Circles, Pythagoras and

Trigonometry
 Circles
Van Hiele levels of Geometric Thought
Research by Pierre and Dina van Hiele in the 1950's.
• There is some natural development of spatial thinking but deliberate
instruction is required.
• It is based on the firm belief that it is inappropriate to teach children
Euclidean geometry following the same logical construction of axioms,
definitions, theorems and proofs that Euclid used to construct the system.
Children don't think on a formal deductive level, and therefore can only
memorise geometric facts and 'rules', but not understand the
relationships between the ideas, if taught using this approach.

The van Hiele theory puts forward a hierarchy of levels of thinking

spanning the ages of about five years through to academic adults.
 Circles
Level 1: Visual
• 'nonverbal thinking‘
• Shapes are judged by their appearance and generally viewed
as 'a whole', rather than by distinguishing parts.
• Although children begin using basic shape names, they
usually offer no explanation or associate the shapes with
familiar objects. For example, a child might say, "It's a square
because it looks like one", or "I know it's a rectangle because
it looks like a box".
This could be likened to young children's ability to recognise
some words by sight, before they understand the individual
letter sounds and how they blend together to form words.
 Circles
Level 2: Descriptive
• Children can identify and describe the component
parts and properties of shapes. For example, an
equilateral triangle can be distinguished from other
triangles because of its three equal sides, equal
angles and symmetries.
• Children need to develop appropriate language to go with the
new specific concepts. However, at this stage the properties
are not 'logically ordered', which means that the children do
not perceive the essential relationships between the
properties. So, with the equilateral triangle for example, they
do not understand that if a triangle has three equal sides it
must have three equal angles.
 Circles
Level 3: Informal Deduction
• the properties of shapes are logically ordered. Students are
able to see that one property precedes or follows from
another, and can therefore deduce one property from
another. They are able to apply what they already know to
explain the relationships between shapes, and to formulate
definitions. For example, they could explain why all squares
are rectangles. Although informal deduction such as this
forms the basis of formal deduction, the role of axioms,
definitions, theorems and their converses, is not understood.
 Circles
Where does it fit?
Foundation - Sorts, describes and names squares,
circles, triangles, rectangles, spheres and cubes.
(ACMMG009)
Nothing in between.

Level 8 - Investigates the relationship between

features of circles such as circumference, area, radius
and diameter. Uses formulas to solve problems
involving circumference and area. (ACMMG197) TIMESMG17
 Circles
Australian Curriculum
Nothing other than circle recognition until L8.
8 Using Units of Investigate the relationship between features of circles such as
Measurement circumference, area, radius and diameter. Use formulas to
solve problems involving circumference and area.
(ACMMG216)
9 Using Units of Calculate the areas of composite shapes. (ACMMG216)
Measurement
9 Using Units of Calculate the surface area and volume of cylinders and solve
Measurement related problems (ACMMG1)
10 Using Units of Solve problems involving surface area and volume for a range
Measurement of prisms, cylinders and composite solids. (ACMMG242)
10A Using Units of Solve problems involving surface area and volume of right
Measurement pyramids, right cones, spheres and related composite solids.
(ACMMG271)
 Circles
Definitions
A circle is the path traced out by a point, moving in a
plane, that is always a fixed distance (the radius) from a
fixed point (the centre).
 Circles
Definitions
 Circles
Activity 1:Consider a can of three tennis balls.

Which is greater, the height or

circumference of the container?
Assume the balls touch both the top and bottom
of the container.

Height = 3 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Circumference = π × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 Circles
Definitions
The circumference of a circle is the distance around the
circle.
 Circles
Student Activity 2
Discover the formula for circumference.
Step 1 - Find an approximate formula.
Draw a circle and measure the diameter using string.

To the nearest whole number find how many times the

diameter goes into the circumference by stepping the
diameter around the circumference.

Establish that c is approximately 3d

 Circles
Student Activity 2
Step 2 – Improve the formula.
Take 5 round objects and measure the diameter and
circumference using string.
Complete this table:
Diameter, d Circumference, d 𝒄
𝒅
1
2
3
4
5
 Circles
Circumference

C = 2πr or πd

π = 3.1415926538979323846264338327…
 Circles
History of Pi
• Babylonian tablet shows pi = 3.125. (1900–1680 BC)
• 1 Kings 7:23 (Christian Bible) pi = 3 can be deduced.
• The Rhind Papyrus (ca.1650 BC). The Egyptians
calculated the area of a circle by a formula that gave
the approximate value of 3.1605 for pi.
• Archimedes (287–212 BC), showed that pi is between
1 10
3 and 3 .
7 71
• Mathematicians began using the Greek letter π in the
1700s.
 Circles
“Fun” Pi facts
The number π is an irrational number. (Cannot be written
exactly as a fraction.)

