
reported values. The following are some ODPs for
various refrigerant~:l%'~
Table 1. Environmental Effects of Various Refrigerants
Refrigerant Formula ODP Est. Atmospheric

Life Span (years)
R-11 1.00
R-12 0.99
R-13 0.45
R-113 0.83
R-114 0.7 1
R-115 0.38
R-2 1 0.04
R-22 0.05
R-123 0.02
R-142b 0.06
R-125 0.00
R- 134a 0.00
R- l43a 0.00
R- 152a 0.00
R-290 0.00
R-7 17 0.00
R-500 0.74
R-502 0.22
Source: Epstein, G. J. and S. P. Manwell. "EnvironmentalTradeoffs between CFCs wd Alternative Refrigerants."ASHRAEJ o u r ~ l ,

January 1992; "Industq Backs Bush on CFC-ban Speedup."Appliance Mmfc~cturer,April 1992.
April 1994
GLOBAL WARMING The following list illustrates the Global Warming
AND THE REFRIGERATOR Potential (GWP) of different refrigerants relative to
that of carbon dioxide:13
The refrigerator amtributes to global warming in two
ways. First it is an electricity consumer, thus a major
part of the energy it consumes comes indirectly from
fossil fuels. Fossil fuel combustion generates carbon Table 2.
dioxide, which is the primary gas causing the green- Global Warming Potential of Various Refrigerants
house effect and global warming. The second mntri-
bution of the refrigerator to global warming is due to
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as refrigerants, and Compound Formula GWP
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) used as blowing
agents in the manufacture of foams for insulation. Carbon dioxide
Refrigeration applications in general consume about R-11
one fifth of the total electricity generated in the U.S. In R-12
1988 this was 603 billion Kilowatt-hours, 23.4% of the
R-1 1
total electricity generated.19 Refrigerators and freezers
consumed 6.9%, air conditioners and heat pumps R-114
10.2%, and commercial and industrial refrigeration R-115
6.3%. To reduce global warming, energy consumption 13m
of refrigerators must be reduced. This can be achieved R-22
by increasing the mechanical thermodynamic effi-
ciency of the refrigeration system, and by using more R-123
and/or better insulation. The US.government is R-134a
moving aggressively in this area. The new 1993 energy
standards for refrigerators require 30%more efficiency R-152a
than the 1990 ~ t a n d a r d .A~ study by the Department R-290
of Energy (DOE)"P estimates that by the year 2010 the
R-717
1993 standards, if not amended, will result in less than
a 2% decrease each in the emissions of carbon dioxide, R-500 azeotrope:
2,700
sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide.
73.8% R-12
Even though CFC and HCFC emissions are small
26.2% R-152a
compared to those of carbon dioxide, their chemical
properties make them orders of magnitude more azeotrope:
efficient in absorbing infrared radiation and thus
contributing to the greenhouse effect. Ln addition,
CFCs absorb infrared radiation in a range of wave
lengths where carbon dioxide and water do not absorb,
thus compounding the problem.19 The impending
phaseout of CFCs and the introduction of replacements
Source: Epstein, G. J. and S. P. Manwell. 'Tnvironmen-
which are less energy efficient introduaes an interest-
tal Tradeoffs between CFCs and Alternative Refriger-
ing dilemma. By replacing a CFC refrigerant with one
which has no greenhouse effect but is less efficient, you
would increase the energy consumption of a refrigera-
tor and thus increase the amount of carbon dioxide
produced as a result of burning more fossil fuel to
supply the increased energy demand. It is thus
important not to compromise energy efficiency when
switching over to the new generation of refrigerants.
April 1994
CHOOSING A REFRIGERANT efficiency of a refrigeration cycle. Using a refrigerant
with a higher latent heat, for example, means that less
THERMODYNAMICS of the refrigerant needs to be used to remove a certain
quantity of heat. A refrigerant which operates with a
Most current refrigeration systems use the vapor large pressure difference between the condenser and
compression cycle which in its most ideal state can be the evaporator (high compression ratio) causes the
thought of as a reversed Carnot engine. Work is input efficiency of the compressor to be lower and its exit
to the system via the compressor, producing a net temperature to be higher, both undesirable operating
effect of pumping heat from a low temperature to a features. Reciprocating positive displacement com-
higher temperature. How well a refrigeration cycle pressors (the type used in the domestic refrigerator)
operates depends, among other things, on the thermo- have a space between the piston head and the casing to
dynamic properties of the working fluid, the refriger- prevent damage to the piston head in the compression
ant. The thermodynamic properties of the refrigerant stroke. This space is called the Clearance Volume and
must also be compatible with the operating tempera- is usually 415%of the total volume. The Clearance
ture range. Thus the freezing point of the refrigerant Volume contains refrigerant gas which expands and
must be well below the operating temperature of the contracts with every stroke of the piston, which results
evaporator at the working evaporator pressure; in a lowering of the actual volume of the refrigerant
otherwise the refrigerant could freeze in the evapora- that is compressed. A quantity which measures this
tor. Similarly, the operating pressure in the condenser inefficiency is the compressor Clearance Volumetric
should be below the critical pressure of the refrigerant, Efficiency (N,) which is defined as follow^:^
otherwise no condensation will occur.
From an energy efficiencypoint of view, the most
important thermodynamic measure of a refrigerant is
its Coefficient Of Performance (COP), which is defined
as follows:
N, = 1 - Clearance Volume fraction x
I
inlet gas density
outlet gas density

As can be seen from the above expression, the higher
Net refrigeration effect of cycle the inlet to outlet density ratio (or in terms of pressure,
COP = the higher the compression ratio), the lower the
Work input to refrigeration cycle Clearance volumetric Efficiency. Other factors which
contribute to lowering the Total Volumetric Efficiency
The COP provides a measure of how much work needs
(actual volume of gas/volume swept by piston) of a
to be supplied to the system to achieve a given refrig-
compressor are: leakage losses past the piston and
eration effect. Thus the higher the COP of a refrigerant
valves, throttling in the valves, absorption of the gas in
for a given application (the temperature extrema of the
the lubricating oil, and heat exchange losses from the
cycle), the more energy efficient it is. For a reversed
compressor.
Carnot engine, a purely theoretical concept, the COP is
independent of the refrigerant and depends only on
the temperatures between which the cycle operates. It Transport Properties
can mathematically be derived from the above defini-
A major departure from the ideality of a reversed
tion of the COP and is:
Carnot cycle is that the refrigerant has to exchange
Low temperature of cycle heat with the surroundings. This requires a finite
COP = temperature difference across which heat transfer can
(reversed Carnot) Difference between occur. The refrigerant flows through pipes, heat
temperature extrerna of cycle
exchangers, and expansion valves, all of which pro-
This is an idealized measure which serves to define the duce a pressure drop. The heat transfer in the heat
maximum attainable performance for a given refrigera- exchangers ties a refrigerant's performance to its heat
tion application no matter what type of process or transfer characteristics: heat capacity, thermal conduc-
working fluid is used. tivity, density and viscosity. Higher values for heat
capacity, thermal conductivity, and density, and lower
In practice, other thermodynamic properties come into values for viscosity result in improved heat transfer.
play which affect the design and consequently the
Open-ended Problem 17-

April 1994
Pressure drop due to the flow of the refrigerant, Environmental Impact
although not very significant, is related to the viscosity
and density of the refrigerant. High density and low With the discovery of the danger CFCs pose to the
viscosity reduce the piping pressure drop due to flow ozone layer and the ensuing public awareness and
for a particular refrigerant. A refrigerant's transport govenunent regulations, the environmental impact of
properties, as well as its thermodynamic properties, using a particular refrigerant has become of para-
are i n f l u e n d by the type of compressor lubricating mount importance. The conhibution of a refrigerant
oil used.= Since the domestic refrigerator uses her- to global warming, although not regulated yet, is also
metically sealed compressors, part of the oil (which is becoming an important issue. Table 3 shows current
totally miscible with the refrigerant) circulates with the and prospective refrigerants and their Ozone Deple-
refrigerant. This oil-refrigerant s o h tion has markedly tion Potential (ODP),and Global Warming Potential
different properties from just a pure refrigerant. The (GWP).
compressor lubricating oil is, therefore, an important
part of the refrigeration process and is discussed Table 3. Environmental impact parameters of
below. various refrigerants.
Compatibility with Compressor Oil

In a hermetic reciprocating compressor, the oil serves
several purposes:
CFC
1. lubricating moving parts in the compressor. CFC
2. providing a seal of the gas between the suction and CFC
discharge sides. CFC
3. removing heat from the bearings and crankcase. CFC
4. reducing noise generated by the moving parts. CFC

HCFC
The oil in a hermetic ampressor must possess, in
addition to the required lubrication performance at the HCFC
operating temperatures, the following characteristics: HCFC
1. electrical insulation. HCFC
HFC
2. miscibility with refrigerant, particularly at the low
temperatures encountered in the evaporator, where KFC
immiscibility will cause reduced heat transfer and poor HFC
oil retum to the compressor.
HFC
3. chemical stability, to last the expected lifetime of the hydrocarbon
sealed system and withstand the range of operating
temperatures encountered. ammonia
azeotrope:
An important parameter used to characterize a
lubricant's miscibility with the refrigerant is the Lower 73.82 R-12
Critical Solution Temperature, defined as the tempera- 26.22 R-152a
ture below which immiscibility occurs.
azeotrope:
51.2% R-115
48.82 R-22
April 1994
Source: Epstein, G. J. and S. P. Manwell. "Environmen- R-290 (PROPANE)
tal Tradeoffs between CFCs and Alternative Refriger-
ants." ASHRAE Journal, January 1992. This is the refrigerant that is being supported by
environmentalists. Thermodynamically, it is equiva-
Note that ODP is used to calculate the increased taxes lent to R-12 and even superior in some aspects. The
on ozone depleting chemicals. Progressively higher problem with propane is that it is flammable. Propo-
taxes and restrictions are being placed on CFCs and nents of using R-290 maintain that because its refrig-
HCFCs. Venting of ozone depleting chemicals is eration effect per pound is more than twice that of R-
currently illegal in the U.S. With current regulations 12, only half the mass of R-12 is required if propane is
CFCs will be banned by 1996, and HCFCs by 2030, used. Developers of propane-based refrigerator~l~'~
claim the amount of propane is so small that it would
Current Alternatives need to leak into a space as small as the refrigerator
itself for the gas to explode (R-290 explosive limits in
R-12 (DICHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE) air are 2.3-7.3 % by volumeM). They add that modem
systems are so well built that the possibility of leakage
Is the refrigerant currently used in the domestic is virtually non-existent. The major barrier to the
refrigerator. It has good thermodynamic and transport development of propane-based refrigerators seems to
properties, is non-toxic, nonflammable, and chemically be regulatory. In England, for example, standard
stable. It is, however, a CFC and one of the most B W 3 4 bans hydrocarbons in domestic refrigerators, a
harmful to the ozone layer. It has one of the highest restriction Greenpeace is lobbying to eliminate.'' In the
GWPs of the refrigerants listed. It will be completely US.several gallons of propane can be legally trans-
phased out by the end of 1995. ported and kept indoors. But once the propane is in a
fixed installation such as the refrigerator, even when it
R-134A (TETRAFLUOROETHANE):
is in such a small quantity, it is subject to the safety
Is the leading contender to replace R-12. It has a rules of a large facility.'"
similar (slightly lower) thermodynamic performance to
R-12. It has a zero ozone depletion potential and a R-152A (DIFLUOROETHANE)
small global warming potential. It is nonflammable Has been used so far as one of two components in the
and very stable. Tests on its toxicity are still under- azeotrope R-500. Its investigation and use had been
way, but they seem to indicate lowz5or no encouraged at one time by the EPA because it has a
The major problem with R-134a has been its incompat- lower Global Warming Potential than R-134a.19 Its
ibility with mineral oils used in current refrigeration thermodynamic performance is slightly better than R-
e q ~ i p m e n t .R-134a
~ has a low solubility in mineral 134a and it is compatible with the mineral-based
oils and as a result ''drops out" in the evaporator and lubricants." A major impediment to using R-152a is its
causes compressor oil starvation. A substitute class of flammability: its explosive limits in air are 5.1-17.1 %
oils, polyalkylene glycols (PAGs), which have good by v o l ~ m e . ~
miscibility with R-134a, has fallen out of favor because
of its high moisture absorption tendency, its somewhat R-717 (AMMONIA)
low electrical resistivity, and its tendency to decom-
pose at high temperatures (about 390•‹F')." Currently, Has been used mainly as a refrigerant in industrial
polyol esters seem to offer the solution: they are applications. It is a good refrigerant in many respects.
miscible with R-I%, they are less hygroscopic than It has a very high refrigeration effect per pound, its
PAGs, and they decompose at high temperatures only heat transfer properties permit use of smaller heat
in the presence of steel. R-1% seems to be on its way exchangers, and its high critical temperature and low
to replacing R-12. Ford Motor Company recently freezing point make it suitable for a wide range of
announced that Taurus cars are now being built with applications. It is readily available and inexpensive.
air conditioners which use R-134a." R-717, however, reacts with the copper and aluminum
tubing used in current refrigerators, thus requiring the
use of more expensive and less conducting iron.32
Ammonia also requires a high compression ratio which
results in a high compressor temperature. R-717 is an
April 1994
irritant, whose odor can be detected at concentrations filled vacuum insulation panels. The powder they
of less than 20 ppm.= Exposure to concentrations of contain is precipitated silica. Aerogel vacuum insula-
1,700 ppm for more than half an hour could be lethalP tion panels contain silica glass with a porosity of 90-
R-717 is flammable; its explosive limits in air are from 95%.* There are several disadvantages to using these
16-2596 by v o l ~ r n e Ignition
.~ would require a high insulation panels: they are difficult to install in the
temperature such as an open flame.P mass production of the refrigerator, expensive, and
considerably heavy. Table 4 provides a rough com-
parison between the various insulating materials.
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE
ENERGY CONSUMPTION Table 4. Insulating parameters of various materials.
OF A REFRIGERATOR
Insulation Material cost per R value Density

