Introduction To Statistics

Information Management
By Prof. Rodemel Mar C. Maceda
Filipino Nurses Society in Saudi Arabia

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Information Management
 Collection, management and distribution of information
from one or more sources to one or more audiences
 Allows an organization to evaluate data

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

 Data vs. Information
 Data
 Abstract representation of facts ROD, MACEDA, 1192, Unaiza, Al
 No contextual meaning Rwabi, RUH, KSA, 054716245

 Just numbers and text

 Information
Rod Maceda
 Data with exact meaning 1192 Unaiza
 Processed data and organized context Al Rwabi, Riyadh, Kingdom of
 Useful for decision making Saudi Arabia
(054) 716-245

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Steps of Information Utilization
Identifying &
Planning & Verifying &
Presenting
Organizing Correcting
Finding

Studying &
Monitoring
Developing Taking Action
Performance
Recommendations

Communicating
the Results
PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN
Statistics
 The science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing,
and interpreting data to assist in making more effective
decisions
 Statistical analysis – used to manipulate summarize, and
investigate data, so that useful decision-making information
results.

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Types of statistics
 Descriptive statistics – Methods of organizing,
summarizing, and presenting data in an informative way
 Inferential statistics – The methods used to determine
something about a population on the basis of a sample
 Population (N) –The entire set of individuals or objects of
interest or the measurements obtained from all individuals or
objects of interest
 Sample (n) – A portion, or part, of the population of interest

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN
Population & Sample
 Reasons for using samples:
 Samples can be studied quickly than population
 Less expensive
 More feasible
 More specific and accurate
 Less time and resources
 Probability method can be used to estimate error in the
resulting statistics

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

 Inferential Statistics
 Estimation
 e.g., Estimate the population mean
weight using the sample mean weight
 Hypothesis testing
 e.g., Test the claim that the population
mean weight is 70 kg

Inference is the process of drawing conclusions or

making decisions about a population based on
sample results
PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN
Sampling
a sample should have the same characteristics
as the population it is representing.
Sampling can be:
 with replacement: a member of the population may be
chosen more than once (picking the candy from the bowl)
 without replacement: a member of the population may
be chosen only once (lottery ticket)

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

 Sampling methods
Sampling methods can be:
 Random (each member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected)
 Non-random

The actual process of sampling causes sampling

errors. For example, the sample may not be large
enough or representative of the population. Factors not
related to the sampling process cause non-sampling
errors. A defective counting device can cause a
Non-sampling error.
PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN
 Random sampling methods
(Probability Sampling)
1. Simple random sample (each sample of the same size has an
equal chance of being selected)
2. Stratified sample (divide the population into groups called
strata and then take a sample from each stratum)
3. Cluster sample (divide the population into strata and then
randomly select some of the strata. All the members from these
strata are in the cluster sample.)
4. Systematic sample (randomly select a starting point and take
every n-th piece of data from a listing of the population)

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Advantages of Probability Samples
 The population of interest is clear
 Possible sources of biases are removed (self-selection and
interviewer selection effects)
 The general size of the sampling error can be estimated

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Non-probability samples
1. Purposive or judgmental sampling (selecting the
accessible population judged as most accurate for the study;
selection based on desired characteristics)
2. Expert Sampling (a type of purposive sampling in which
experts in a given area are selected due to their access to
relevant information)
3. Consecutive Sampling (involves every patient who meets
the selection criteria over a specified time interval or number
of patients; best of the non-probability techniques; very often
practical)

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Non-probability samples
4. Quota sampling (portions or percentages of persons/cases
in a stratified population)
 E.g. 10% of male patients over age 55 w/ diabetes and heart
disease will be enrolled in the study
5. Convenience sampling (selecting accessible population
who are easily available)
 Widely used in clinical research because of its advantages in cost
and logistics
6. Snowball Sampling (a subtype of convenience sampling
involve subjects suggesting other subjects for inclusion in the
study)
PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN
Advantages of Non-Probability Samples
 Depends on expert’s opinion
 Probabilities of selection not considered
 Convenience, speed, and lower cost

Disadvantage: Lack of accuracy and

generalizability.

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Sample Size
 Factors affecting sample size:
 larger sample result in more valid and accurate study since its
more representative
 Too large sample is waste of time and resource
 Calculation of sample size depends on
 Population size
 Estimate of population standard deviation
 Desired significance level
 Bounds of error estimation

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Sloven’s Formula

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

 Descriptive Statistics

 Collect data
 e.g., Survey

 Present data
 e.g., Tables and graphs

 Summarize data
 e.g., Sample mean = X i

n
PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN
Statistical data
 The collection of data that are relevant to the problem being
studied is commonly the most difficult, expensive, and time-
consuming part of the entire research project.
 Statistical data are usually obtained by counting or measuring
items.
 Primary data are collected specifically for the analysis desired
 Secondary data have already been compiled and are available
for statistical analysis
 A variable is an item of interest that can take on many
different numerical values.
 A constant has a fixed numerical value.