Its approximate value, correct to 7 decimal places, is

3.1415927, but the decimal expansion of π continues
forever with no apparent pattern.

This number is one of the most remarkable of all

numbers in mathematics and reappears somewhat
mysteriously in many places.
 Circles
“Fun” Pi facts
Pi continues indefinitely in a random pattern.
For most people their figures of their birthdate can be
found in Pi.
e.g. If you were born on 25/06/1985 then
25061985 appears starting at the 68 268 digit.
http://www.mypiday.com/
 Circles
“Fun” Pi facts
Pi Day is an annual celebration of π. Pi Day is observed
on March 14 (which is 3/14 in the month/day format).
In 2015 this became 3/14/15, the first 4 decimal places.
(Though as mathematicians we know π rounded to 4
d.p. from 3.14159 should become 3.1416. Maybe next
year?)

Pi Approximation Day is observed on July 22 (22/7 in

22
the day/month date format), since the fraction is a
7
common approximation of π.
 Circles
Area

A = πr2

Model this with students?

Counting squares,
measuring the L × W of the rectangles.
How can we improve the accuracy of the model?
 Circles
Formulas for Circles
Is this just a coincidence?

circumference One dimension r1

area Two dimensions r2
volume Three dimensions ?

What do we predict the power of the r will be in the

formula for volume of a sphere?
 Circles
More definitions
Any interval joining a point on the circle to the
centre is called a radius.

An interval joining two points on the circle is

called a chord.

A chord that passes through the centre is

called a diameter.

A line that cuts a circle at two distinct points is

called a secant.
 Circles
More definitions

The area created by a chord and

the arc is called a segment.

http://www.ekshiksha.org.in/eContentShow.do?documentId=160
 Circles
More definitions
The area created by two radii and the arc
is called a sector.

http://www.ekshiksha.org.in/eContentShow.do?documentId=160
 Circles
Inscribed angle
An inscribed angle is made from three points on a
circle.

A
 Circles
Inscribed angle Theorems

An inscribed angle x0 is half the central angle 2x0

B

x0
C

2xo

A
 Circles
Example
B
What is the size of BOA?
A
O
580
2 × 58 = 116𝑜
C
 Circles
Angles Subtended by Same Arc
Angle x is always equal.
B

x0
xo
C

A
 Circles
Angles in a semi-circle

An angle inscribed in a semi-circle

is always a right angle.
(Inscribed means contained within
in another figure touching at as
many places as possible)

Why? This is an application of

the theorem that the inscribed
angle is half the central angle.
 Circles
Example
What is the size of BAC?
C

550
A B
O
The top angle, C, is 900

180 – (55 + 90) = 35O

 Circles
Cyclic Quadrilateral
A quadrilateral inscribed in a circle is called a cyclic
quadrilateral.

A cyclic quadrilateral’s opposite angles add to 1800

b

a + c = 1800
a
c
b + d = 1800

d
 Circles
Tangent Angle
A tangent is defined as a line that touches a circle
at only one point.

A tangent always forms a right angle

with the circle’s radius.
 Circles
Proofs
Thinking back to the van Hiele levels of Geometric
thought.
It is inappropriate to teach children Euclidean geometry
following the same logical construction of axioms,
definitions, theorems and proofs that Euclid used to
construct the system. Children don't think on a formal
deductive level, and therefore can only memorise
geometric facts and 'rules', but not understand the
relationships between the ideas, if taught using this
approach.
 Circles
Proofs
Using geometrical proofs only comes in at Year 10
and the only applicable one to Circles is:
 Circles
Proofs – Thales Theorem

The lines OA, OB and OP are all radii.

Hence, have two isosceles triangles,

 Circles
Proofs – Thales Theorem
 Circles
Proofs
𝐴𝐴, 𝑃𝑂 and 𝐵𝑂 are all radii.
both and are
isosceles triangles with two equal angels.
Let the equal angles be α and β respectively.
Remember the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to
the sum of the two opposite interior angles.