Relative volume per inch
A refrigeratox's main function is to keep an enclosed flblfts) unit
space at a temperature which is below its surround-
ings. If a perfect insulator was available, then once the
desired low temperature was reached, no energy
Urethane foam with 7 2
would need to be expended to keep the contents at
0.16
their low temperature. Unfortunately, there is no
R-1 1 as blowing agent
perfect insulator, and the refrigerator must be reason-
ably priced and have a door. The presence of a door Urethane foam with carbon 6 1.7
necessitates having some seal, which is usually a 0.4
gasket. A gasket provides less than ideal insulation dioxide as blowing agent
and thus, even though it has a small exposed area,
accounts for 10-20% of the cabinet's total heat gain?' A Fiberglass 4 1.5
possible solution: the use of a double gasket which 0.04
would improve insulation and reduce moisture,
reduang the need for the anti-sweat heater and Vacuum insulation 25 12
consequently producing more energy savings. 1
(powder,7.6 tom)
Insulation currently used for refrigerators has a
thermal resistivity of R7 per inch (i.e., a thermal Vacuum i d a tion 20-30 6
conductivity of 1/7 Btu-inch/hr-ft2-OF) and is made of 2
urethane foam which is blown using CFC R-11. With (aerogel, 76 ton)
the pending ban of CFCs, alternative blowing agents
are being considered, namely R-141b and R-123, both
HCFCs." The foam blown using these HCFCs has an Source: Feldman, K. Thomas Jr. "Advanced Insula-
insulating value that is approximately 7% less than tions for Refrigerated Shipping Containers." ASHRAE
that blown with R-11. The fact that HCFCs are also ]ournal, February 1993.
ozone depleting, contribute to global warming, and are
to be eventually phased out has led to the consider-
ation of carbon dioxide as a blowing agent. Foam
made using carbon dioxide has an insulating value Refrigeration Cycle Design
which is approximately 16%lower than that made
using R-1I.= Domestic refrigerators currently use the vapor com-
pression cycle and operate with one evaporator
An emerging technology may provide the answer to removing heat from the freezer, and a condenser
the quest for a CFC-free, energy efficient insulator. rejecting heat to the atmosphere. The theoretical
This technology relies on vacuum panels which use efficiency of the cycle can be improved if heat is
various filler materials (powder, aerogel, fiberglass) for removed from a higher temperature and/or rejected to
support.36 The most developed of these is the powder a lower temperature (the ideal reversed Carnot cycle).
April 1994
Since these temperatures are determined in part by a fuel without having to go through several intermediate
tradeoff between the evaporator and condenser heat steps such as electricity generation and mechanical
exchange area and the temperature difference between compression as is the case in the vapor compression
the working fluid and the freezer or fresh food section, cycle. Currently, the only widespread use of the
improvements in the design of these heat exchangers absorption cycle is in Japanese air conditioners and in
would allow a reduction in the driving temperature mini-bars in hotel rooms.16 The absence of a compres-
difference, and thus a better cycle efficiency. Another sor makes possible the quiet operation required of the
possible refrigerator design modification which would second application.
exploit this principle is the use of a dual cycle: one
cycle for the freezer and another with higher effiaency Individual Component Efficiencies
for the fresh food section. Such a design could employ
separate refrigerants for each cycle and consequently a The efficiencies of the individual electric devices that a
separate compressor, evaporator, and condenser for refrigerator contains also influence its energy con-
each cycle. Alternatively, a single compressor and sumption. The major consumer is the compressor and
refrigerant could be used, with separate evaporators its driving motor. A standard rating number used to
for the freezer and, at a higher operating temperature, describe the efficiency of a compressor is the Energy
the fresh food section. The two evaporators would Efficiency Rating (EER), which is defined as follows:
operate at different pressures. A recent theoretical
study which evaluated the dual cycle design with
different refrigerants predicts energy savings of up to Refrigeration effect achievable
23%.37 A complete analysis of these options can be by compressor in Btu~hr
found elsewhere.= EER =
Power input to the compressor in Watts
A refrigeration cycle which preceded the vapor
compression cycle in practical application is the Note that the definition of EER shows a dependence
absorption cycle. The first commercial machines, on the refrigeration effect, which depends on the
developed by F. Carre in 1850, used ammonia and refrigerant used in the cycle and the operating tem-
water as the absorption pair. Interestingly, the source peratures of the cycle. Compressors rated between 4.0
of energy for these machines was not mechanical but EER and 4.5 EER have been available for some time.
thermal, from firewood, coal, or gas. In a typical Recently compressors rated from 4.5 EER to 5.5 EER
absorption refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant, ammo- have become a ~ a i l a b l e . ~ ~
nia for example, goes through the same steps it would
if it were in a vapor compression cycle except that Minor electrical components such as the condenser
there is no compressor. The ammonia vapor is con- and evaporator fans are another potential area of
densed under elevated pressure in a condenser which improvement. Currently, low cost, low efficiency
rejects heat to the atmosphere; this liquefied ammonia (10%)motors are generally used.2 The potential exists
is expanded through a valve into the evaporator where for using induction motors (30%efficiency) or small
it absorbs heat, producing the refrigeration effect and DC motors (65%efficiency). Another possible technol-
becoming a gas. The ammonia gas is then mixed with ogy to improve efficiency is Variable-Speed drive,
water, where it is absorbed and rejects its heat of which could increase motor efficiency by 10-15%.31
solution. The ammonia rich solution is pumped to the
generator where a high temperature heat input causes LIFE CYCLE DESIGN
the ammonia to desorb under elevated pressure. This
high pressure ammonia gas goes to the condenser and At a recent exhibition in Europe a prototype refrigera-
repeats the cycle. The weak ammonia solution returns tor named "Green Frost" was d e r n ~ n s h a t e d .The
~
to the absorber and repeats its cycle. The energy input entire cabinet, including external structural parts and
to the cycle occurs in the generator in the form of heat insulation, is made of polystyrene. The insulation is
input rather than work as is the case in the vapor made from expandable CFC-free polystyrene which is
compression cycle. This provides a degree of flexibil- foamed into the cabinet. The use of a single material in
ity: first of all, 'low quality" energy can be used; most of the refrigerator makes recycling not only
second, the energy can be supplied directly from the possible but also profitable. Modular design is
April 1994
followed and design for ease of assembly/disassembly Processing of raw materials requires energy conver-
insures that most of the refrigerator is recoverable. sion, which produces pollution. The limitations of
recycling necessitate waste disposal. Such disposal
The above demonstrates a growing trend, further requires spa= in landfills or poisons the air and water,
along in Europe than the U.S., which attempts to look and consumes energy. Thus the need for pollution
at a process or product design through a total systems prevention at the source to avoid the generation of the
approach which is not confined to the immediate waste in the first place. Once waste is generated it will
perimeter of the process or product. Essential to such eventually end up in one form or another in either the
an approach is total cost assessment, which incorpo- air, water, or land. Waste treatment, which usually
rates hidden, liability, and often ignored environmen- shifts waste from one medium to the other (e.g.
tal costs into the accounting proced~re.~A' Such a incineration reduces solid waste but increases air
procedure will eventually become standard as the pollution) does not solve the problem.
movement grows to make manufacturers responsible
for their products "from the cradle to the grave." In order for life cycle design to work, it must be
implemented very early in the life of a process or
New laws enacted recently in Germany require product and not done as an afterthought. A systematic
manufacturers to take back their products. The approach which keeps in mind the limited resources of
German automobile manufacturer BMW has a pro- the planet (raw materials, energy, disposal space), and
gram in place whereby its customers can return their the fact that ultimately regulations and public pressure
old automobiles for recycling. BMW is designing its will protect these limited resources must be followed
automobiles to enhance recyclability by using such to avoid increased financial and public relations costs.
simple techniques as color coding and parts labeling, In design there is no magic recipe; tradeoffs must be
and such complex techniques as redesign to use made between capital expenditures, operating costs,
compatible materials. An approach such as this not regulations, customer preferences, etc. What life cycle
only reduces the waste stream that eventually must be design practices attempt to do is insure that environ-
disposed of, but also slows resource depletion. mental liabilities and benefits are accounted for. In
many cases this results in dividends not only to the
Basic to accepting life cycle design is the understand-
ing that the Earth's resources are finite. There is a environment, but also to the manufacturer.
limited quantity of raw materials, a limited quantity of
energy, and limited disposal spa- (land, water, air). Recommended Reading
Keoleian, Gregory A. and Dan Menerey. Life Cycle
Design Guidance Manual: Environmental Requirements
and the Product System. Cinannati, OH: U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Risk Reduction Engineering
Lab. (EPA600/R-92/226) US EPA, 1993.
April 1994
l7"German Industry Freezes out Green Fridge." Nezo
Scientist, 22 August 1992.

"Refrigerators: A Comprehensive Guide to the Big
White Box." Consumers Report, July 1992, pp. 456-465. InKramer, D. 'Why Not Propane?" ASHRAE Journal,
June 1991.
Environmental Protection Agency, Multiple Path-
ways to Super-efficient Refrigerators, DRAFT, Febru- Moore, Taylor. "Refrigerants for an Ozone-safe
l9
ary 1992. World." EPRi Journal, July/August 1992.
'Our Ozone Shield, Reports to the Nation. Boulder, 20 Federal Register,

Rules and Regulations. 17 No-
CO: UCAR Office for Interdisciplinary Earth Studies. vember 1989, pp. 47935 47938.-
No 2,1992.
21 Department of Energy, Environmental Assessment
"Montreal Protocol Revised in Copenhagen." Document. DOE/EA-0372,1988.

ASHRAE Journal, February 1993.
Federal Register, Rules and Regulations. 24 October
"EPA Proposes CFC/HCFC Recovery Regulations." 1990, pp. 4284542848.
ASHRAE Journal, January 1993.
Koelet, P. C. Industrial Refrigeration, Principles,
"Industry Awaits EPA Guidelines on CFCs." Design,and Applications. New York, NY: MacMillan,
ASHRAE Journal, July 1992. 1992.
Ziffer, F.E. "Managing Refrigerants in a CFC-free " "Refrigeration Systems and Applications," Chapter
Era." Plant Engineering, 3 September 1992. 8 in ASHRAE Handbook, Inch-Pound Edition. Atlanta,
GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Zurer, Pamela S. "Industry, Consumers Prepare for Air-conditioning Engineers, 1990.
Compliance with Pending CFC Ban." Chemical and
Engineering News, 22 June 1992. 25 Stone, R. 'Warm Reception for Substitute Coolant."
Science, vol. 256,3 April 1992.

Personal communication with National Refrigerants,
Inc., Philadelphia, PA. 26 Manufacturer's Data, 'The Toxicology of KLEA-
134a." Wilmington, DE: ICI Americas, Inc., 1993.

lo McCain, C. "Refrigerant Reclamation Protects HVAC
Equipment Investment." ASHRAE Journal, April 1991. Corr, S., T. W. Deklera, and A. L. Savage. "Retrofit-
ting Large Refrigeration Systems with R-134a."
Manz, KW. "How to Handle Multiple Refrigerants ASHRAE Journal, February 1993.
in Recovery and Recycling Equipment." ASHRAE
Journal, April 1991. Sanvordenker, K. S. "Durability of R-134a Com-
pressors: The Role of the Lubricant." ASHRAE
I2 Rowland, F. Sherwood. 'The CFC Controversy: Journal, February 1991.
Issues and Answers." ASHRAE Journal, December
1992. "R-134a Auto Air Conditioner Unveiled." ASHRAE
Journal, July 1992.
Epstein, G.J. and S.P. Manwell. "Environmental
Tradeoffs Between CFCs and Alternative Refriger- JO "Fundamentals," Chapter 17 in ASHRAE Handbook,
ants." ASHRAE Journal, January 1992. Inch-Pound Edition. Atlanta, GA: American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
l4 "Industry Backs Bush on CFC-ban Speedup." Engineers, 1989.
Appliance Manufncturer, April 1992.
3' 'Tough Design Choices Ahead for Refrigeration."
ISCFC Forum, Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning Journal, Appliance Manufacturer, July 1990.
January 1992.
ASIlRAE Position Statement. "Ammonia as a
MacKenzie, Debora. "Cheaper Alternatives for
l6 Refrigerant." ASHRAE Journal, September l99l.
CFCs." New Scientist, 30 June 1992.
April 1994
JJ''Friendly Refrigeration, a Return to Basics?" Process 39 "Green Frost: A Recyclable Refrigerator." Appliance
Engineehg, June 1992. Manufacturer, April 1992.
Department of Energy. Chapter 3 in Technical " U S Environmental Protection Agency. "Pollution

Suppwt Document (DOE/CE-0277), 1989. Prevention Benefits Manual." Washington, DC:Office
of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation. Office of Solid
55 Feldman, K Thomas Jr. "Advanced Insulations for Waste. US EPA, 1989.
Refrigerated Shipping Containers." ASHRAE Journal,
February 1993. White, L, M. Becker, and J. Goldstein. 'Total Cost
Assessment: Accelerating Industrial Pollution Preven-
"Jancsurak, Joe. 'Tomorrow's Insulation Solution?" tion through Innovative Project Financial Analysis."
Appliance Manufacturer, June 1992. Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. US
"Bare, Jane C. "Simulation Results of Single Refriger- EPA, 1992.
ants for Use in a Dual-circuit Refrigerator Freezer."
lournal of the Air and Waste Management Association, Vol.
42, No. 2, February 1992.
sManufacturef s Data, "R-12 Highest Efficiency

Hermetic Refrigeration Compressors. Low Back
Pressure Applications." Cullrnan, AL: AMERICOLD-
White Consolidated Industries, Inc., 1993.
-
April 1994
Section Ill:
The Design
INTRODUCTION
This design addresses two major issues: the first is the the evaporator (stream 1) which is close to the freezer
replacement of R-12, the refrigerant that has been used temperature is superheated by warm liquid (stream 41,
in all domestic refrigerators to date, with a refrigerant close to ambient temperature, from the condenser.
that is not ozone depleting. From the literature survey This superheating is necessary to insure that no liquid
summarized in the teaching aids, R-134a seems to be refrigerant is carried over to the compressor. The
the refrigerant of choice for most of the industry. This, superheated gas (stream 2) pressure is brought up to
however, does not and should not predude the the condensing pressure by the compressor. As the
possibility of choosing other refrigerants since a great result of compression, the gas (stream 3) is super-
many factors influence this choice. The second issue heated even further. In the condenser, this gas is first
this design addresses is energy effiaency. The decid- desuperheated and then condensed to a saturated
ing factors in this issue are insulation, thermodynamic liquid (stream 4) by rejecting heat to the outside air.
performance of the refrigerant, and the effiaency of the The saturated liquid goes through the interchanger
various power-consuming devices that make up the where it is subcooled (stream 5). The expansion valve
refrigerator such as the compressor; and the evapora- drops the pressure of the liquid to the evaporator
tor and condenser fans. In this study, we will focus on pressure (stream 6). In the evaporator the liquid
insulation and on the thermodynamic performance of evaporates by absorbing heat from the inside of the
the refrigerant. refrigerator (the freezer). The saturated refrigerant
(stream 1) leaves the evaporator and repeats the cycle.
ALTERNATIVE REFRIGERANTS
TO BE CONSIDERED
We will evaluate R-12 as a base case. R-134a will be
evaluated since it seems to be the leading candidate to
replace R-12. Other refrigerants which pose undesir-
able properties that are unrelated to their thermody-
namic performance will also be evaluated. These are
R-290, R-717, and R-152a. Finally, two patented
azeotropes - AZ-201 and AZ-501 - which are not
intended for the operating range of the domestic
refrigerator will be evaluated to provide insight into
the reasons for their unsuitability.
REFRIGERATION CYCLE COMPONENTS

