See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245139582

The principle of topological interlocking in

extraterrestrial construction

Article in Acta Astronautica · July 2005

DOI: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2004.12.005

CITATIONS READS

19 226

5 authors, including:

Arcady V Dyskin Yuri Estrin

University of Western Australia Monash University (Australia)
221 PUBLICATIONS 2,134 CITATIONS 508 PUBLICATIONS 14,345 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

A. Ya. Kanel-Belov
Bar Ilan University
314 PUBLICATIONS 1,318 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Interlocking structures View project

Deformation measurement View project

All content following this page was uploaded by A. Ya. Kanel-Belov on 14 October 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 PROD. TYPE: COM ED: Sudha
PP: 1-12 (col.fig.: nil)
AA2296 DTD VER: 5.0.1 PAGN: Wittal -- SCAN: V4soft

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Acta Astronautica ( ) –
www.elsevier.com/locate/actaastro

The principle of topological interlocking in extraterrestrial

3 construction
A.V. Dyskina,∗ , Y. Estrinb , E. Pasternaka, b , H.C. Khora , A.J. Kanel-Belovc

F
5 a School of Civil and Resource Engineering, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009, Australia
b Institut für Werkstoffkunde und Werkstofftechnik, Technische Universität Clausthal, D-38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany

O
7 c School of Engineering and Science, International University of Bremen, P.O. Box 750 561 28725 Bremen, Germany

O
Received 2 October 2003; received in revised form 22 November 2004; accepted 1 December 2004

PR
Abstract
9
Applications of a newly established principle of topological interlocking to different types of extraterrestrial construction
D
11 are considered. Topological interlocking arises when elements of special shapes (usually convex or nearly convex, such that
no stress concentration develops) are arranged in such a way that neither of them can be removed from the assembly without
TE

13 disturbing the neighbouring elements. Two types of extraterrestrial structures are considered. The first type represents mortar
less structures built from specially engineered interlocking bricks, called osteomorphic bricks. The self-adjusting property of
15 these bricks permits erecting structures which tolerate low precision of production and assembly, thus making the proposed
method suitable for in situ produced bricks and low cost assembling machinery. The structures of the second type are modular
EC

17 extraterrestrial bases or space ships organised in topologically interlocking assemblies. For an extraterrestrial settlement such
an organisation permits easy assembly even if the modules are uploaded on uneven ground. A space ship can be assembled
19 from independent smaller ships interlocked topologically thus becoming a flexible vehicle suitable for both long-distance
journeys and simultaneous exploration of extraterrestrial objects clustered in a relative proximity of each other.
R

21 © 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

R
O

1. Introduction to develop methods and techniques of extraterrestrial 29

construction.
C

With the increasing awareness for the need of util- Currently, a number of architectures for the extrater- 31
25 isation and colonisation of the outer space in order to restrial structures are envisaged which can be broadly
N

further economic, scientific and social developments, categorised into two major classes: (1) structures built 33
27 preserve Earth’s ecology or even to ensure the sur- from basic elements such as bricks, possibly manufac-
U

vival of the human race (eg., [1–3]) the time is ripe tured in situ and (2) modular structures based on Earth- 35
manufactured units (including structures assembled in
orbit, e.g., [4]). The building elements of the extrater- 37
∗ Corresponding author. Fax: +61 6488 3987. restrial structures of the first class should satisfy the
E-mail address: adyskin@cyllene.uwa.edu.au (A.V. Dyskin). specific requirements which include easy delivery or 39
0094-5765/$ - see front matter © 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2004.12.005
 AA2296
ARTICLE IN PRESS
2 A.V. Dyskin et al. / Acta Astronautica ( ) –

the structural elements is obviously impractical.) 31

Traditional types of interlocking bricks, including
the one proposed in [10] suffer however from a major 33
drawback. As the bricks need to have special shapes
to permit easy and preferably robotised assembly, they 35
require quite precise manufacturing and maintenance
of the gaps between the bricks, which may not be 37
achievable in situ. In the lunar-type environment, the
situation is further complicated by the need to handle 39
the fine (finer than 20
m) electrically charged frac-
tions of lunar dust which levitate and electrostatically 41
adhere to virtually everything [13,14] including the