= 2(α +β)
 Circles
Proofs – Cyclic quadrilaterals
 Circles
Great Circles
Not in the F – 10 course.
Is in the 2016 Year 12 Further Maths Geometry
and Measurement Module.

It can be a “fun” extension and some familiarity

is probably a good thing.
 Section Heading
Spherical Geometry
The Geometry and Measurement in Further Maths Y12
 Circles
Great Circles
Great circles are circles on the surface of a sphere
whose plane passes through the center of the
sphere.
For example the equator is a great circle on the
sphere of the globe.

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GreatCircle.html
 Circles
Great Circles
Why do planes fly along arcs rather than straight lines?
Especially on long flights.

http://www.ms.unimelb.edu.au/~statphys24/website/img/Flight-Mapbig.jpg
 Circles
Great Circles
Planes will generally fly the shortest distance between 2
points to save fuel.

The shortest distance between 2 points on a sphere is

the line along the great circle joining those point and the
center of the Earth.
 Circles
Great Circles

http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/math/what-is-a-great-circle
 Pythagoras
When to introduce?
Level 9 Investigates Pythagoras’ Theorem and its
application to solving simple problems involving right
angled triangles that generate results that can be
integral, fractional or irrational numbers (ACMMG222) TIMESMG15

Level 10A Applies Pythagoras’ Theorem and

trigonometry to solving three-dimensional problems in
right-angled triangles (ACMMG276) TIMESMG24
 Pythagoras
Australian Curriculum
 Pythagoras
Some definitions
A right angled triangle contains a 90o angle.
(The right angle is always the largest angle
in a right-angled triangle. Why?)

The side opposite the largest

angle is the longest side.
This side is called the Hypotenuse.
 Pythagoras
Hypotenuse
The word is connected with a Greek word meaning “to
stretch”. The ancient Egyptians discovered that if you
take a piece of rope, mark off 3 units, then 4 units and
then 5 units, this can be stretched to form a triangle
that contains a right angle.
This was very useful to the
Egyptian builders.
Video from SCOOTLE

http://splash.abc.net.au/home#!/media/1469315/
 Pythagoras
History – Who was Pythagoras?
Pythagoras(569-500 B.C.E.) was born on the island of
Samos in Greece. Not much more is known of his early
years.
Pythagoras gained his famous status by founding a
group, the Brotherhood of Pythagoreans, who were
devoted to the study of mathematics. The group was
almost cult-like in that it had symbols, rituals and
prayers.
(Youtube Donald Duck in Mathemagic land)
 Pythagoras
History
Legend has it that upon completion of his famous
theorem, Pythagoras sacrificed 100 oxen.

Although he is credited with the discovery of the

famous theorem, it may well have been a member of
his group. The group wanted to keep their findings
secret and consequently kept them from the public.
Unfortunately, this vow of secrecy prevented an
important mathematical idea from being made public.
 Pythagoras
Irrational numbers
The Pythagoreans had discovered irrational numbers! e.g. √2
The fact these numbers cannot be expressed exactly as a fraction
deeply disturbed the Pythagoreans, who believed that "All is
number."
They called these numbers "alogon," which means
"unutterable." So shocked were the Pythagoreans by these
numbers, they put to death a member who dared to mention
their existence to the public.

It would be 200 years later that the Greek mathematician Exodus

developed a way to deal with these unutterable numbers.
 Pythagoras
Name only the Hypotenuse
not opposite and adjacent.
Pythagoras
Formula
 Pythagoras
Pythagorean triples
There are some whole number values that
satisfy this equation. These are know as
Pythagorean triples.

e.g. 3,4,5 32 + 42 = 52

5,12,13 52 + 122 = 132

37,684,685 372 + 6842 = 6852

 Pythagoras
“Two” question types
Finding the hypotenuse.
a2 + b2 = c2

Finding one of the shorter sides.

a2 = c2 - b2

Do we teach the two formulas or get the students to

rearrange?
 Pythagoras
Plenty of apps – some useful
This free one is called Pythagoras and shows
graphically a proof of the Theorem.
 Trigonometry
When?
Level 9
Applies trigonometry to solve right-angled triangle
problems. Understands the terminology “adjacent”
and “opposite” sides and hypotenuse in right angled
triangles. Uses trigonometric ratios to find unknown
sides and angles in right-angled triangles. (ACMMG224) TIMESMG23
Level 10
Solves right-angled triangle problems including those
involving direction and angles of elevation and
depression. (ACMMG245) TIMESMG23
 Trigonometry
When?
Level 10A
Establishes the sine, cosine and area rules for any
triangle and solves related problems. (ACMMG273) TIMESMG24

Uses the unit circle to define trigonometric functions,

and graphs them with and without the use of digital
technologies. (ACMMG274) TIMESMG25

Solves simple trigonometric equations. (ACMMG275)

 Trigonometry
Units for measuring angles
Angles are measured using many different units.
Student calculators use degrees, radians or gradians.