Figure 1illustrates the main components of the
refrigeration cyde in the refrigerator. Cool gas from
April 1994
In Figure 2, the vapor compression cycle described temperature of the gas down to the saturation tem-
above is shown on an Enthalpy-Pressure Diagram. perature at the condenser pressure. This is the point
The cycle shown ignores pressure drops due to the where the upper isobar intersects the saturated vapor
flow of the refrigerant through piping and heat curve. The saturated vapor then condenses at constant
exchangers. It also assumes isentropic (constant temperature to a saturated liquid at point 4. This
entropy) compression in the compressor. The num- liquid is subcooled in the interchanger from point 4 to
bered points on the diagram refer to the numbered point 5. Since the heat gained in going from point 1 to
streams in Figure 1. Point 1 represents the saturated point 2 is the same heat quantity rejected in going from
vapor leaving the evaporator. This vapor is super- point 4 to point 5, and since the flow rate is the same
heated in the interchanger to point 2, thus going from (closed system), the length of the segment from point 1
the saturated vapor temperature at the evaporator to point 2 is equal to the length of the segment from
pressure to the temperature given by the constant point 4 to point 5. The expansion valve drops the
temperature line on the diagram. The gas is com- pressure isenthalpically from point 5 to point 6. The
pressed isentropically along the constant entropy line line from point 6 to point 1 represents the enthalpy
up to the condenser pressure. The temperature of this increase of the refrigerant in the evaporator as the
superheated gas can be found from the constant saturated liquid is evaporated.
temperature line at point 3. The condenser brings the
Enthalpy, BtuAb
- -
Figure 2. An Enthalpy-Pressure Diagram illustrating the refiigeration

cycle shown in Figure 1. Isentropic compression and zero piping
pressure drops are assumed.
April 1994
REFRIGERATION CYCLE Table 5. Performance properties of candidate
CALCULATIONS refrigerants.
Based on the design conditions given, the evaporator

temperature (T,) will be set at -4•‹F. This provides a
Refrinerant COP RE RExN
--L
T m
temperature differene of 9•‹Fbetween the required
freezer design temperature of 5•‹Fand the evaporator
temperature. It also allows for operation at the
extreme freezer design temperature of 0•‹F. The
ambient design temperature is 90•‹Fwith the extreme
going to 110•‹F. A condenser temperature CT,) of 115•‹F
is selected. h the interchanger, a superheating of the
saturated vapor (stream 2) of 14•‹Fis assumed. Two
methods to calculate the performane of the cycle for
different refrigerants are used. The first is a graphical
technique which is based on the Enthalpy Pressure
Diagram of a refrigerant (a comprehensive collection of
diagrams for various refrigerants can be found in the Source: ASHRAE Handbook, Inch-Pound Edition.
ASHRAE Handbook3). The second utilizes tables of Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerat-
saturated refrigerant liquid and vapor properties, and ing and Air-conditioning Engineers. 1989.
an expression for the specific heat of the refrigerant.
Both techniques are explained through the sample Key: COP = Coefficient of Performance;
calculations in Appendix D. RE = Refrigeration Effect; RE, x N, = Product of
Volumetric Refrigeration Effect and Volumetric
Efficiency; T, = Compressor Discharge Temperature
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
OF REFRIGERATION The Refrigeration Effect (RE) is the amount of heat
CYCLE CALCULATIONS removed by a unit mass of refrigerant. Conversely, it
determines the mass of refrigerant needed to remove a
Figure 3 combines the cycles of the various refrigerants given quantity of heat. R-717 has the highest RE. It is
on a single diagram. Looking at the different cycles, ten times that of R-12, which means only one tenth the
two of R-12's virtues immediately become apparent. It mass of R-717 is needed to achieve the same refrigera-
has the lowest compression ratio and operating pres- tion effect as that of R-12. A more important quantity
sure range of all the refrigerants considered. Note how is the Volumetric Refrigeration Effect (REv) combined
R-717, ammonia, operates at the highest pressure range with the compressor Volumetric Efficiency (N,). These
and has the largest compression enthalpy change, two quantities determine the size of the compressor
which leads to a high compressor exit temperature. that should be used. The product of RE, the refrigera-
tion effect per unit volume, and N,, the ratio of the
Table 5 shows various performance criteria for the actual volume of gas pumped by the compressor to the
candidate refrigerants. The first parameter, the Coeffi- compressor displacement, determines the refrigeration
cient of Performance (COP), is given for the required effecta given compressor will produce with different
design conditions. As can be seen, only R-290 has an refrigerants. Thus, the higher RE, x N, is for a given
equivalent (1%higher) performance to R-12. R-152a is refrigerant, the smaller the compressor displacement
the next highest, with AZ-20 and AZ-50 having the and the compressor itself will be. Table 5 also com-
lowest COP. R-134a's COP is about 7% lower than that pares the various refrigerants on this basis. AZ-20 has
of R-12, which translates into a lower energy efficiency. the highest RE, x N,, 2.5 times that of R-12; thus the
compressor needed would be 40% smaller than that for
R-12. R-1% would need a compressor with a dis-
placement 1.25 times that of R-12. R-290 on the other
hand would require a compressor that is 70% smaller
than that for R-12. Another factor that needs to be
April 1994
April 1994
considered is the compressor discharge temperature desuperheater, in bold type for the condenser, and in
(T,). Too high a discharge temperature could degrade italics for the evaporator. The areas for the condenser
both the compressor valves and the lubricating oil. As and the evaporator do not vary much for the different
these data show, most of the refrigerants considered refrigerants. The reason for this is that although the
have a reasonable T, with the exception of R-717 CT, = internal heat transfer coefficients vary, they are an
34U•‹F)and to a lesser extent AZ-20 CT, = 169•‹F). order of magnitude higher than the external heat
transfer coefficient, which depends only on the geom-
etry of the exchanger and its fan. The mntrolling
REFRIGERATION LOAD
resistance is on the outside. Additionally, the tempera-
Using the pull down time of 2 minutes given in the ture driving force and heat load in the evaporator is
problem statement, the refrigeration system has to be the same for all the refrigerants, and the heat load in
able to reject 670 Btu/hour to the ambient air (see the condenser does not vary much. In the
Appendix Dl. At the extreme design conditions, the desuperheater, the internal heat transfer coefficients
pull down time will increase to 2.7 minutes, which is are of the same order of magnitude as the external heat
acceptable. Based on this load, the mass flow rate of transfer coefficient and thus their variation influences
each refrigerant can be calculated and is directly the overall heat transfer coefficient. In the case of R-
proportional to its RE. 717, the internal heat transfer coefficient becomes the
controlling resistance. It is interesting to note that even
though R-717 has the lowest overall heat transfer
HEAT EXCHANGER AREAS coefficient and the highest heat transfer load in the
desuperheater, it had the smallest exchanger area
Using the expressions supplied in the problem state-
because of the large temperature difference driving
ment for the internal heat transfer coefficients @) and
force caused by the high compressor discharge tem-
overall heat transfer coefficients (U)of the
perature.
desuperheater (desuperheat of the condenser), the
condenser, and the evaporator, the various heat
exchanger areas can be calculated (Appendix D).The
results are shown in Table 6, in plain type for the
April 1994
Table 6. Heat transfer parameters for candidate refrigerants
Refrigerant
Internal Heat
Transfer Cueff. 01)
@Tu/hr-ft2-"F)
Overall Heat 7.0

Transfer Coeff. (U)
@Tu/hr-ft2-0F)
Temperature
Difference (OF)
Heat flow rate (Q)

@Turn)
Heat Exchange
Area (ft2)
Source: ASHRAE Handbook, Inch-Pound Edition. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
AirConditioning Engineers. 1989.
Key: desuperheater (regular), condenser (bold), and maporator (Italics)
ENERGY CONSUMPTION 578.6 KW-hour/year (see Appendix D). To determine

how best to meet this criterion with the insulation
The energy consumption of the refrigerator is com- materials available and the chosen candidate refriger-
prised of: ants, two useful figures have been prepared. Figure 4
(see Appendix D for calculations) shows the heat gain
I. the electrical energy input to the compressor to of the refrigerator as a function of the fresh food
drive the refrigeration cycle and remove heat from the section insulation thickness for different insulation R
interior of the refrigerator. This heat is gained by values. The heat gain shown includes that which is
conduction through the walls and gaskets of the gained by the freezer. The freezer insulation thickness
refrigerator, and is also generated internally by the
was calculated so that the heat gain per unit insulation
anti-sweat heater.
volume in the fresh food section is equal to that of the
2. electrical energy input to the evaporator and freezer. This provides for optimum use of the insula-
condenser fans, and to the anti-sweat heater. tion. Figure 5 (see Appendix D for calculations) shows
the total annual energy consumption of the refrigerator
According to the 1993 D O E energy efficiency standard as a function of the total heat load that the refrigeration
for the size and type of refrigerator under mnsider- cycle has to reject to the atmosphere. This dependence
ation, the maximum allowable energy consumption is
April 1994
April 1994
April 1994
April 1994
April 1994
is shown for the different candidate refrigerants. These are, therefore, unacceptable and impractical
insulation thicknesses. In the short term, use must be
In the old refrigerator design which uses R-11 blown made of HCFC blown foams which are approximately
urethane foam with an insulation value of R7, the fresh 7% less effective than the CFC blown foams. An
food section insulation thickness was 1.5 inches (1.85 alternative longer term solution would be the use of
inches for the freezer). From Figure 4, this mrre- vacuum insulation which provides insulating R values
sponds to a heat gain of 250 Btu/hour. Adding on the of 20-30. Using an R25 insulator with R-134a would
19.5 Btu/hour generated internally by the anti-sweat require a fresh food insulation thickness of 0.95 inches
heater gives a total of 269.5 Btu/hour that the refrig- (1.2 inches in the freezer) to meet the 1993 W E
eration cycle must remove from the interior of the standard. Using R-290 and the allowable energy
refrigerator. Using this number and the line for R-12 in consumption dictated by the 1993 W E standard, the
Figure 5 results in the energy consumption of our old total heat the refrigerator is able to reject to the atmo-
design: 780 KW-hour/year. To meet the 1993 DOE sphere is 207 Btu/hour. Of that load, 19.5 Btu/hour is
standard, the energy consumption must be dropped generated by the anti-sweat heater, which leaves a
26%, down to 578 KW-hour/year. If we were still able maximum load of 187.5 Btu/hour that the insulation
to use R-12, the total heat the refrigerator is able to must handle. Using the carbon dioxide blown foam
reject using R-12 and the allowable energy consump- (R61, a fresh food insulation thickness of 2.6 inches (3.1
tion would be 200 Btu/hour (using Figure 6, which inches in the freezer) needs to be used.
provides more detail of the lower end of Figure 5).
Accounting for the anti-sweat heater (heat gain From the above analysis, the most energy efficient
through insulation must be less than 180.5 Btu/hour) CFC-free refrigerator could be realized by using R-290
and using Figure 4, we would need a 2.4 inch thick R7 and vacuum insulation. Assuming an R25 vacuum
insulation in the fresh food section (2.9 inches in the insulation and the original design's fresh food section
freezer by using Figure 7). If we were to use R-134a, insulation of 1.5 inches (1.85 inches for the freezer), the
we would need an R7 insulation thickness of 3.3 inches heat gain through the insulation will be 110 Btu/hour.
in the fresh food section (3.4 inches in the freezer from The total refrigeration load (including anti-sweat
Figure 7). Since R-1 1 is a CFC, the foam made by using heater) is therefore 129.5 Btu/hour. The refrigerator's
it will no longer be available. An alternate blowing energy consumption using R-290 would be 380 Kwatt-
agent under consideration is carbon dioxide. It will, hour/year, 34% less than the 1993 DOE standard. If
however, provide a lower insulation value of R6 which regulatory barriers to using R-290 (propane) &not be
translates to a fresh food section insulation thickness of overcome, then R-1% has to be used. With R-134a,
3.8 inches and a freezer insulation thickness of 4.5 the energy consumption would go up to 430 Kwatt-
inches. One a n calculate that this change would hour/year, 26% less than the 1993 DOE standard. In
reduce the fresh food section by over one third, and the conclusion, the key to an energy efficient refrigerator
freezer volume by over a half. which does not use CFCs lies in developing insulation
technology.
"Genetron-AZ-20, Technical Bulletin." Momstown,

NJ: Allied Signal -Fluorocarbons, 1993.
"Genetron-AZ-50, Technical Bulletin." Momstown,
NJ: Allied Signal -Fluorocarbons, 1993.
"Fundamentals," Chapter 17 in ASHRAE Handbook,
Inch-Pound Edition. Atlanta, GA: American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Engi-
neers. 1989.
-
April 1994
Opensnded Problem 36
April 1994
Appendices
APPENDIX A
Manufacturer-supplied information on regulations

regarding the phase out of chlorofluoro-carbons and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons.
April 1994
The Revised Montreal Protocol
Copenhagen, November 1992
ICI Americas Inc.

Open-ended Problem .38
April 1994
The Montreal Protocol was revised and considerably strengthened at a
meeting of the United Nations Environment Program on November 25,
1992. The changes should come into force by January 1, 1994. Some
changes affect the timetable for controls on the CFCs, halons, 1.1,l-
trichloroethane (methyl chloroform) and carbon tetrachloride (CTC) already
in the Protocol; these are mandatory for all countries that are already Parties
The Revised to the Protocol. Other changes bring in new substances, such as the
Montreal hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), the hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs)
and methyl bromide. At the meeting, the Parties also passed an amendment
Protocol which limits the areas of application of the HCFCs.
ICI welcomes this agreement which greatly strengthens the London
Copenhagen, Amendments of 1990. Although there are areas where individual countries
should be able to go faster and further than the new timetables, we believe
November 1992 this was the most stringent agreement which could have achieved the support
of all the Parties.
All of these substances are to be phased out completely, with the exception
of methyl bromide, but the timetables differ. The details are given below
in the tables; dates refer to January 1 of the year stated; all freezes and
, reductions are based on 1986 levels for the CFCs and halons, 1989 for Other
CFCs, CTC and 1,1 ,1-trichloroethane, and 1991 for methyl bromide. HCFC
controls begin with a consumption freeze in 1996. This is known as the
HCFC cap.
"Original "Other Methyl

CFCs" ' CFCS"~ Halons CTC Chloroform
Free& - * - 1993
-20% - 1993 - - -
-50% - 1994
-75% 1994 -
-85% - -
-100% 1996 1996
T h e freeze for the original CFCs and Halons is already in force.
'"Original CFCs" are those controlled in the 1987 Moxdreal Protocol - CFCs 1 1, 12.
113, 114and 115
'*Other CFCs9'arc all fully halogenated 1, 2 and 3 carbon CFCs. other than the five
"original CFCs"
I
Methyl
HCFCs* Bromide
Freeze ' 1996 1995
-35% 2004 -
-65% 2010
-90% 2015
-99.5% 2020
-100% 2030
*The HCFCs controlled are all of the 1, 2 and 3 carbon compounds containing hydrogen,
chlorine and fluorine.
I
The levels of the freeze and percentage reductions are based on the total ozone depletion
potential (ODP) weighted tonnage of HCFC consumption in 1989. plus 3.1% of the ODP
tonnage of CFC consumption in 1989. ("Consumption" = production imports+ -
exports; "prcxluction" excludes material used as a feedstock)
April 1994
Destrueiion Technologies
Five destruction techniques me approved for situations where reclaim of;
allowances may take place (probably not reclaimable in the US). All five are
incineration techniques and no overall minimum percentage emciency of
destruction was defined. Bask standards were suggested and a Code o f d d
The Revised ' Housekeeping was adopted.
Definition of Production: litadvertent Production, etc.
Montreal T h e definition of "pduction" (LC, reportable and subjezt to dlowances)
Protocol was revised to exclude trace impurities generated during manufacture,
remaining a k r f i o c k use or released during manufacturing processes.
Copenhagen, Parties are urged to minimize these releases by various techniques.
November 1992
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION, CONTACT:

Dr. P.H. Dugard
ICI Americas Irrc,
Chemicals and Polymers Group
Fluorochemicals Business
Wilmington, DE 19897
Telephone: (302)886-4344
. --
Opekended Pmblern 40
April 1994
t US. Regulatory Update NOVEMBER 1992
The following is a eoncise overview of the regulatoty TABLE 1

actions in the United States that are inpaaing the use of Phrmmt ScMuler fat CFC Pmdudbn
&brofluorocarbons(CFCs). halons, methylchloroform,
and carbontetrachloride andtheir alternatives. For snore
detailed information, please antan Du Pant on 1-800-
441 - W 2 .
TUE MONTREAL PROTOCOL 1992 1.0