F
connecting surfaces of the bricks. Furthermore, un- 43

O
der loading (both gravitational and thermal) the brick
Fig. 1. Interlocking bricks proposed for lunar construction (adopted shape gives rise to considerable stress concentrations 45

O
from [2]). which are, in a long run, deleterious to the structural
integrity of the lunar base. 47
Recently, a new type of interlocking, that we call

PR
1 in situ manufacturing, easy assembly and multifunc- topological interlocking, emerged that neither requires 49
tionality. Attractive in this regard is the utilisation of keys and connectors nor imposes high demands on the
3 interlocking blocks or bricks which can be assembled manufacturing precision. Based on this principle ba- 51
using special keys or connectors without the binder sic plate-like assemblies can be produced which form
D
5 phase such for example as mortar. There are different flexible mortarless structures with high fracture resis- 53
types of interlocking blocks used in civil engineering tance and tolerance to missing blocks [15–17]. Inter-
TE

7 (eg., [5–9]). A simple interlocking brick [10] (see also locking of this type is achieved either by special ar- 55
[2]) was proposed for lunar construction to be sin- rangements of blocks of simple shapes (for instance
9 tered in situ from the regolith (Fig. 1). An advantage platonic shapes [18]), or by specially designed curved 57
EC

of this technology, provided the current problems of surfaces [17]. An example of the first type of inter-
11 sintering [2] are solved, is the abundance of the raw locking is given by plate-like assemblies of tetrahedra 59
material and its high degree of radiation protection [19,20]. The second type of interlocking is exempli-
13 [11]. Interlocking is an important element of this con- fied by a set of so-called osteomorphic bricks, Fig. 2 61
R

cept since it removes the need for mortar and hence [16,17,21] permitting construction of both plate-like
15 for two major ingredients—cement and water—the in and corner-like structures, as well as columns. 63
R

situ production of which at industrial scale would re- Possible applications of topologically interlocking
17 quire considerable capital investment. While cement blocks go beyond construction elements of structures 65
O

can in principle be produced in situ, for example from of the first type. In extraterrestrial structures of the
19 regolith [12], supplying large quantities of water may second type, the functional modules themselves can 67
C

pose a problem. In addition, as far as the construc- be shaped to ensure their interlocking, which opens up
21 tion on planets without an atmosphere is concerned, interesting design perspectives. This paper introduces 69
N

mortar will necessarily have to be cured in vacuum. the principle of topological interlocking and considers
23 This might be detrimental to the mortar quality due to conceptually some applications in both planetary and 71
U

creation of a porous structure inside the mortar lay- space construction.

25 ers caused for instance by intensive water evaporation
[12] and concomitant reduction in density, strength
27 and stiffness. (When concrete blocks are produced in 2. Principle of topological interlocking 73
situ, the effect of vacuum can in principle be avoided
29 by precasting the blocks in a pressurised chamber. A Topological interlocking is achieved by a special
similar approach to curing the mortar binder between choice of geometry and arrangement of the building 75
 AA2296
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.V. Dyskin et al. / Acta Astronautica ( ) – 3

F
O
O
PR
D
Fig. 2. Masonry structures assembled from osteomorphic bricks [17]: (a) principle of assembly of layer and corner structures, (b) layer of
TE

osteomorphic blocks (1) completed with half-blocks (2) and (3), (c) a column structure.

covering a plane. It is seen on Fig. 3 that each tetra- 9

EC

hedron has a pair of opposite faces inclined in one

direction with the other pair inclined in another direc- 11
tion (the angle
√ between the face and the vertical line
is
= sin−1 ( 3/3) ≈ 35.3◦ ). Therefore, any attempt 13
R

to remove the element from the assembly results in

pushing a couple of opposite neighbouring elements 15
R

in-plane away from the element in question. If the

O

movement of the neighbouring elements is prevented, 17

for instance by applying an in-plane compression or
C

Fig. 3. A layer-like square-based structure of interlocked tetrahedra. peripheral constraint, the tetrahedral elements will be 19
arrested within the structure.
N