A common difficulty students have finding the correct

answer is when their calculator is set for the incorrect
unit.

Teachers need to be aware of how to change the

settings for this for the common student calculators.
 Trigonometry
o
Degrees- why 360 ?
Not universal agreement on this. Some say it has to do
with Claudius Ptolemy (100-170 AD) who used 360
degrees when he set up his table of sine values.

Some say that as we have 365 days in a year, close to

360 and this is too big a coincidence to ignore.
 Trigonometry
o
Degrees- why 360 ?
Probably the most accepted answer is:
Babylon used a sexagesimal (base 60) system.
They also found that the perimeter of a hexagon was
exactly 6 times the radius of the circumscribed circle.
Combining these two thoughts
it seemed natural to them to divide
the circle into 6 × 60 = 360 divisions
called degrees.
http://www.mathopenref.com/constinhexagon.html
 Trigonometry
Radians
The radian is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle
that has the same length as the circle's radius.

Radians are used extensively in Senior Maths.

 Trigonometry
Gradians
The grad, also called grade, gradian, or gon, is 1/400 of
a turn, so a right angle is 100 grads.

http://bl.gg/
 Trigonometry
How does the Calculator find values?

What happens when I type the sin (or cos or tan for
that matter) of an angle into my calculator?

Is the calculator just reading off of a list created from

people who used rulers to physically measure the
distance on a graph or is there a mathematical function
that defines it?
 Trigonometry
No, it does not read off a list.
One method is to use the Taylor series for sine:
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
sin 𝑥 = x − + - + …,
3! 5! 7!
where x is in radians, and the ! Symbol is factorial e.g. 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1

The more terms you take the more decimal places you can find.

e.g. sin 230 is found by:

𝜋
1. Convert 23 to radians by multiplying by ≈ 0.4014257
180

2. Substitute into the above formula.

0.40142573 0.40142575 0.40142577
Sin 0.4014257 = 0.4014257 − + -
3! 5! 7!
= 0.390731102008345
 Trigonometry
SOH-CAH-TOA ?
Absolutely, but don’t start here or the students will
memorise the process and not get any understanding.

𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
SinƟ =
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
CosƟ =
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
TanƟ =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
 Trigonometry
Introducing the idea
Set students the quick challenge of making some
estimations.
e.g. How high is the gutter?
How tall is that tree?
Can 1 million dollars in $1 coins fit under the table?
How high is the roof?

The discussion that follows is about strategies not

necessarily the correct answer.
 Trigonometry
Trig ratios – using tan
Estimating the height of objects by measuring the
distance to them and using the tan button.

Talk about similar triangles,

but you don’t necessarily call
them that, all having the
same ratio of length and height.
What does each triangle have in common? - the angle A
Uses similarity to investigate the constancy of the sine, cosine and tangent ratios for a
given angle in right-angled triangles (ACMMG223) TIMESMG22 TIMESMG23
 Trigonometry
History
Trigonometry (from Greek trigonon, "triangle" and
metron, "measure“.
 Trigonometry
An alternative to SOH-CAH-TOA

https://www.tutorbee.com.au/blog/trigonometric-equations-and-an-easy-way-to-remember-trig-formulas
 Trigonometry
Only 3 types of questions
Type 1: The unknown is the numerator.
Find b to 2 d.p.
Step 1. Label the sides
Step 2. We Hyp. & Adj.
b using SOH-CAH-TOA, the cos ratio.
15.6 cm Step 3. Substitute values.
𝑏
22o cos 22 =
0 (Note: b is the numerator)
15.6
Step 4. 𝑏 = 15.6𝑐𝑐𝑐22o = 14.46m
 Trigonometry
Only 3 types of questions
Type 2: The unknown is the denominator.
Find y. Step 1. Label the sides
Step 2. We have Opp. & Adj.
Using SOH-CAH-TOA, the tan ratio.
Step 3. Substitute values
34
tan 50 =
o (y is the denominator)
𝑦
34
Step 4. 𝑦= = 28.53 m
34 m 𝑡𝑡𝑡500

500
y
 Trigonometry
Only 3 types of questions
Type 3: Finding the angle.
Find ɵ to 2 d.p. Step 1. Label the sides
Step 2. Identify Opp & Adj
using SOH-CAH-TOA, the tan ratio.
Step 3. Substitute values
24
tan ɵ = ( )
35
−1 24
Step 4. ɵ= tan ( )
24m 35
ɵ = 34.440
ɵ

35m
 Trigonometry
Do Not use of Minutes & seconds
There is no mention of degrees, minutes and seconds
in the syllabus at any level from F to 10.