Followingseveral years of negotiations,an internatinat 1993 1.O
agreement regulating the prodmon and use of CFCs,
halons, methyl chloroform, and carban tetrachbride 1994 1.0
entered into force in mid 1989. Known as the Montreal 19% 0.50
Protoml. this landmark agreement initially required a 19% 0.9
production and consumplion freeze. It curremy calk for 1997 0.15
a stepwise teduction of CFCs, halons, methyl chloro- 1998 0.15
form.and c a m n tetrachloride in developed countries 1999 0.15
that will resun in a complete phaseout of productionand
atmumptm by the year 2000 (2005 for methyl chbro- Equu. ynan 4.45
form). Developtng oountries have been given an addi-
tional 10 years to cornpiele the transition to new
tedr nobgies.
Parties to the Protocol will be meting in Copenhagen,
Denmark in November of 1992 to renegotiate current The mapr provisions of the CAA indude:
agreamem. The revised Protocol will likely result in Phaseout scheduies
accelerated phaseout of CFCs. halons, methyl ehloro- Mandates for recycling, recovery of refrigerants in
form, and carbon tetrachloride, and indude a brnding auto air oonditioning and stationary refrigeration
resolution for HCFC phaseout. equipmem
The Protocol is a pint effort of govemmem, scientists, Bans on 'mnessentW products
indusby, andenvironmental groups. Coordinated by the Dictates Concerning safe aMmatiws
UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP), it has
been ratified by about 80 soveretgn nations, represent- Labeling Cor cxlntainen of and produdsamraining or
ing greater than 90 peroent of the world's anent CFC made with Class Ior Cfass ll mmpounds.
consumption. The regulations of the CAA are stringent, but achier-
Trade sanetiom will enter into force on January I,1993 8bfe. Support of alternatives and oxperation by all
against t h e 'non-party' nabuns, that are mt signa- groups (iMustry, environmentalists, and regulators) is
tories to the Ptotoool. 8necessaryto meel these stringent requiremenfs.
PHASEOUT SCHEDULES
CLEAN AIR ACT The current Clean Air Act Amendmem call for a phase
On November 15, t 990, the new Clean Air Aet (CAA) out of Class I substances by January 1, 2000. On
was signed tnto law. This legislation includes a section February 11,1992, President Bosh called tor an -1-
entitledStratospheric Ozone Protection (Trtle Vl), which eration of the phaseout of Class I Oomp~undsto year-
contains extraordinarily comprehensive regulations for end 1995, with limited exemptions for essential uses,
the prMuetlan and use of Class I compounds (CFCs, which have not yet been defined.
halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform), Class The €PA must implementthis. as well as interimarts,by
II compounds (HCFCs), and HCFCIHFC subsfitvtes. rulemaking. As of this printing, the rulemaking has not
These regulations, which will be phased in over the next been finalized. the exemptions have not beenidentified.
several yeas, will affect every industry that currently and interim arts have not t w n established.
uses chlorinated and bmminated substances that im-
pact stratospheric ozone. The existing Clean Air Act phaseout and reductions
(until ntlemaking is final) are:
T a t ?f shaws how the C M has acceleratedthe phase-
out fof Class I ampounds in the United States versus CFCs and halons (Class Isutstanes) will be phased
the current Montreal Protocal. out in Heps until total phaseout on January 1,2000
(Tabre I).
Apil 1994
I
Carbon tetrachloride (Class 1) will underpO stepwise Warning ~abekmust be used for HCFCs on all trans;
phaseout to 85 peroent of non-CFC feedsto~kuse by pofl contarnets by May f 5,1993. All pmducts oontain-
January 1, 1995, and total phaseout by January 1, inp or made wtth these Substances mat have s u W e
2000. ahernatrves must also have labels by January 1,2015.
Methyl chloroform (Class I) will undergo stepwise Warning 1-1s cannot be a Itability defense.
phaseout to 50 percent of 1989 levels by January 1 ,
1996, and total phaseout by January 1,2602. SAFE ALTERNATIVES
HCFCs (Class Ilsubstances) areregulatedas follows: The €PA will puMishlistsof safe alternativesfor Class
- Produ~onfroxen and use limited tp refrgeriltion
equipment on January 1,2015.
I and I1 substances and enact regulations that will;
maxrmize the use of Safe altematlves in federal awn-I
- Use in new refrigerationequipment is allowed until
January 1,2020.
a s beglnnrng November 15.1992.
Alternatives for Class I and II produm must reduce
- Only service of in-mace refriieration equipment is
allowed after January 1, 2020, and a rota1 HCFC
risk to health and the environment.
PrMuction ban becomes effective on January 1, PREEMPrnN

2030. State and local preemption is very limited, with a hnD
year preemption over laws only governing applianw
EPA can accelerate phaseout schedules for Class I
and II compounds ifthey deem it necessary for health
design.
or environmentalreasons. iftechnology is feasible, or
ifrequired by the Montreal Protocol.
EPA may grant small and limited exceptions for CIass
CFCRlALON EXCISE TAXES 1
Table 2sbws current tax rate for mmpounds awered
I and Class ll produrnon for a few essential safety, by the Montreal Protocol.
medical, or natronal security uses.
RECYCLING
The venting of CFC and HCFC refrigerants during
sewice, maintenance, repair, or diqmsal of appli-
ances and lndustnal process refrigeration is illegal as
of July 1,1992.
MOBltE AIR CONDmONMG -
CFC and HCFC refrigerantsfor mobileair aonditioni
must be captumd and recyded by certified personnel
after & m a y 1,1592 'Ihere will be a one-year delay for
persons servidng less than 100 cars per year. In
addibon, sales of small cans (kss than 30 b)will be
restricted to cerbfied personnet .
HFCs, for mobile air conditioning will have the same CFC11 Carbon tanc)rwdo 1.1
regulations by November 12,1995. CFG12 Methyl chbrotorrn 0.1
CFC113 (I ,l.l-triehbroeth.m)
NONESSENTIAL PRODUCTS CFG114 CFGl3 1.O
CFCs will be banned for nonessentialproducts, such CFC-115 CFCI 11 1.0
as party streamers, noise horns and noncommercial Hsbn 1211 CFGlt2 1.0
cleaning fluids, and others identifledin rulemaking by Hakm 1301 CFC-211 1.O
EP4 yet to be confirmed(aerosols.plastcpackagrng. CFG212 1.0
possibly handheld fire extrngurshers) by November Habn 2402
CFG213 1.0
15, 1992.
CFC-214 1.O
Bans for HCFC use in aerosols and foam will begin CFC-215 1.0
January 1, 1W. Some safety and medical aerosol CFG216 1.O
products and foamsusedfor insulationare exempted.
CFC-217 1.0
WARNING LABELS
Warning labels must be used for Class I aompounds
(CFCs, habns,ca-n tetrachloride, and methyl &lo-
roform) on all transport containers and all products
containing these substances by May 15,1993. Prod-
ucts made with these substances must also have
warning labels if suitable aitematrves exist.
Openanded Pr&m 42
April 1994
T A U3 IMPORTED PRODUCTS
8 8 ~ Tax,
9 $ODP pound, 19934995 The new tax rate applies to all impbrtedproductson the
AIIuaed compounds IRS list There are three calculation methods used tn
determine the tax rate for these products: actual use
data, IRS tisl or one percent of the pmduct's value. A
de minimus exemptron is possible for some products.
SUMMARY
The Montreal Protoool,the Clean Air Act, and new CFCi
halon taxes will all have tremendous impact on ampa-
nies produang and using these productr. Although
same of the regulations may seem stringent, Uwy pro-
vide us wlth an achievable plan.
Du Pont is prepared to s w n arstomer efforts in
meetingthese new regulations. The Company has dedi-
cated resources to !he sate and raptd introduclion of
FLOOR STOCKS TAXES acceptable alternatives to CFCs and bD the revofit of
The Floor Stock Tax, which took effectJanuary l,l99O, existing CFC equipment for their use. Du Pont has also
is imposedon any ampany that has Class L mmpounds initiated reooveq, reclamation, and amervation p
for sale or for use in fumermanufactwino.The tax rate qrams to further assist customers in meeting the provi-
is the incremental difference between the tax from me sions of these new regulations.
previous year to the current year,and is applied ?r~
year-
end inventory. This tax is applied to amounts of 400 Ib TABLE 1
(181 kg) or greater p e r IRS employer identificabon
number. In many cases, ildoes mt apply to mixtures or brflnhhm
to refrlgeranf used for sew# of the owners system. C l r u I r u b t m m s u o lhoso w t r ' i s i g n f i t l y muse or
Mixtures must contain the ingredient as a eontribum to contribute t~ harming the ozone hyar &nd h ~ v oan O m w
acampRsh~ngthe purpose. Exemptions also apply to DepletianPotantiat (ODP)gtoatorthm,or qua1to. 02. Thn,
rigtd foam insulation, feedstock. recyded CFCs, halons, substances, which include J I isomers,m separatd i m o f h
and fmal pmducts (not fur resale)except if the chemicals gmups:
are directly emitted. Group1 - CFG11.12.113.114.115
For further information, antact the IRS. Groupll -W n 1211,1301,2402
Group 111 - O W r CFCawkh on.. twD or f h m u t t m n d o m
HALON AND REID FOAM TAXES
Effective January 1,1991, a new tax was imposed on
Habn W l , and CFC-11 and CFC-12 used for rigid
loam. Thls tax is assessed at approximately $025 per Clam Iwbrtrncm arm ?beeH im known. or m y k
roaoonabty antidpad, b uuse or eontritwtm to harmful
pound through 1993. In 1994, normal base taxes e y . affecls on the ozone layer. These ubstances indude all
Floor stocks rules apply. New exempt~onartificates barnem of HCFCs having one, two or thrmo carbon atoms.
must be filed, if required.
Open-ended Prablern 43
April 1994
mi POMChmlcrlr
Custmer Sewlce Canter, &t-
Wllmlngton, DE 19898AJ.S.A.
(302) f14-2099
P*
Du Porn Kwes Ltd.
E-pr C.P.O. Box 5972
Ou Ponr de N e m n Du Pont Australia Seoul. Korea
Internstiom1 S . k PO. Box 930 82-2-721-51 14
2 Chemm du Pavilbn Nonh Sydney. NSW 2060
PO.Box 50 Australia
6 1-2-923-6165 Du P m Singapore PLs. tM.
CH-1218Le Grand-Saconnex 1 Maritime Square #07 01
G e m , Switrerlsnd World Trade Centre
4 1-22-777-5111 Jmn
Mitsui Du Pont F l m h e n r i c a l s Singapore 0409
C o m n v . Ltd. 65273-2244
C.d.
Du Pont Csnada. Inc. Mitrui Seimei Building
2-3.1Chome Ohternchi Du Pont Far Esst. Philippines
PO. Box 2200, Stnetsviile 5th F l m . Sdid Bank Building
Mississauga. Ontario Chiyoda-Ku. Tokyo 100 Japan
81-3-32168451 777 Pasem de Roxes
L5M 2H3 Makati. Metro Msnils
44 16) 821-3300 Philippines
h
i. 162-2-818-9911
Mexico Du Pont Ts'iwan
Du Pont S.A de C.V. PO. OX 81-777
Homero 206 Ta~pei.Taiwan Du Pont hr East Inc.
886-2-5144400 7A Mumy's Gate Rwd
Cal. Chaputtepec Momles -rpst
C.P.11570 Mexica, D.F. Madras. 600 018 India
52-52s06m Du Pont Asia Pacific Limited 9164454429
PO. Box TST 98851
South Am- Tsim Shs Tsui
Du Pont do Brssil SA. Kowloon, H o q Konp Du Pont Fat East 1nc.-
Pakistsn
Alameds Itspicuru,506 852-736-5345
9 Khsyaban-E=Shshssn
Alphaville 06400 Bsrweri Defencs Phase 5
Sao Peulo, Brazil Du Pmt Thsilsnd
551 1421-8509 P.O. Box 2398 - Karachi. Pakistan
Bangkok 10501. fhsilsnd 92-21-533-350
Du Ponr Argentina SA. €4-2-2384361 Du Pont Far b n Im.
CssiHa Correo 1808 PO. Box 2553Jkt
Conso Central Du Pont China Ltd. Jskrna 10001
1000 Buenos &res, Argentina Room 1704, Union Bldg.
n E m
100 Y a ~ Rd. Indonesia
5d-1-33 11167 62-2131 7800
Shanghai. PR China 200 002
Phone: 8621-3283738
Telex. ?34a8 DCLSH CN
FW 8Wl-3202304
Du Pont Far Ean Inc.

P.0. Box 12396
50776 Kula Lurnpur, Malaysia
Phone: 60.3-232-3522
Telex: (784) 30391 DUFE M
Fax: 60-3-238-7250
APPENDIX B
Manufacturer supplied information on:

*Thermodynamicdata for Genetron 1Ma.
*Thermodynamicdata for Genetron AZ-20

*Thermodynamicdata for GenetronAZ-SO
*Physical Property data for KLEA 134a
*The toxicology of KLEA 134a
*Lubricants for R-134a
*Refrigerator compressors
Open-ended Problem = 45
Apil1994
TECHNICAL BULLETIN
genetron ~,
@
genetron' Understanding Needs. Finding Solutions.