Other examples are given in Figs. 4 and 5. 21

The main characteristic feature of the assemblies in
1 elements such that neither element can be removed
U

the above examples is that the upward and downward 23

from the assembly without disturbing the neighbour- (with respect to the assembly plane) movements of the
3 ing elements. In an assembly constrained at the pe- elements are prevented by different faces. Interlocking 25
riphery, each element will thus be locked. can also be achieved through a single face of an ele-
5 Historically, the first interlocking assembly of this ment if the requirement of convexity is relaxed. This 27
kind found was a plate-like assembly of tetrahedra principle has been realised in osteomorphic blocks or
7 [19,20], Fig. 3. The tetrahedra are put together in such bricks, Fig. 2 [16,17,21]. In the osteomorphic block 29
a way that their middle sections form a square lattice
 AA2296
ARTICLE IN PRESS
4 A.V. Dyskin et al. / Acta Astronautica ( ) –

The above properties make the osteomorphic block

a very attractive building element for extraterrestrial 11
construction, as will be discussed in the following sec-
tion. 13

3. Extraterrestrial construction based on

osteomorphic bricks 15

3.1. Mortar free structures from osteomorphic bricks

As evident from the above, bricks made in the shape 17

F
of the osteomorphic block allow erecting structures

O
without mortar or any other binder. Another attractive 19
property of these building blocks is that they are self-
adjusting, such that the construction process does not 21

O
Fig. 4. A layer-like hexagon-based structure of interlocked cubes.
require high precision positioning of the blocks, hence
robotisation of the process can easily be achieved. Nei- 23

PR
ther is high manufacturing precision required, so the
construction can be based on in situ mass production 25
of cheap building blocks (see Section 3.2 for discus-
sion of the tolerance of the structure to variations in 27
D
block dimensions).
These beneficial properties come at a price: the 29
TE

structure has to be either compressed or constrained as

any other topologically interlocking structure. How- 31
ever, a clear advantage of the structures from osteo-
EC

morphic bricks is that it only requires unidirectional 33

constraint preventing the separation of curved faces of
the bricks (in examples shown in Fig. 2, the constraint 35
is in the vertical direction). This section discusses pos-
R

sible ways of providing this peripheral constraint as 37

well as some construction and manufacturing meth-
R

ods. 39
O

3.1.1. Constraint by the natural features of planetary

Fig. 5. A layer-like hexagon-based structure of interlocked octa-
topography: foundations and in-built cavern 41
C

hedra.
structures
A natural peripheral constraint for plate-like inter- 43
N

1 each curved surface prevents its displacement along locking structures can be provided by elements of
the normal to the assembly in either direction. More- planetary topography such as small craters or other 45
U

3 over, these surfaces are engineered in such a way that pits. Fig. 6 shows an example of foundation built in
both planar and corner structures are possible, making a pit. The upper and lower gaps between the inter- 47
5 this block a convenient construction element. Also the locking assembly and the pit walls should be either
shape of the interlocking surfaces makes the blocks filled with an expanding grout (possibly mixed with 49
7 self-adjusting such that any, even very inaccurate ini- regolith) or equipped with special jacks to provide the
tial placement of a block, leads to its self-positioning necessary constraining pressure (in Fig. 6 the grout 51
9 into the correct place. is shown double-hatched). The other gaps (single line
 AA2296
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.V. Dyskin et al. / Acta Astronautica ( ) – 5

F
Fig. 6. Interlocking foundation built in a pit. The grey hatched
area represents the pit wall; the upper and lower gaps between the

O
walls and the structure (double-hatched) are filled with expanding
Fig. 8. An example of constraining by external frame.
grout. The other gaps may be left unfilled.

O
standing alone structures other methods of providing 15

PR
the constraint are required. Some of them are discussed
in the following subsection. 17

3.1.2. Artificial constraint

D
When natural constraint is not available, a specially 19
built external frame can be used, as exemplified by
TE

Fig. 8. This design will, however, require the supply of 21

pre-manufactured members, which in an early stage of
extraterrestrial development not supported by an in situ 23
EC

industrial base will have to be transported from Earth.