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Data
Statistical data are usually obtained by counting or measuring
items. Most data can be put into the following categories:
 Qualitative (categorical variables)- data are
measurements that each fail into one of several categories.
(hair color, ethnic groups and other attributes of the
population)
 Less statistical powerful
 Quantitative (continuous variables) - data are
observations that are measured on a numerical scale (distance
traveled to college, number of children in a family, scores on
a test, etc.)
 More statistical powerful
PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN
Qualitative data
Qualitative data are generally described by words or
letters. They are not as widely used as quantitative data
because many numerical techniques do not apply to the
qualitative data. For example, it does not make sense to
find an average hair color or blood type.
Qualitative data can be separated into two subgroups:
 dichotomic (if it takes the form of a word with two options
(gender - male or female)
 polynomic (if it takes the form of a word with more than two
options (education - primary school, secondary school and
university).

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Quantitative data
Quantitative data are always numbers and are the
result of counting or measuring attributes of a population.
Quantitative data can be separated into two
subgroups:
 discrete (if it is the result of counting (the number of students of a
given ethnic group in a class, the number of books on a shelf, ...)
 continuous (if it is the result of measuring (distance traveled,
weight of luggage, …)

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

 Types of variables
Variables

Qualitative Quantitative

Dichotomic Polynomic Discrete Continuous

Amount of income tax

Children in family,
Gender, marital status Brand of Pc, hair color paid, weight of a
Strokes on a golf hole
student
PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN
Numerical scale of measurement:

1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval
4. Ratio

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Numerical scale of measurement:
1. Nominal
 Simplest level of measurement
 Labeling/classifying objects
 Not technically a scale of measurement since nothing is measured
 E.g.
 Sex Male/Female Dichotomous
variables
 Surgical patients Preoperative/Postoperative
 Anemia Microcytic, macrocytic, normocytic
Trichotomous
variables

Generally described in terms of percentages or

proportions.
PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN
 Numerical scale of measurement:
2. Ordinal Scale
 Categories/labels that imply rank
 i.e. place in a race: 1st Place, 2nd Place, 3rd Place; military rank:
General > Lieutenant > Private
 Doesn’t say how much more one is than the other

Ordinal variables Values

Nursing staff rank Nurse level 1
Nurse level II
Nurse Level III
Education AS
BS
MS
PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN PhD
Numerical scale of measurement:
3. Interval
 is a set of numerical measurements in
which the distance between numbers
is of a known, constant size.
 It provides labels that imply exactly
how much different one label is than
another
 i.e. temperature - 15° F is 5 ° F more
than 10 ° F
 lacks true zero point - 0 ° F does not
represent the complete absence of heat
because we have negative values of °F

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Numerical scale of measurement:
4. Ratio
 Possesses absolute rather than relative qualities and has an
absolute (true) zero
 E.g.
 Money
 Weight
 Distance

Note: Interval scales allow comparisons of the differences of magnitude

(e.g. of attitudes) as well as determination of the actual strength of the
magnitude

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

MCQs
1. A healthcare quality management professional’s
responsibility regarding information management in a
healthcare facility generally includes all of the following
EXCEPT:
a. Define data
b. Collect Data
c. Summarize data
d. Qualify data

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Answer
D. Qualify data

Rationale: The word “qualify” has a variety of meanings, one of

which is “modify.” the healthcare quality management
professional certainly does not have the authority to modify
data. He or she, does, however, have the responsibility to
define, collect, and summarize data.

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

MCQs
2. Which of the following are important areas to consider when
evaluating a public health surveillance system for data
collection?
a. Data quality
b. System experience
c. Validity of acquired data
d. All of the above

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Answer
D. All of the above

Rationale: Data quality, system experience, and validity of

acquired data are all important areas to consider when
evaluating a public health surveillance system for data
collection. A, B, and C are not the best choices because none of
those options alone is the best answer, although they are all
important elements of an effective system as a whole.

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

MCQs
3. Which of the following is an example of ordinal data?
a. Compliant, Non-compliant
b. Nurse I, Nurse II, Nurse III, Nurse IV
c. Mass
d. Temperature

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Answer
B. Nurse I, Nurse II, Nurse III, Nurse IV

Rationale: Ordinal data implies rank or order among the

categories. A, is an example of a nominal data scale, C, is an
example of Ratio Scale while D, is an interval scale.

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

MCQs
4. A sampling technique that can be used when no enough time
or finance, and where subjects are selected because of their
accessibility and proximity to the hand.
a. Simple random sampling
b. Stratified sampling
c. Convenience sampling
d. Quota sampling

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Answer
C. Convenience sampling

Rationale:

Simple random sampling: each sample of the same size has

an equal chance of being selected
Stratified sampling: divide the population into groups called
strata and then take a sample from each stratum
Quota sampling: portions or percentages of persons/cases in
a stratified population
PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN
MCQs
5. All of the following are examples of non-probability samples
EXCEPT:
a. Snowball sampling
b. Expert Sampling
c. Stratified Sampling
d. Convenience Sampling

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN

Answer
C. Stratified Sampling

Rationale: Options A. B, and D are all types of non-

probability samples except Option C (Stratified Sampling)
which is a type of probability sampling.

PROF. RODEMEL MAR C. MACEDA, BSN, RN