&iedSignal
genetron 134a Thermodynamic Tabk
GENETRON* 134a, a non-ozone-cfepletingcompound, is the

refrigerant of choice to replace CFC-12 in numerous air
conditioning and cooling applications. It replaces CFC-122 in
automobile air conditioning. residential, commercial and
- industrial refrigeration and in certain centrifugal chiller
applications.
AlliedSignal offers the GenetronsRefrigerant Reclamation
program through its Genetron Wholesalers. Now, sewice
contractors and building owners have a safe, cost-effective
means of complying with the Clean Air Act no-venting laws
enacted July 1, 1992. For more information, call your
Genetron Wholesaler. For the name of the nearest Genetron
Wholesaler, call 1-800-522-80dl.
Physical Properties:
Chemical formuTa ........................ C F & V
Molecular weight. ........................ 102.03
..................... -15.fgF (-%PC)
Boiling point at 1 atm.
Criticel temperature....................... 214.0nF (lO1.leC)
Critical pressure. psis..................... 589.9
................... 31.97
Critical density. Iblcu. tt.
. .....75.0
Liquid density at 80•‹F (26.PC).Iblcu. ft. :
Heat of vaporization at boiling point. Btunb.'F ... 92.4
Specific heat of liquid at W F (26.7*C),
............................
B t d b . F' 0.341
Specific heat of vapor at constant pressure
........0.204
( I atm.) and 6tPF (2B.PC}.Btunb. ' F
'Flammable range. W voQme in air.. .......... None
Ozone depletion potential .................. 0
...... 0.285
Greenhouse warming potential (estimate).
:ompatative Cycle Performance:

Evaporator temperature = 20eF
Condenser temperature = 110" F
Suction superheat = 30•‹F
Subcooling = 10•‹F
Compressor isentropic efficiency = 65%
gemd' -
12 --
22 1-
.............
Evaporator pressurn, p i g 21.0 43.0 1U
Condenser pressure, psig ............. 136.4 226.3 146.4
Compression ratio .................. 423 4.17 4.S
Comprwsor discharg8 temperature, -F ... 188.1 227.0 1783
Coetficient of performance............ 2.90 2.79 283
Refrigerant circulation per ton. IbJmin. ... 3.80 278 3.00
Compressor displacement p e r ton. d m ... 4.51 2.82 4.55
Liquid flow per ton. cu. inlmin.......... 83.2 67-4 7l.7
...
Latent heat at evaporator temp., B M b . 66.5 W.6 88.9
Net refrigeration eflect, Btunb.......... 52.7 720 6&7
'Flame limits measured using ASTM E a t with electrically activated

kitchen match ignition source per ASHRAE Standard 34.
--
TECHNICAL BULLETIN
genetronBUnderstanding Reeds. Finding SoIutions. &iedSignal

-
Open+nded Pmblem 49
A p d 1994
AZ-20 Thermodynamic fable
(DifluoromethanelPentafluoroethane)
AZ-20 is a nonszonedepleting, non-segregatingazeotropic
mixture of HFC-32 and HFC-125. It has been primarily de-
signed to replace HCFC-22 in residential air conditioning
applications.
AHiedSignal offers the GenetronQRefrigerant Reclamation
program through its Genetron Wholesalers. Now, service
contractors and building owners have a safe, cost-effective
means of complying with the Clean Air Act no-venting laws
enacted July 1, 1992. For more information, call your
Genetron Wholesaler. For the name of the nearest Genetron
Wholesaler, call 1-800-522-8061.
Physical Properlies:
Chemical formula ........................ CH,FdCF&F,H
Molecular weight. ........................ 6726
.....................-62S•‹F
Boiling point at 1 atm
Critical tempmature....................... 163.8OF
.....................7332
Critical pressure, psia
................... 29.9
Critical density, IbJcu. R
....... 64.4
Liquid density at W F (26.70C). IblCu. R.
..... 123.3
Heat ofvapwiratlon al bailing point. Btuflb.
Specific heat of liquid at BO•‹F(26.7%):
Btu/lb.'F ............................ 0.405
Specific heal ol vapor at constant pressurn
(1 atm) and W F (26.7%). Btudb. "F ........ 0-203
"'Flammable range. % vokme in air .......... Nonflammable
Ozone depletion potential .................. 0
Comparative Cycle Performance:
Evaporator temperature = 45' F
Condenser temperature = 12VF
Suction superheat = lOOF
Subcooling = 10"F
Compressor isentropic efficiency = 65%
geneimn" ----- = SM 12s 32

AZ-2[r-
Evapomor prerrsure. psig ... 1323 76.0 88.7 106.7 132.9

Condenser pressure. psig ... 410.9 259.9 282.7 345.4 429.7
Compression ratio. ........ 296 3.03 2.88 2.97 3.01
Compressor discharge
temperature. O F ......... 186.1 192.4 158.3 143.4 222.8
Coefficientofpedomnce,. 3.37 3.62 3.40 3.05 3.41
Retrigwant circulation per
ton. IbJmin- ............ Z70 2.95 4.61 5.74 1.92
Compressor displacement
perton,cfm ............ t25 1.84 1.89 1.82 1-16
Liquid flow per ton,
cu. inJmin. ............ 792 73.2 f 13.6 149.6 60.6
Latent heat at evaporator
temp.. BtuRb.. .......... 98.S 853 60.8 55.3 131.3
Net refrigerationeffect.
Btuilb.. ............... 742 67.8 43.4 34.0 104.3
'U.S. Patent IC4.978,467

"Areotrope consisting d 60% HFG32 and 40% HFG12S.
Preliminary informationbased on estimated properties.
"'Flame limits measures using A S W E681 with e l e c t r i c . actbated
kitchen match ignition source per ASHRAE Standard 34.
TECHNICAL BULLETIN
genetr0ne Understanding Needa finding Solutions &IiedSignal

En-
genefrone 123 Thermodynamic Formulas
Experimental vapor pressure correlated as:

In(P,/psIa) =A + TB + CT + D'lz + T
In (f-T);T Rankine
Experimental ideal gas heat capacity correlated as:

(Btunb. R) = C, + C2T+ CJ7 + C,T3 + CJT; T Rankine
Experimental liquid density correlated as:

4
Estimated Martin-Hou coefficients used:
P (psia). v (cu.Wlb.), T (R), T, = T/T,

KLEAe 134a has been thoroughly tested in a wide range of toxicological
studies. The results have shown that KLEA 134a possesses extremely low
toxicity and that it will be at least as safe in use as the materials that it
Fact Sheet replaces. ICI recommends an occupational exposure limit of lOOOppm as
an 8 hour time-weighted average. For information on the properties and
safe handling of KLEA 134a, please refer to the Material Safety Data Sheet
supplied with the product or available upon request. Further details of
toxicity tests and their results will also be given, if required.
The data presented here represents a combination of measurements and
estimation. ICI Chemicals & Polymers Limited does not guarantee its
accuracy and reserves the right to update the information in future in the
light of the best available knowledge at the time.
The contents of this note are given in good faith but without any liability
attaching to ICI Chemicals & Polymers Limited and it is the user's
responsibility to satisfy himself that the product is entirely suitable for his
purpose. Freedom from rights must not be assumed.
Physical Property Data

For KLEAB 134a*
I PROPERTY UNITS VALUE
Molecular Weight
Boiling Point (14.7 psia) OF
Melting Point F
Critical Temperature OF
Critical Pressure psia
Critical Density Ib/cu ft
Acentric Factor
Trouton's Constant Btuj1b.R
Density (liquid) (70•‹F) Ib/cu ft
Density (sat vapor) at normal boiling point Ib/cu ft
Coeff. Vol. Therm. Exp. (liquid) (40•‹F - 80•‹F) 1/(OF)
Specific Heat (liquid) (70•‹F) Btu/lb.R
Specific Heat (ideal gas) (70•‹F) Btu/lb.R
Latent Heat Vaporization (70•‹F) Btu/lb
Surface Tension Ib,/in
Thermal Conductivity (liquid) (70•‹F) Btu1ft.h.R
Thermal Conductivity (sat vapor) (70•‹F) Btu/ft.h.R
Vapor Pressure (70•‹F) psia
Viscosity (liquid) (70" F) Ib/ft. h
Viscosity (vapor) (70•‹F) Ib/ft. h
Solubility in Water (68•‹F. 14.7 psia) %wt
*Properties specified for 99.98 wt % R- 134a

Standard States
Enthalpy (-4O8F, liquid = 0 Btu/lb.)
Entropy (-40"F,liquid = 0 Btu/lb.R)
olCI Chemicals & Polymers Limited

K L U is a registered trademark, the property of ICI Chemicals & Polymen Limited.
r For more information. contaa
ICI Americas Inc., Chemicals and Polymers Group, Fluorochemicals
Busin- Wilminpoa. DE 19897, (800) 243-KLEA
ICI is playing a leading role in the development of alternative fluorocarbons
to replace the fully halogenated CFCs. A family of alternatives is being
marketed by ICI under the trade name of KLEAa.
THE TOXICOLOGY OF
The KLEA@134a
Toxicology The first of the new ICI compounds is KLEA@ 134a which is a direct
replacement for CFC 12 in its major appIications, especially air-
conditioning and refrigeration. KLEA 134a also has potential as a
replacement for CFC I 1 as an insulation foam blowing agent. HFC 134a
contains no chlorine and is thus ozone friendly.
The results of an extensive range of toxicity tests on KLEA 134a are now
avdable. These tests have included a balanced package of whole animal
and in vitro mutagenicity tests and acute, sukhronic (90-day) and
developmental toxicity inhalation studies The findingshave been subjected
to a demanding review both by ICI's own team of product safety specialists
and by the Program for Alternative Fluorocarbon Toxicity Testing (PAFT),
an industry consortium of which ICI is a founding member. The results of
the studies sponsored by PAFT were made public at the International CFC
ind Halon Alternatives Conference, Washington, D.C., September 29-
October 1, 1992. Based on the P m findings and the evaluation of ICTs
own experts, it has been concluded that KLEA 134a displays extremely low i
mammalian toxicity. A comparison of the toxicological properties of CFC 12
and HFC 134a prepared by PAFT is shown in the Appendix. US EPA, as
a preliminary announcement under the Safe Alternative Policy section of
the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, have stated that HFC 134a is
acceptable for refrigeration and airconditioning applications.
Over many years of widespread use, CFC 12 has proven to be outstandingly,1
safe. Based on the toxicological evidence, KLEA 134a is expected to display
similarly favorable properties.
On the basis of the above analysis, ICI is abIe to recommend the use of
KLEA 134a in domestic, commercial and industrial refrigeration and
air-conditioning applications and in all non-medical uses currently under
consideration.
The refrigerant is contained in equipment in the engine compartment, so 1

that even substantial leakage should not result in significant exposure to the
user in the passenger compartment, Exposures which might occur would be
similar to those experienced for CFC 12. CFC 12 has a long-established
safety record in mobile air-conditioning and the toxicoIogica1 data indicate
that this will continue t o apply to KLEA 1341.
Refrigeratim
For the commercial use of refrigeration equipment, the greatest possible
exposure to KLEA 134a would follow accidental or deliberate damage to the
enclosed system. A single short-lived exposure would occur. The results of
the toxicity tests lead to the expectation that this event wouId tx no more
hazardous for KLEA I 34a than for even the safest refrigerant gas it will
replace.
-
Open-ended Pmblem 60
April l9g4
In domestic applications, the extremely unlikely circumstance of the full
KLEA 134a refrigemnt charge being released instantaneously would give rise
to the highest conceivable exposure levels. The short-lived maximum
concentration would be little or no greater than the levels identified by ICI as
acceptable for long-term occupational exposures. With minimal ventilation,
atmospheric concentrations would rapidly fall to low levels.
The industrid Handling
Toxicology
&
During use of KLEA 134a in the process of manufacture of refrigeration or
air-conditioning equipment, ICI recommends an occupational exposure limit
of 1,000 ppm as an eight-hour time-weighted average. This is the highest
exposure limit set by regulatory authorities for any gas.*
Uther Applications
The results of the toxicity tests indicate that KLEA 134a is acceptable for
all currently proposed nonmedical appiications including insulation foam
blowing. At this time,the specialized testing for use of KLEA 134a in
medical aerosols is continuing.
Conclusion
KLEA 134a has already been more extensively tested and evaluated than
many other chemicals currently in industrial use, and it exhibits a very low
level of toxicological activity. Based upon these favorable toxicoIogica1
properties, it is expected that the safety in use of KLEA 134a will equal or
exceed that of CFC 12 which has an excellent record in air-conditioning and
refrigeration. ICI's product safety team, on the basis of the extensive toxicity
data, recommends the use of KLEA 134a with an occupational exposure
limit of 1,000 pprn as an eight-hour time-weighted average.
*Full details for safe handling of KLU 1% arc dtscribtd in the Marerial Safety Data Shm (MSDS)
supp11edwth tbc product
Opmsnded PmMem 61
April 1994
APPENDIX
HFC 134a - Comparison With CFC 12
HFC 1 34a ( 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane)is being studied as part of the PAFT* I
Pro@?im sector, which began in December 1987. HFC 134a is similar to
CFC 12 in that it has low chemical reactivity and a high degree of stability.
The Both chemicals are gases.
Toxicology CFC 12
Boiling Point
-29.8"C
of HFC 134a -26.5'C
KLEA@134a Acute Toxicity Studies

(short-term exposures to high concentrations, such as accidental
leakages)
Both HFC 134a and CFC 12 are practically non-toxic by the inhalation
route. The 4-hour LC,, for HFC 134a is greater than 500,000 ppm, and for
CFC 12 it is 760,000 ppm. As with other halogenated hydrocarbons, CFC 12
and HFC 134a can, at high dose levels, sensitize the heart to adrenaline. For
CFC 12, the threshold level for cardiac sensitization is 50,000 ppm, while for
,HFC 1 34a it is 75,000 ppm.
Genotoxicity Studies
(efects on genetic material; an early screen for possible carcinogenic
activity)
Both HFC 134a and CFC 12 are inactive in Ames assays and in in vitro
clastogenicity studies, both with and without metabolic sctivation. The
genotoxicity of CFC 12 and HFC 134a in vivo has been investigated in both
a rat cytogenetics study and in a mouse dominant lethal test at levels up to
50,000 ppm. Neither compound affected fertility or caused a mutagenic
effect. Recent work has also shown HFC 134a to be negative in an in vivo
mouse micronucleus assay and in a rat liver unscheduled DNA synthesis
study. Thus, neither material has been shown to represent a significant
genotoxic hazard.
Sub-Chronic Toxicity Studies
(repeated exposure to determine any overall toxicological eflect)
In sub-chronic inhalation toxicity studies, HFC 134a showed no significant
signs of toxicity even at an exposure level of 50,000 ppm, the highest level
tested. In a similar study with CFC 12, no significant signs of toxicity were
seen at an exposure level of 10,000 ppm, also the highest level tested. In
addition, both compounds apparently undergo only minimal levels of
metabolism in rodents.
Developmental Toxicity (Teratology) Studies
(assessment of the potential for causing birth defects)
Several teratology studies have been conducted with HFC 134a. No
developmental effects were seen in inhalation studies with either pregnant
rats or rabbits at levels as high as 300,000 pprn and 40,000 pprn,
respectively. CFC 12 has also been shown not to cause developmental effects
when tested in rats and rabbits at exposure levels up to 50,000 ppm.
-
*PAFI': Program for Alternative Fluorocarbon Toxicity Testing an industry consortium
undertaking the toxicity testing of potential replacements for CFCs.
Statement Releascd by PAFT November 1992
Open-emded PmMem 62
Awil lQPA
Chronic Toxicity/Carcinogenicity Studies
(lifetime testing to assess late-in-liferoxicity or increased incidence
of cancer)
HFC 134a did not cause chronic toxicity nor a carcinogenic response in an
oral study when administered to groups of rats for 1 year at a dose level of
The 300 mg/kg/day followed by lifetime observation. Data from a chronic
inhalation toxicity/carcinogenicity study is currently being evaluated. In this
Toxicology study rats were exposed to levels of up to 50,000 ppm of HFC 134a for 6
hours per day, 5 days per week for 2 years. The in-Iife phase of the study was
of completed in November 1991 and showed no significant adverse effects.
Pathological examination has identified microscopic, benign tumors of
KLEA@I Ma the testes in male rats exposed to 50,000 ppm. No increases in numbers of
tumors of any type were seen at 10,000 ppm exposures. The benign testes
tumors occurred only near the end of the study, and were not life-threatening
to the rats. The toxicological no-effect level is considered to be 10,000 ppm.
CFC 12 also was evaluated in a lifetime inhalation toxicity study. In this
study, groups of rats and mice were exposed to levels of up to 5,000 ppm fix
6 hours per day for 2 years. Again, no significant signs of toxicity and no
evidence of carcinogenicity were seen.
Su=ary
The PAFT I program on HFC 134a is now complete with the exception of
the final reporting (expected early in 1993) of the chronic study, for which
both the in-life phase and the pathology are now complete. All results
availabIe to date show that HFC 134a will be at least as safe in use as
CFC 12. The results indicate that the product is safe for use in domestic,
commercial, and industrial refrigeration and air conditioning applications,
and in all other currently proposed industrial applications, provided that the
recommended normal hygiene practices are obsewed. Most PAFT companies
have set an occupational exposure limit for HFC 134a of 1,000 ppm
(eight-hour time-weighted average). Some applications, such as medical
aerosols, will require hrther testing
An Introduction To
Refrigeration Lubricants
Chemicals & Polymers