Not used in Victorian or NSW Year 12 Exams.

Still in some old textbooks.

 Trigonometry
Standard notation
For the triangle ABC or ∆ABC, the corners are labelled
with capital letters.
The sides with lower case letters.
The corner and opposite side
have the same letter.
i.e. the interval AB, 𝐴𝐴, is opposite C.

Note: A = BAC or CAB

 Trigonometry
Not only right angled triangles!
Level 9 & 10 only use right angled
triangles.

Level 10A introduces the Sine Rule, Cosine

Rule and Area formulas.

1
Area = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
2
 Trigonometry
10A – Sine rule
 Trigonometry
10A –Cosine rule
 Trigonometry
10A –Area Formulas
Heron’s Rule:

𝐴+𝐵+𝐶
𝑆=
2

Area = 𝑆(𝑆 − 𝐴)(𝑆 − 𝐵)(𝑆 − 𝐶)

 Trigonometry
10A –Area Formulas
1
Area = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
2
 Trigonometry
The Unit Circle

Comes in at 10A.
 Trigonometry
The Unit Circle
A circle of radius 1.

Pythagoras, a2 + b2 = c2 y
sin
under a radius of 1 becomes: 1
x2 + y2 = 1 x
cos

or sin2 + cos2 = 1
 Trigonometry
The Unit Circle
y
A circle of radius 1.
sin 1
Ɵ
x
The cos ratio becomes Cos
𝐴𝐴𝐴. 𝑥
cos ɵ = =
𝐻𝐻𝐻. 1

𝑂𝑂𝑂. 𝑦
sin ɵ = =
𝐻𝐻𝐻. 1
 Trigonometry
The Unit Circle

Tangent
 Trigonometry
The Unit Circle
Must be understood to allow students to solve
trigonometric equations.

Sine positive All positive

Tan positive Cos positive

 Trigonometry
Trigonometric equations
At this level students are not expected to be able to use
the special triangles algorithm to find the exact values
for 0, 30, 45, 60 and 90.
You may still choose to do this, however, a unit circle
approach may lead to a better understanding of where
the extra values are coming from and what the graph
may look like.
 Trigonometry
The Unit Circle
This Youtube link shows a good trick
for remembering the 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o
table of values for sin sinƟ 0 1 1 1
3
and cos. 2
2 2
cosƟ 1 1 1 3 0
2 2 2
tanƟ 0 1 1 3
Undef.

3
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xXGfp9PKdXM
 Trigonometry
Trigonometric graphs
An opportunity to model this out.

Begin with a table of values

xo 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Sin x 0 0.707 0 0.707 0 -0.707 -1 -0.707 0
 Trigonometry
Trigonometric graphs

And then plot points.

Then progress to using a software package and the graphics

calculator.
 Trigonometry
Trigonometric equations

To solve 2cosƟ -1=0 (+1 then divide by 2 on both sides)

2cosƟ =1
1 2 Answers
cosƟ =
2

From the graph we can see there are two answers.

 Trigonometry
Trigonometric equations
Ask the question when does cos Ɵ = 0.5?
Use the table of values to find this occurs at Ɵ = 60o
Move around the unit circle in an anti-clockwise
manner to find other values of Ɵ for which cos Ɵ= 0.5.
Ɵ = 60o or 300o

Remember radians are not part of the 10A course.

 AMSI
The Team
Schools Manager Janine McIntosh janine@amsi.org.au

Outreach Manager Michael O’Connor moconnor@amsi.org.au

Project Officers Greg Carroll greg@amsi.org.au

Sara Borghesi sara@amsi.org.au

Marcus Garrett marcus@amsi.org.au

Jacinta Blencowe jacinta@amsi.org

Kerrie Shearer kerrie@amsi.org

Ann Kilpatrick ann@amsi.org