This may increase the development cost prohibitively. 25
A more viable solution can be a constraint by in-
ternal tension cables running through the bricks (at 27
R

Fig. 7. Interlocking structure built in a cavern. The foundation can

be built, e.g., from regolith. least two cables per brick), Fig. 9. After completion
the structure the cables will have to be tensioned (so- 29
R

called post-tensioning, e.g., [22]) in the way similar to

1 filling in Fig. 6) can be left unfilled. In order to reduce tensioning tendons (high strength steel bars). The ten- 31
O

the gaps, some bricks have been cut to shape fitting sioning can be achieved by employing hydraulic jacks
3 the pit geometry. of different types. Tensioning can be conducted on a 33
C

Another type of interlocking structures utilising the single cable at a time or on multiple cables simultane-
5 natural environment to provide the constraint are in- ously. After tensioning the cables have to be gripped. 35
N

built structures in caverns or lava tubes. (For a general Generally there are three methods of gripping or an-
7 concept of utilisation of the lava tubes see [2].) Fig. choring (e.g., [23]). The first, most commonly used 37
U

7 shows schematics of an in-built structure. In this method is based on the wedge producing a frictional
9 case, only gaps between the structure top and the cav- grip on the cable, Fig. 9. The second method uses the 39
ern roof should be either filled with expanding grout direct bearing from rivet or bolt heads formed at the
11 or equipped with the pressurising jacks (as shown end of the wires. The third method is based on looping 41
in Fig. 7). the cables around the structure.
13 By the same token the interlocking structures could The post tensioning in every brick column is labour 43
be fitted into larger artificial structures. However for a intensive, however it provides a low weight constraint
 AA2296
ARTICLE IN PRESS
6 A.V. Dyskin et al. / Acta Astronautica ( ) –

Tension/holding device

Gripping wedge

Internal tension
cable Tension cable

F
O
O
Fig. 9. Constraining by post-tensioning of internal cables.

PR
1 (as compared to the external frame). Another advan-
tage of this constraint method is its operational flex-
3 ibility, since the number of cables and the density of
their installation can vary within the same structure
D
5 depending upon the constraint requirements.
TE

3.1.3. Roofing
7 Roofing is typically achieved by construction ele-
Fig. 10. Mould for simultaneous casting or sintering of 5 osteo-
ments other than the ones used for the main building.
EC

morphic bricks [25]. The two separable halves of the mould are
9 The advantage of the proposed osteomorphic bricks shown.
is that they can also be used to construct a roof, al-
11 beit only a planar one (special curved osteomorphic cutting from large stones, can be viable, it seems that
R

blocks have to be designed for other types of roofing, the main in situ production technology will be based 29
13 such as a dome type; alternatively, standardised planar on sintering of bricks from regolith dust.
R

‘cassettes’ each consisting of a number of blocks can There appear to be two major sintering methods. 31
15 be used to approximate a curved surface of a dome). One method—sintering in a mould by external or inter-
O

However, due to relatively low bending stiffness of nal (microwave) heating—was already discussed (see 33
17 assemblies of osteomorphic blocks [16], internal roof [2]). There are still some problems with attaining the
C

support is required in order to reduce the roof span and uniform temperature, so further work is required to 35
19 the associated inward deflection. It should be noted, develop the method to an industrial technology. Here
N

however, that on planets with low gravity the achiev- we would only like to emphasise two points as far as 37
21 able post-tensioning might be sufficient to minimise the application of this method to producing osteomor-
U

the deflections even in the case of relatively large roof phic bricks is concerned. Firstly, a special mould is 39
23 spans. required, cf. Fig. 10. The mould consists of two halves
which need to be separated after sintering to enable the 41
3.1.4. In situ production of osteomorphic bricks extraction of the brick. Secondly, it is important that
25 Although it cannot be ruled out that an efficient pro- the self-adjusting property of the bricks permits con- 43
duction technology based on cutting the bricks from siderable tolerance to the quality of the surface such
27 bulk material, for instance mining them in quarries or that after sintering no further machining is required. 45
 AA2296
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.V. Dyskin et al. / Acta Astronautica ( ) – 7