- - The Montreal Protocol has set time scales for the phase-out of CFCs. ICI has played, and wdl
continue to play, a leading role in assisting the refrigeration and air-conditioning industries
ICI- in the transition to alternative refrigerants.
Meeting As a result of this commitment, ICI has developed its range of Emkarat- RL refrigeration
The Need lubricants for use with CFC alternatives. Designed specifically to meet the rigorous perfor-
mance demands of the refrigeration industry, Emkarate RL refrigeration lubricants have
evoIved with over five years of intimate collaborative research with major refrigeration
compressor and system manufacturers around the world.
ICI offers the global refrigeration industry world-scale production and distribution of a p
proved refrigerants and lubricants fully compIemented by a worldwide technical resource.
Ongoing research and technical senrice activities are supported regionally by dedicated
facilities in Europe, the United States and Japan.
All experimental data contained in this literature has been generated for Emkarate RL re-
frigeration lubricants in combination with KLEA" 134a, the first commercially available alter-
native refrigerant intended as a replacement for CFC 12. Similar physical and performance
data will be generated for other alternative refrigerants as they become available.
-
ICI is fully committed and will continue to meet the needs of the refriqeration industry in
order to fdcilitate the transition from CFCs.
Emkarale RL refrigeration lubricants may be ordered from any one of ICI's Sales Offices
which are located around the world. The local office WIU also be happy to assist with any
Cu~lomerSenice and other queries regarding these prodock. Specialist lechnical assistance is alro available.
DkWlltibll Ernkarate RI refrigeration lubricants can be supplied in road tank wagons or non-rehlmable
200 kg net mild steel dnuns. Smaller volumes are available from ICI's authorized distributor
of Emkarate RL refrigeration lubricants, Virginia KMP.
ICI continues to develop lubricants for use with alternative refrigerants and to meet the
needs of the refrigeration industry. For information on these products, please contact your
local Sales Office in the first instance.
Emkarate RL refriqeration lubricants are not classed as hazardous under international trans-
port regulations, h.,UN, IMO, RID, ADR and ICAO~VITA
Classification
Emkarate RL refrigeration lubricants have high flash points. They are expected to have a
very low systemic toxicity. Nevertheless, good industrial practices should be used when han-
lafling and Storage dling these products. There should be good ventilation of working areas, and contact with
the skin and eyes should be avoided by the use of protective gloves and goggles.
Any splashbs in the eye(s) should be removed by washing with plenty of wafer; splashes on
the skin should be removed by washing with soap and water.
M a r a t e RL refrigeration lubricants are hygroscopic and suitable precautions should be
taken to prevent moisture absorption from the air.
Emkarate RL refrigeration lubricants may be stored in mild steel tanks or drums.
If this material is redistributed or reformulated for sale, details of the methods for safe ha-
dling should be passed to all customers.
Information on toxicology, environmental matters and safety in handling is continually u p

dated by ICI. This information Is provided in Material Safety Data Sheets supplied with the
TOX~C O products
~ O ~ and separately upon request.
Enquiries should be directed to your nearest Sales C)fiice.
Customers are urged to ensure that the product is entirely suitable for their own purposes
ICI can frequently help in these technical decisions if required.
ICI Americas Inc. IC1 Chemical ProducLs

(Head Office) WilmirytOn PO Box 90, Wilton
DE 19897 USA Middlesbro h
ICI Sales Offices el: (3021886-3000
Tekx: 49456U9 ICI U1
Cleveland TYE ME UK
Tel: Eston Gran e (0642) 454144
Fax: 1302) 8862972
1 .
Telex: 587461181 WWC G
Fax: (0642) 432444
V 'nia KMP Cofp. Vi nla Refrigeratian Ltd.

41% Platinum Way 12?Ueldllars Road
Dallas, TX 75237 USA Southsea
fistranted by T ~ I(214)
: m~mr
toll Free: 1-800473-5074
~ortsmouth
Hants PO5 4NL UK
Fax: 1-8W77-8567 England
Tek 0705 756365
Fax: 0705 294349
~ ~ r # d h t m p d P a t b n ~ r r o m w v r ( r ~ l o ~ i r W b b o ~ . n d h ~ i n p o o d h i t h . M & k f g r I h
U ~ m s a ( i s ~ i * M n d ~ r u i u ~ ~ o f ~ R o d u n l o r I b o v m p u r m u ~ - I C I ~ n o ~ r s m ~ ~ o ? t h s R
p w p a snd a q implied *ammy u mi
t
ion (srahnory a -1 D exch&cl srwpl lu the slctat that erdusbn is p e v a M &
h ~El. -noP.bin).lor louadurrpl(uUwthmch.! a m h horn
~ death orpenorvl injurycauwd by a d e l m Pmducl. ifproved)
~ ~ ~ m ~ i d a m n n n . F ~ v l d s r P a t s m ~ . n d ~ i g m m ~ D . r u u r m d .
Castrol have supplied compressor lubricants to the
refrigeration industry since the 1940's. The original
products, for use with ammonia and carbon dioxide
refrigerant gases, were mineral oils. With the advent of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) refrigerants in the late 1940qs,
naphthenic crude oils of low wax content were used to yield
low floc point oils. As compressor design evolved, increasing
the demands on the lubricant with higher discharge
temperatures and speeds, new synthetic lubricants were
introduced to the market place. During the 1970's Castrol
introduced alkyl benzene and, in the 1980's, polyalphaolefin
lubricants into their product range under the lcematic
branding.
Since the advent of new non-ozone depleting

hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants, which are not
compatible with normal oils, Castrol's chemists and
engineers have been working to develop a new series of
HFC miscible lubricants. The development thrust has been in
close cooperation with leading compressor manufacturers
and refrigerant gas suppliers, primarily using the first
commercialised non-ozone depleting refrigerant HFC R1Ma,
and has culminated in the Castrol lcematic SW series of
refrigeration compressor lubricants.
Castrol are ideally placed to support the international

refrigeration industry. Castrol companies are located in
39 countries worldwide and a distribution network is
in place in a further 100 countries.
0pensnd.d Problem 74
April 1994
The Requirements for New Compressor Lubricants
Conventional compressor lubricants are miscible with CFC and
hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants but are immiscible
with the non-ozone depleting HFC alternatives. Use of a
conventional immiscible lubricant in conjunction with HFC R134a
adversely affects the efficiency of the refrigeration unit. Oil plugs
separate from the liquefied refrigerant within the condensor of the
system, impeding the flow and causing spluttering as they pass
through the restrictor (capillary tube or expansion valve) into the
evaporator. Once transferred to the evaporator of the system, the
immiscible oil settles at the bottom of the tubes causing further
impedance to the gas flw and reducing heat transfer efficiency.
In a severe case, lack of oil return to the compressor can promote
component wear and eventual failure through lubricant starvation.
.
Qmwmded Problem a 75
April 1994
Product Technology
The Castrol lcematic SW series of lubricants is based on synthetic
polyol esters and formulated with additives. The polyol ester base
stocks are new components which have been specifically
synthesised by Castrol for the purpose of compressor lubrication
in conjunction with HFC refrigerants. Polyol ester based lubricants
are the most stable within the diverse ester family of products.
Aviation Gas Turbine Lubrication is one of the most severe

applications that any lubricant must endure. The polyol ester
based lubricants have to withstand the temperature range of
below -40•‹C to above +250•‹C where all mineral oils and many
synthetic products would fail.
Castrol is a major supplier of synthetic aviation lubricants and has

drawn on this experience in developing the Castrol lcematic SW
range.
The Use of Additives

Castrol have formulated a low treat, ashless and highly effective
additive package into the lcematic SW product range to provide
important performance benefits over non-formulated products.
These benefits include :
No copper plating of compressor components

0 Increased hydrolytic stability
0 Reduced compressor wear
Typical Physical Properties and Compressor

Applications
Castrol lcematic SW refrigeration lubricants have excellent
physical properties. The Viscosity Index (the relationship between
the lubricant's viscosity at 40•‹C and 100•‹C) is typically above
100, which is significantly higher than conventional naphthenic
mineral oils which are usually less than 20. This means that the
April 1994
icematic SW lubricants are thmner at low temperatures, reducing
compressor power consumption and improving oil return from the
evaporator. Conversely, at high operating temperaturesthey
retain their viscosity better than naphthenic oils, pmviding a
strong boundary film lubrication to the compressor, even under
the most arduous temperatures experienced during high ambient
temperature conditions. The lubricants have similar pour points
and considerably higher flash points than comparable viscosity
naphthenic oils.
Kinematic Vlscmlty, 40•‹C(cSu ASTM 0445

Kinematic Yiscrmty, 1OO•‹C (c.3 ASTM a445
Pour Pant ("fl ASTM 097
ClwedFbshPainto m m3
Total acid number (mgKOHlg) KTM p 4
Hydmxyl number (mgKOWg)
Water (ppm)
Wour aoha
Applkation :D6mastic/lndusMaVAbCondltkrrIng
Camprsssor TYPE
-
Reciprocating Hermetic
-
Reciprocating Semi-hermetic
Rotary
Scroll
mtnfugal
Screw
Camp~Typs:
-
Recipmating Semi-Hermefic
Ralary Vane
Swash Prate
Miscibil'i with Refrigerant Gases

Castrol lcematic SW lubricants utilise new polyol ester basestocks
that have been specifically synthesised to provide excellent
miscibility with HFC R134a over a wide temperature range. The
products have been tested with many refrigerantgases and found
to be miscible with most CFC, HCFC and HFC R134a.
-
Apram .
heated to 95•‹C and bubbled with oxygen (30cc/min), with copper
and steel catalysts immersed in the emukion. The lcematic SW
products are very resistant to hydrolysis. The acidity rise was
restricted to 7mgKOWg after completion of the 1000 hour test
period. The non-formulated base stock suffered a rapid rise in
acidity to 160mgKOWg after only 500 hwrs when the test was
terminated. The true level of breakdown is likely to be
considerably higher than this, considering that many of the acid
breakdown products are volatile.
Hygroscopicity
Castrol lcematic SW lubiicants are more hygmscoplc than
naphthenic mineral oils. They saturate at approximately 1000ppm
from atmospheric moisture, compared to about 100ppm for
mineral oils. The Icematic SW lubricants are considerably less
hygroscopicthan polyalkylene glycol lubricants (the first
generation of oils developed for use with HFC R134a) which
saturate in excess of 1% water (10,000 ppm).
Due to the hygroscopic nature of the Casbol Icematic SW

lubricants, care should be taken in handling the prduct lo
minirnise atmospheric exposure and retain its dried (typically
50ppm water) condition.
Water Ingms
Into Refrlgmtlorr
Lubricants. Opbn
vessel, agbted,
mRH.
Thermal Stability
The Ashrae 97 sealed tube stability test was developed to assess
the thermal stability of refrigerant gas. The refrigeration industry
has adopted the test in a modified form to assess the stability of
lubricants with the new HFC refrigerants. Castrol lcematic SW
lubricants have been extensively screened in this test, in which
metal specimens typical of compressor construction have been
introduced, both in-house and by compressor manufacturers. The
metal specimens suffer no degradation after the 2 week test at
1 7 5 O C , in conjunction with a variety of refrigerants. The lubricant
retained its original colour and acidity levels at, or slightly below,
that of the unused oil.
Ashrae 97 Sealed Tube Stability Test 175OC/14 Days
sw 68
SW68 CFC R12 BngM
'SW 68
Hydrolytic Stability
The hydrolytic stability of any ester based lubricant is essential for
the long term durability of the refrigeration system, particularly as
relatively high water levels can be present within the working
unit.
The lcematic SW lubricants have been subjected to the TOST

thermal and oxidative stability test, where an oiVwater emulsion is
-
O p u w d d Problem 80
April 1994
Pet Insulation Compatibility
PET insulation material is used in insulating the motor winding of
compressors and is in contact with both the refrigerant gas and
lubricant. Tests have shown that the Casbol Icematic SW
lubricants perform similarly to naphthenic oils on PET elasticity
and tensile strength. HFC R134a can reduce the elasticity of P I 3
insulation. The manufacturers are developing low oligomer
content variants to minimise this effect
Wear Tests
Chlorinated additives have for many years been used to provide
reduced wear on internal working components. Similarly,
chlorinated refrigerants have provided excellent anti-wear
properties in refrigeration compressors. With the elimination of
chlorine in non-ozone depleting refrigelants, this wear protection
is no longer available and has to be borne by the lubricant alone.
HFC refrigerants are indeed detrimental to cornponerrt wear,
thinning the lubricant whilst providing no wear pmtection.
The Castrol icematic SW lubricants, thanks to their balanced

formulation of additives and base stock, posses excellent
anti-wear performance characteristics, giving negligible steel
wear in bench tests. This has been successfully translated into
excellent compressor results of low wear in rapid life tests and in
Zhe field.
Open-ended Pmblenr 81
April 1994
-
-
Falex Rotating Pin on Loaded Vee Blocks
Non-formulated ester None 1.150

Icematic SW 68 None 1,800
IS0 VG 100 naphthenic CFC R12 900
Non-formulated ester CFC R12 1.400
lcematic SW 68 CFC R12 2,300
Non-formulated ester HFC R134a 1,500 36
lcematlc SW 68 HFC R134a 2,400 c1
FZG gear test results have been generated for centrifugal

compressor manufacturers where the gear box can share the
same lubricant as the compressor.
FZG Gear Test Resutts
lcematic SW 32
I 10
12 I
Elastomers
Elastomer compatibility of the lubricant and refrigerant is critical
for open compressor systems. The shaft seal '0' ring should swell
slightly under the effect of lubricant and refrigerant to ensure an
effective seal against the positive pressure within the compressor.
Should the seal suffer excessive shrinkage or swelling, leakage
will occur and the refrigerant charge will be lost from the system.
Castrol recommends that only compressorsfitted with Nitrile

Butadiene (NBR), Hydrogenated Nitrile Butadiene (HNBR) or
Neoprene rubbers be used with HFC R134a and lcematic SW
lubricants. Thls is particularly important when converting an
existing CFC or HCFC system to HFC R134a, to ensure that the
shaft seal is compatible. If it is not a new one must be fitted.
Conversion of Existing CFC Refrigeration Plant to HFC

Refrigerants
With the impending phase out of CFC refrigerants, users have only
two options to adopt longer term alternative refrigerants :
1) Switch to HCFC R22

2) Convert existing equipment to HFC refrigerants
Aw11994
The initial preferred route (in the absence of a suitable conversion
procedure to adopt HFC refrigerants) was to switch existing
equipment using harmful CFC refrigerants to HCFC R22. This
approach entails considerable cost to the user in terms of
hardware, requiring at least a new compressor and condenser.
HCFC refrigerants are ozone depleting, albeit less so than CFC's,
and can therefore only be regarded as a short term solution.
In response to this, in 1990 Castrol successfully pioneered a

unique procedure for converting existing CFC-12 refrigeration
systems to the new non-ozone depleting HFC 134a. This is called
the "Castrol Retrofill Procedure" and a patent has been applied
for.
The 'Castrol Retrofill Procedure" has proved to be the most

practicable and economical approach and has been widely
adopted by the refrigeration industry. Written procedure
documents are available for several refrigeration applications.
The procbdure entails the necessary removal of the original

mineral lubricant, which is not compatible with R134a. The
system is flushed of its original oil by draining the compressor
and then recharging with Castrol lcematic SW. The system then
runs normally with ds original CFC-12 refrigerant. The "Castrol
Retrofill Procedure" is environmentally friendly as it totally
eliminates the need for the traditional CFC-11 solvent flush
method of cleansing systems and utilises lubricants which are
biodegradable.
During the flushing cycle, a fully compatible system is maintained

as the Castrol lcematic SW lubricant is entirely miscible with the
original oil and refrigerant. Through normal operation of the
refrigeration cycle, the residual mineral oil retained within the
system is returned to the compressor sump. The number of
flushes and the time required for the flushing stage are dependant
on the size and application of the original refrigeration equipment
but has never exceeded three.
April 1994
Through repeat oil changes with Castrol lcematic SW, the residual
mineral oil contamination is reduced to the recommended level of
below 1%. Residual mineral oil within the system will adversely
affect unit efficiency as miscibility of the oil mixture and R134a at
low temperatures is reduced correspondingly according to the
level of contamination. The Castrol kematk SW series has
excellent low temperature miscibility with R134a and can
therefore tolerate a higher level of contamination than competitor
lubricants.
c a s w kmiltlc sw
Refrigeration Mk
"
4
Miscibility of Icemat& SWI
Naphthenic mixtures with 30
A1341 rn
0 1 2 3 4 5 8 7 8 9 10 11
Naph?henkoil contaminant In kematic SW 32 ('96)
The formulated Castml lcematic SW products have been

extensively tested and have proved to be fully compatible with
April 1994
chlorinated refrigerants and solvents. No copper plating problems
have been experienced with Castrol lcematic SW. We therefore
have no need to advise maximum level of contamination from
chlorinated residues. Indeed, systems can undergo the oil
changes now, as a preparation for conversion, and tun with the
original R12 until such time as R134a becomes readily available
and similarly priced. This is expected to be in 1995.
Toxicity
The Castrol lcematic SW lubricants are listed on EINECS and TSCA
registers and classified as being of no significant hazard. The
products are despatched with a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS),
which provides information on handling and what to do in case of
spillage.
Castrol Customer Senrice

Castrol lcematic SW lubricants can be ordered from any Castrol
company throughout the world. Representatives from your local
Castrol company will be happy to provide advice and assistance
relating to the lcematic SW series of refrigeration lubricants.
Castrol companies offer a full s~pport'~ackage to customers,
including technical assistance and routine returned oil analysis.
Castrol is committed to serving the refrigeration industry with

the highest quality compressor lubricants in order to ease the
transition to environmentally friendly refrigerants. Cooperative
agreements are in place with several refrigerant gas
manufacturers, ensuring that Castrol remains at the forefront of
refrigeration lubricant technology, and linking the development of
new lubricants to new alternative refrigerants as they themselves
are developed. These agreements enable Castrol to maintain an
overview of the research and new developments in refrigerants
across a wide cross-section of the chemical industry.
Distribution
Castrol companies will supply lcematic SW products directly to
compressor manufacturers and designated distnbutors. The
service sector will have access to the products through a variety
of sources; Castrol, OEM and refrigerant gas manufacturer
distribution networks, and larger independent wholesale
companies.
Castrol lcematic SW lubricants can be supplied in bulk tankers,

55 gallon non-returnable mild steel drums. 5 gallon pails and
6 x 1 gallon cases.
O~en-endedProblem 85
April 1994
Y0d.l
ssc;lml
--
11w
QT
1wSa
x
m44150
w
2wa
Motor
Type
wpksmom
CVA
m.
.3125.11
CUR
e b m l n l ~ ~ . t S l u l d . r d F W n g C m d . tcompmmw
BnWR
650
(Wl(hAb-ComP-w
K U U H R WATTS AMPS B t U M
164 in 1-20 5.12

Coollnp
FAN
=2r
LBS.
23
KO.
C#nprror
,,
"WlI
II. CY.
10.43 8.25 20.95
3SGlO7-1 X 1 5.92 ' 768 194 t47 120 5.22 FAN

0
i=
3SGlOBl X 95 .401 657 #7 218 164 1.35 5-28 FAN
5:
iSGlOsl X 5 .427 6.99 843 238 176 157 5a. FAN
m s
jSGlt1-l X
-94
07
8
.5m a.19 1141 289 213 1-89 5.39 FAN
jSG112-1 X S54 9.08 1274 314 240 218 5.32 FAN
m113-1 X -597 9.78 1373 346 256 238 5.96 FAN

-
b Alw avsilaMs with dl a d e f tubes desfmated as "200" series n'tOdel3, i.9. SSG106 becomes SSG20g.
h m p f w m can be used with either FAN or STATIC CONDENSER.
FAN
FAN
FAN
3-
FAN g
a
FAN 8
7
FAN 0,
FAN
FAN
-
Abo avdlabb with oil codsr tubes designated aa "2W M e s models, i.8. HGIOB hamma HG20B.
mpsmr car^ be used with either FAN or STAT#: C O H O W E R
- I
I t STANDARD RATlNd CONDITIONS
AU MODELS
April 1994
A p i l 1994
United States Risk Reduction
Envimnmental Proteaion Engineering Laboratory
Agency ~ i i c i n n a t i . 045268
~ '
Research and Development EPPJ600ER-92Q26 Mar f 993
EPA Project Summary

Life Cycle Design Manual:
Environmental Requirements
and the Product System
Gregory A. Keoleian and Dan Menerey
mmgmwt, distribution, and

trprowd rrrenagemenl (which
hdudeQ hfwmetian prwisia~).Environ-
menial awlysia toob for devekping r*
qutumnb and evaluatii dwign alterna-
haraaltfined.
n l i s ~ s t r m m s r y ~ ~ o p
bythsUlhnersityor~forth3EPA's
RkJr kdmYm Engineenirg bbomtory,
Cine;ihmf$ Off, Ib a ~ ~ u n key
c a fiMings
Ofihr~prcrjectthiTtisfullyd~
m + n # h m ~ ~ d a C l o s a m e
trtk(Sm~RgpOrtarden'~inf0
timat bsdrJ
omvlew
The p u p s a of the Me CJCb Ossfgn
is to promote envimrnental impact
and mlr redmion through d q n . This project
cxlmplements the EPA's l h Qwb Assess-
merrt Rqhd whkh Is devebpmg gudelines
for lie cyde invsrrtory ana)ysts. The frame
work dewbped in this prow guides desgn-
ers to redwe aggregae impaets w a t e d
with their prod- Simesful h i m p a
des- mw! W w&y perfwmance, cat.
CUklJml and bgal airetia
lnvosbgatffn d the design litemure and
intwkws with 40 design pd8ssbnak wn-
Wuted to the dewbprnent af a basic frame-
wxk Pw lfe cyde deslgn The interviews were
--
co- to identdy barriers and the infor-
m- and tools medad ta aehive environ-
mental o b p c h s . M e Cyde Desrgn Demon-
* P r o m are being mnduc!ed with
AT&T Bell labs ard Allled Signal to test the
design frameulork
A summary d the seven chapters con-
tained in & Manual: Ewrorr
7a d Biosphere
badc on others. fhi emphasizm the R d and development dsmms ntw Needs are then e x p n d d into a full set of
tinual search for impved prod- a p p m e s for reducing envirwlrnwtal im- design aiteria that indudes environmental re-
Ue cyde goals are W e d af the top to p% The~ state cd the environment provides quirernerrts. -1 designs balance en-
i n d d e their fundamental importame, Un- a cornex! for design. In life cycle design, vironmental, performance, cost. cultural, and
Iess these goals are e m b d by the bra currenl and Mure envhnmenlal needs are legal requirements. Design ahematrves are
devebpment team, true life cycle design & trarrsMed into appropbte desgns. proposed to meet these requmments. The
imposs~ble. A t y p d design project begins with a needs devekpment team continuously evaluates al-
Management ex- a ma@r influence on analysis, then proceeds thrwgh fmuhting temativss throughout design. If studies show
all phases d devebpment Both awrwrrent requirements, rnnwptual d e q n , preliminary that requirements cannd be met or reason-
design and total quality management prwide design, detailed design. and implementation. abiy mod'med, the project should end.
models for life cyde design. In a d d f i , ap Ourirg the needs analysis, the purpose and FinaIty, designs are implemented after final
p q n a t e carporate poky, strategic planning, s a p of the pmpd are defined. and custom- approval a d dosure by the development
and measures of success are needed to e s are dew identified. team.
suppon design projeds.
-
open-ended Pmblem 94
April 1994
- Cornmianent from all levels d m a l q +
rnentisavitalparldHecjdedesrgn.Qqm
rate environmental p d i i must be M e d
into specific criteria to ham a signffbnl e M
on p d u d and process design abivities. Ob-
m e s and guidelinss need to be estab-
-Awl-
Design pro* arstornady begin by r e
ognang h need for change or umvering
an opportunity for new produ development
The first step in any prom should t x identi.
fylng cwtorners and their needs. AvoKjing
wrrfusion between t M or ephemeral de-
Eanarrrerrt pradices, activities in several
phasss may be oaxrmng at the same trme.
UmlmWls
M d data and models for deteminmg
lifecyde i m w makes analysis dflcutt. Labc
of rnuthatbn can also be a pfvblem. When
-
lished in enough detail to pmvide useful guid- sires ard aelual n& is a m a p challenge the scape of design is bmadened from that
ance in design debs'mmaking. of life cyde descgn. pcRion d the life cycle controlled by indtvld~al
The progress of life cycte design progranss Or~8signmcantneeds have been identi- players to &her partidpants, interest In lie
should be m i b r e d and assessed ~ 6 i q fied, the p j d s scqx can be defined. This cycb design can dwindle. ft can be diffiicuk for
dearty established environmemal and finan- entaii W i n g system boundaries, cham- one party to take actions that mainly benefit
aal measures. Aqpropde measures of strc- teriring analysis m e w , and estaMishing a
cess are neoessary to rotivate individuals prafea lime line ard bdget In addition, c b Ctrepber 4. Requlremerrts
wirhin dembpment teams to pursue environ- vekqment teams should decide whether the
mentai irnpad and he& risk redudidns p w will foas on improving an e&ng Fwmubting mqukernerns s one af the vast
product creang the next generrdidn madel, critical activities in rife cycle design. A well-
Concurrent Desgn or devdcpng a new product conoeived set of requirements translates
Life eyde design is a logical extensh of In chocrsing an appropriate system baud- pro@! objectives hto a defined solution space
aancurrent manufacturing, a praredure based ary b r design. the dwekpment team must for design.
on simuttaneolls design of produd feah~ras initially consider the full life eycEe. More re- In lie cyde design, emimnmenta! fum-
and manufaeNring prooesses. In cmtmst to strided system boundaries must be properly hrrs are uitied to overall system qwlrty. For
projects hat i d a t e design grwps from each justmed. Beginningwith the rest cornwehen- this reason, envimnrnental requirements
other, wnarrrent dssign brkgs participants sive system, desgn and analysis can f o c ~ shoM be devebped a! the same time as
together in a single team. By having all actors perfonname, cost, cultural. and legal cnteria
on the:
in the life cycle particpate in a projed from full lie cyde, AU requirements must be balaMsd in suc-
the outset. problem that devebp between partiallifeqde,~ cessful dmigns. A produd tha! fails in tt:e
different disciplim can Ix reduead. E M indivdual stages or a2Mh6. rn- Meb na one.
teamwork also reduces devlebpmerrt time,
bwers m,and can improve quality.
Chi d the full life eyde system win
prwide the greatest oppomtnities for mhm- w- Requirements d d h products m tms of
merrtaf irnpad reductm.
Life cyde Qual'ny funetans, mribut~~, and mnstmints. F m
Narrowly b n d e d systems may pcPnde &ws d e s c h what a swoessful deslgn does.
Envitwmental aspecb are dosely irked useful resub, but the limitations mrst be
with quality in Iiie qde design Companies Fundions should state &iit a design does.
recognized and dearly staled. Stages may na haw it is arxrxnplkhed. Afhbuies are
wh3 bok beyord q u a pfihts to fears m be omitted if they are &or mt affeded by
customers, rnufMiilinary teamwork. and furlfier d d k that pravrde s d u l daswiption
a new desjgn. In all cases,desrgners workjqof fundiorts. GmsfmnB am mnditions that
-
mperatiDn with s u p p l i provide a model on a m r e limited s& shoukl be aware of
for life cycle desgn. The life cycle framewwlc the design must meet to sat* p q e d goals.
potential upstream and dcmnstream imwcts. Gxtdraints provide limits on f u n m s that
expands tfiese horirnns to indde sodetal Compd~e analysis, alsD referred to as
and environmental needs. Life cyck design m s k the~ design & to manageable ar-
benchmarkiq, is necessary to &manstrate
may thus build on total qualii managemmt, that a new design or modification is an im- eas.
or be incwparaled in a TOM program. In life prwement over axnpetitive ar &ern* de Considerable & a d analysis are
qda design, the environment b atso seen as needed to dewbp p r requirements. Too
sism few requirernenB usually indicates !hat the
a customer. Pollvtion and cher impads am
qual'i defeds tha mu& be reduced. Uki- design is a m b i i
male success dspends on preserving envC Requiremen& define the expected design T h level d detail expressed in requirs
runmental qualtty while sattdying t r a d i i outcome. D e s i a b l a h s are evaluated menor d w on tfie type of devebprnem
customers and empbyees. on how well they meet requ~rements.When- projxL P r q m d requirements for new prod-
evw psble, requirements shou# be M e d uds arn usually lass detailed than those set
Team BuiIding for imprwnrg an existing pradoet.
expf#tty tn help the design team translate
Life cyck, design d m on rids into e f f d desqm
pinary teams. These teams may indude any SuxaduI devebpment teams p k e re-
CP9eofReqvl~hmix
of the following life cycle partieiparrts: ac- A muhilayer requirements matrix provides
quirements betore m n . Rushing into de
counting, adverbsing, wmmunity, -me#, sqn Wore objectives are defined often re- a wematic Id for formularjrq a thor~ug~l
distributionlpackaging. environmental re- set d envimmental, perfwmance. cast, cut-
sob in farled products. turd. a d legal requirements A schematic of
sources staff, government regulafcWstm
dads sming organizations, industrial design-
ers, lawym, management markstingisah,
m- The fofbwing phase3 d devebpment are
this mulMajer matrix is shwn in Fgure 3.
A pra&A m m shouu be formed by
proeass desgnsrs and engineers, p m r e nd signirmnFy ahred by iife cycle design: further suMividing the mws and cclumns of
rnenffpurchasing. prodmion wrkers, re- mncephral design, prehinary design, this wncaptual mat& Matrices alkw product
search and devebprnerrt staff, and senrice tailed desgn. and implementation. During dwebpmenl teams to carefully st* the In-
personnel. Effectively oorrrdinaing these these phases, the devebpment team synthe- terdqxdemes and i n t e d n s between He
teams and baiancrng the divwse interasts of sizes vatidus requirements into a cbherent cyde requirements. They alsa provide a con-
all partrapants presents a sgnrfimnt chal- venient t o d for identm/rng d i d s between
desgn. Bec;ause life q d e dwgn is based on
lenge. requhents and danfylng trdedfs that must
well as the eewystem pdemiafly irnpaded. tainiw
Eoobgical stress ager& can b aeategomed inspedh
as dremlcal (e.g., toxic chemieats released to manifesting
h e environment), physical (e.g., haa! de- labeliq
-
t
s through bggiq], and b i d (in- preparedness and protectwe
trodudion of an exotic spedas) agents equpment
Human h& nsk assessment i n d W d o s u r dwure
~ care
hazard dmbkah, risk assesunent, expo- m e d W sunreillance
sure a s s m e n f and risk charaneriratiotl. UsrcelCos& insurancelspeaal taxes
Human health and safety nsks can a h be Life cjde aceountiq first identifies traji-
assessed using models that evalude pm tional capnal ard opedng expemas and q-
eass system reliiility. rewnues for produd systems Many bw- Liab~ltyeosrs ~ndudefines due to nonmm-
impad c b g n s offer benefits when evaluated p I ' i and future filiiies for remed!al x-
Chaptet 7. Ufe Cyde Aoaountlng soletybylsual~Suchcostsatingscan tion, persona4 injury, and prgwrty damage.
Traditional acwunting praetjces need to b be achieved tfrmgh m i d arrd energyam- Amding liability through desrgn is the wsest
modified to mom fully refled the total costs d sewalbn, elimiMtian or r e d w n of pdlution mum. Becaose estimating potentla1 e m -
pollution and resource d e p k n . lmprwed mrrtrol equpmea nonhazardous and haz- mnrnerW l i i l i msts is d i i v P these costs
acmunting pradioes can be a key element in a r d w~ a ~e drsposal effts, and tabor costs. are often understated.
facilitating l i e cyde design. Paxrunting mcrth-
ods outlined in this chapter are based on the costs LessTang#eCosfs
total ast assessment model. H a e n costs cxxlsist mainly of reguktary Many less tangible and benef& m y
At present most cost system in c&s a s x i a e d with produd system devel- be relad la usual msts, haden regutarary
business are based on financial azcmhg. opment Many hidden casts incurred by a cosff, and l ' ~ 1 ' iEstimang intaq~bles
Because these system are dasrgnd to serve ampany are gathered fw &re f a d l i and such as mrpome image or worker morale IS
reporting &er than management functiom. assigned to avehead. drtficuk as is pmjectlng improvements In mar-
Hiddm regulatwy costs indude the fdbw- ket share or benefits derived from improved
-
enwonmental costs are usually gathered an
the f z i l i i level These msts are added to ing (this s onty a partial fist): arstwner ky*.
owmead and then assigned to qxmk prod- w-
monitoring equ'pment
uds for management purposes. Albcation
msthods vary in -ray, but future aAmces preparedness and protective
may allow gathering of much more m m e equ@ment
pcoduct-specific ms&. ditional technobgy
Lfe cjde d s g n benefrk from an
estimate of costs related to devebping and nonfication
using prducts. Material and enesgy fbws reporting
prowde a de?aiMtemplate for assignmg costs monitofl~esting
to j n d i u a l pducts. F o l h n g the tdal dost recard keeping
planning/studstudleslmodeIiq
Aptl1994
memelities (custs b m e by society mher d b s do r#t aeaw b firms, aaxnrntirrg the University of M i a n under ttre sponsor-
than the mpmble parties) a h preserrt systems wdl not refled these costs, and li!e she of the U.S. Environmental- Proteam
pcoblems. These cosEs am the smpa e)cle =tMmg will remain imrnplste. Agency-
cf m n t i n g a p m As bng as codts for fhe fuU report was sLbmitted in fuffiherrt
pdfutm. resourn depletion. and other exter- of Ccqsmtive @reement No. 817570 by
Gregwy A. Kdeian and Dan Menerey cm rvith the Nabbnal m n Pmven-

tion Center, Universr*lyof MiaFlgan, Ann A&r, MI 48ru9-1 1 15
Wry Ann Cwrrrn is the €PA Prq'wt OHCcer (see Mow).
The wmpleto re*, entitled W h Cyde Design Manual: Envimmentai
Requimments and the Product Systemo(Order No. PB93-XXX XXXAS;
Coss $XX.oo, sobjed ro change) will be amYBIIalde
from;
National T&nfcal tnfomationSam'ee
52# Pott Royd Road
Springfield, VA 22 161
Tetephone: 703476656
me EPA Pmiecf ffir can be mtacled at:
Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory
US. Environmental Protectr'm Agoncy
Cinannati, OH 45268
1 I
United States
Environmental Pratection Agency I BULK RATE
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
EPA
Center for EnvironmerrtalResearch Information
Cincinnati, OH 45268
I PERMIT No. G-35 I
OWrcial Business
Penalty for Private Use
$300
Open-ended Pmbhn 98
April ?9W
APPENDIX D
*Sample thennod ynamic calculations for R-12 using

pressureenthalpy diagram
*Sample calculationsfor R-134a using saturated

property tables and ideal gas heat capaaties
*Cddation of refrigerant mass flow rate
*Calculationof internal heat transfer coeffiaents (h),
overall heat transfer coefficients (U), and heat ex-
changer areas
*Maximurn allowable energy consumption under the

1993 D O E standard.
*Calculation of total a n d energy consumption of

refrigerator as a function of the heat load. Used in
Figure 5 and Figure 6
April 1994
*The following is a Maple programSwhich does the calculations for H-134a:

April 1994
The following is the output from the above program:
conmtants :- falrr, g-, infinity, troc, Catalm, E. I. P f , el .. a5
CpL :- - 3 4 1
r h 3 r - 3.515029537
nuv :- .5592711051
-
April 1994
Calculation of refrigerant mass flow rate
from definition of Pull Down Time, we need to first calculate the load the refrigerator has to handle.
need properties of air:

C, = 0.25 BWlb-"F
mo, = o . IMP
~
fresh focd section:

refrigeration load needed = V of fresh food section x rho, x C,
= 13 x 0.081 x 0.25 = 0.263 BtuPF
AT= (90-38)=52
Load = 0263 x 52 = 13.7 Etu
freezer:
refrigeration load needed = Volume of freezer x rho, x C,
= 5 x 0.081 x 0.25 = 0.101% 8tuPF
AT= (90-5) = 85
Load = 0.10125 x 85 = 8.61 Etu
thus total heat load = 13.7 + 8.61 = 22.31 Btu
Pull Down Time is 2 minutes

==> pull down capacity = 22-31 Btul2 minutes
=> load refrigeration cyde must handle = 2231 BtuQ minufes
= 669.3 BTUlhr = 670 BtWtr
check for reasonable pull down time when operating at extreme design conditions:
Load = 0.263 (110 - 37) + 0.1 0125 (110 - 0) = 30.34 Btu
Pull Down Time = 30.34/670 = 0.045 hr = 2.7 hnutes =r 0.K
Calculate refrigerant mass flow rate, e.g. R-12:

I
RE = Refrigeratian Effect of R-12 = 44.8 Btunb (from above calculations)

=> mdot = mass flow rate of R-12 = Load I RE
==> mdot = 670144.8 = 14.96 lWhr
Calculation of infernal heat transfer coefficients (h), overall heat transfer coefficients (U), and heat exchanger areas
The following calculations are performed for the cycle utilizing R-12
-
condenser dewperheat part:
mlfrom T,-> T, ==> 150 O F -> 115 O F
Tnp=115+ (150 - l l 5 ) M = 132.5'F
=>properties of R-12 at' :T

,
viscosity = p = 0.033 Ibnt-hr
thermal conductivity = k = 0.0064 BtMt-hr-OR
heat capacity = Cp = 0.15 0tuflb-W
-> using suppfied expression for the internal heat transfer coefficient of the desuperheat part of the condenser (hJ
h, = 10.3 (0.15/0.033)0*x (0.0064)06x 14.96 = 13.63 B t ~ h r - f t ~ - ~ F
condenser - condensation part:

condensation at constant T,= 115 O F
=--use average of saturated gas and saturated liquid properti

viscosity = p = 0237 IbR-hr
thermal conductivity = k = 0.0207 Btm-hr-OR
heat capacity = Cp = 0.225 Btullb-OR
==> using supplied expression for the internal heat transfer coefficient of the condensation part of the condenser (hJ:
h, = 5925 (0.Z510.237)0,4x (0.0207)05x14-96 = 847.57 Bfulhr-fi2-OF
evaporator:
evaporation at constant T, = -4 O F
=>use average of saturated gas and saturated liquid properties of R-12 at T,:'
viscosity = p = 0.397 IMI-hr
thermal conductivity= k = 0.0267 Bturft-hr-OR
heat capacity= C, = 0.181 Bt~llb-~R
=> using supplied expression for the internal heat transfer coeffidentof the evaporator (hJ:
h, = 515.2 (0.18110.397)OAX (0.0267)Os x 14.96 = 640.3 Btulhr-W•‹F
Openended Problem 105

April 1994
the output from the above program is:
hdh := 13.63
hc r 84757
b5 .r 324
TS := 112
TI 2 4
TL :- 10
T4 r 115
t p n of umdmsa
Udh := 7.037490255
dm = 35.0
Q r 89.760
Adb r+ 344156277
#Candenration
Uc := 1249770894
ddT s 25
Q :- 804.848
Ac := 2575985739
-
Open-ended ProbIem 107
April 1994
Maximum allowable energy consumption under the 1993 DOE sfandard.
AV = Adjusted Volume of our 18 f13 refrigerator

AV=13+1.63~5=21.15fP
Allowable energy wnsumptim in Watt-hour&ear is

KWatt-hourlyear = 329 + 11.8 x 21-15 = 578.6 = 578
Calculation of total mud energy consumption of refrigerator as a function of the heat load. Used in FIgure 5 and FIgure 6
energy cansumption as a function of load. Power consuming devices are:

evaporator fan --> 10 watt
mndenser fan => 14 watt
anti sweat heater ==> 19 watt (assume 30% runningtime)
mrnpressor =>depends on refrigeration load. COP, total efficiency
mmpressor power: (using R-12 as an example)

COP = 3.0
Nv= 0.66
total effdency = N,
N, = isentropic efficiency (0.7) x motor efficiency (0.8) x N,
= 0.7 x 0.8 x 0.66
= 0.37
compressor power = P = (67W(COP x N,)) x (1 watt-hr13.414 Btu)

==> P-= Inwatt
compressor is ON only a fraction of the time. This depends on the tofal heat that needs to be removed from the refrigerator
VRL)
==> TRL = heat gain through insulation+ anti-sweat heater wntribution
anti-sweat heater contribution = 0.3 x I 9 watt-hrlhr x 3.414 BtuEwatt-hr
= 19.5 6Whr
==> TRL = heat gain through insulation + 19.5
=> fraclion of the time ampressor (and fans also) is ON = FRT

==> FRT = TRL / 670
-
April 1994
The complexity arises in trying to utilize insulation as effectively as possible in both the fresh food section and the freezer.
The optimal criterion is that the heat gain per unit insulation vdume in the freezer must be equal to that in the fresh fwd
section. Stated rnathematjcally:
given a value for XI, X2 must be such that QFNIF=WI
X2 must be d w lated maintaining a freezer volume of 5 ft9
Calculations for Figure 4 and Ffgure 7.

The following is a Maple program5that was used to generafe data fur Flgure 4 and Figure 7 based on the above mnditions.
The following is the anatykal and part of the numerical output of the above program:
4 Freezer Calcs
I F r e s h F w d Section Cales
Q:=mgdT:
-
Qtot : OF+Q;
fi Insulation Volume Calcs.
# h a t lost per cubic inch of insulation

rat1:-OF/VIF:
for Xl fram 0 . S by 0 . 5 to 4.0 do

2:-solve (ratl-rat2, X2) ;
22: -subs (XZ-z, QFI :
23: =subs [XZ=z,Q);
24:-subs [XZ=z, QALL);
25:-subs (X2-z,VIF);
26:-subs (X2-z,VII ;
z?:-subs{X2-Z,VITI ;
a m n d t o (outdata4I :
2 5 , z 6 , ~ 7 );
print ( k , X l , Z , 22,~3,~4,
writeto (terminal) ;
d:
Open-ended Probkim 110

AprA 1994
(50 - 8640
(26.5 + 2 Xl - 2 X2)
1
----
(22.1 + 2 X1 - 2 XZ) + XI))
DFT :- 2 2 . 1 + 2 XI
I fnsulation Volume Calcs.

V I P :-
((26.5 + 2 X I ) (22.1 + 2 X I )
((26.5 + 2 Xl) (22.1 + 2 X1)
(22.1 t 2 X1) ( 5 0 - 8640 ----+

(26.5 2 Xl - 2 X2)
1
(22.1 +
--
2 Xl - 2 XZ)
+ XI)
Open-ended Problem * 115

April 1994

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Pollution Prevention and

& Chemical Engineering

Open-Ended Problem: The Design of a

Edited by Jeffrey Handt

Open-Ended Problem: The Design of a

INTRODUCTION & SUGGESTED USE

SECTION I: Problem Statement

The problem is posed in the form of two memos. The

The problem and how it was discovered. Mechanism

The Green House Effect and gases contributing to it.

Criteria that help determine which refrigerant may be

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE ENERGY

Insulation and gaskets, CFC-free insulation, refrigera-

LIFE CYCLE DESIGN

Introduction to the concept of life cycle analysis as

Frigid Whirl Corporation

Ann Arbor, Michigan

DATE: December 2,1992

RE: Design of a new energy efficient CFC-free refrigerator.

DATE: December 9, 1992

Normal Operation Design Conditions:

blown urethane foam

l k = thermal conductivity of refrigerant in inches

l volumetric efficiency (excluding losses due to based on inside area

l freezer gasket heat transfer coefficient = 0.0055 Btu/

l U = 1/( (0.98/h,) + 0.092) 0.0014 Btu/hr-in-OF

l U = 1/( (0.86/h,) + 0.079) inches of insulation

DESUPERHEAT PART OF CONDENSER

Editof s Page. HeatinglPipinglAir Conditioning ]ournull

"'A $30-million Super-efficient Refrigerator." Electrical

' Federal Register, Rules and Regulations. November

Scuterund, A. J. and J. Coriano. "Stumbling Blocks to

Environmental Protection Agency, Multiple Path-

'"Refrigerators: A Comprehensive Guide to the Big

' Department of Energy - Technical Support Document

A BRIEF HISTORY OF REFRIGERATION

REFRIGERATOR FEATURES: TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION

Table 1. Environmental Effects of Various Refrigerants

Refrigerant Formula ODP Est. Atmospheric

Source: Epstein, G. J. and S. P. Manwell. "EnvironmentalTradeoffs between CFCs wd Alternative Refrigerants."ASHRAEJ o u r ~ l ,

outlet gas density

Open-ended Problem 17-

Compatibility with Compressor Oil

4. reducing noise generated by the moving parts. CFC

Insulation Material cost per R value Density

Scientist, 22 August 1992.

ary 1992. World." EPRi Journal, July/August 1992.

'Our Ozone Shield, Reports to the Nation. Boulder, 20 Federal Register,

"Montreal Protocol Revised in Copenhagen." Document. DOE/EA-0372,1988.

Science, vol. 256,3 April 1992.

134a." Wilmington, DE: ICI Americas, Inc., 1993.

Engineehg, June 1992. Manufacturer, April 1992.

Department of Energy. Chapter 3 in Technical " U S Environmental Protection Agency. "Pollution

sManufacturef s Data, "R-12 Highest Efficiency

REFRIGERATION CYCLE COMPONENTS

Figure 2. An Enthalpy-Pressure Diagram illustrating the refiigeration

Based on the design conditions given, the evaporator

Overall Heat 7.0

Heat flow rate (Q)