1 Another possible sintering method is selective laser force by 47

sintering used in rapid prototyping. In this method
sA
3 the bricks are sintered layer by layer with a precisely F ∼
= E√ , (1)
guided laser beam. For interlocking structures a clear hH
5 advantage of this method is a possibility of simulta-
where E is the effective Young’s modulus of the struc- 49
neous manufacturing of the whole layer of bricks al-
ture and A is the horizontal cross-sectional area of the
7 ready correctly positioned for interlocking [24]. An
brick per cable (cf. Fig. 9). It is seen that the force 51
additional advantage is that no mould is required,
variations required decrease with the wall height.
9 which may reduce the transportation cost significantly,
as otherwise a considerable number of moulds for
11 industrial-scale brick manufacturing would have to be 3.3. Radiation protection. Double skin walls 53
pre-fabricated and shipped to the planet where they

F
13 are to be used. Presently, this method appears to be Bricks manufactured from the regolith can provide

O
more time consuming than sintering in a mould, how- an efficient radiation protection owing to the high con- 55
15 ever, while in un-manned robotic missions time may tent of oxygen [11]. However, in mortar free structures
the joints between the planar faces of the bricks are 57

O
not be an issue.
not filled and therefore can provide passage channels
17 3.2. Sensitivity to manufacturing imperfections, for radiation. In this case a double skin construction 59

PR
planetary dust and weathering is necessary with the brick pattern of the outer skin
being shifted with respect to that of the inner skin. If 61
19 When bricks are manufactured and used in the ex- necessary, the cavity between the walls can be filled
traterrestrial environment, one has to face the possi- with bulk regolith to increase the thickness of the pro- 63
D
21 bility of surface imperfections inherent in the man- tective layer. Alternatively, a more advanced brick de-
ufacturing process or stemming from weathering or sign can be used, with planar faces of the bricks being 65
TE

23 planetary dust adherence. The fact that interlocking replaced with concave–convex ones, thus eliminating
of the osteomorphic bricks is provided by the special permeability with respect to radiation. 67
25 curved faces rather than keys, pegs-and-hole connec-
EC

tors and the like makes the bricks self-adjusting. As

27 a result, both the construction technology and the in- 4. Protective cladding with osteomorphic tiles
terlocking are insensitive to the imperfections of the
29 contacting surfaces. From the structural point of view, The proposed osteomorphic bricks can be used for 69
R

the only important consequence of the imperfections cladding pre-manufactured surfaces, for instance to
31 is the inevitability of certain variations in the brick di- shield a module or a spacecraft (see [26]). In this 71
R

mensions leading to unevenness of the upper edges of case the ability of the bricks to form corners may not
33 the constructed wall. In conventional brick and mor- be needed which removes the constraint on the brick 73
O

tar structures it is the mortar layer that mitigates the thickness. For instance, it can be smaller than half of
35 brick size variations. In the interlocking structures the the brick length, as shown in Fig. 11. This type of 75
C

wall height variations will have to be dealt with by applications may require cladding of non-planar sur-
37 adjusting the tension in the cables. The necessary vari- faces, in which case non-planar osteomorphic blocks 77
N

ations in the cable force can be estimated as follows. or tiles will be needed. The following procedure can
39 Let s be the standard deviation of the brick height, the be considered for generating the shapes of individual 79
U

average brick height being h. If the average wall (or tiles to match the profile of the body of the spacecraft.
41 structure) height is H, then the standard deviation of Starting from a planar arrangement of the original pla- 81
the wall height is H = s(H / h)1/2 under a natural nar blocks, a required area of the plane is mapped
43 assumption that the size variations of different bricks onto the spacecraft surface using a continuous func- 83
are statistically independent. In order to compensate tion, followed by a three-dimensional continuation of
45 for this height variation one needs to produce a strain the mapping function to transform the shape of each 85
of H /H , which requires changing the tension cable tile. A natural constraint in this case is that the tile
 AA2296
ARTICLE IN PRESS
8 A.V. Dyskin et al. / Acta Astronautica ( ) –

F
O
Fig. 11. Osteomorphic tiles for cladding of curved surfaces: (a) curved tiles and (b) tiles pre-positioned on a surface.

O
1 dimensions should be considerably smaller than the 11.93 kN, while the solid plate failed at the average 33
radii of curvature of the surface to be cladded. load of 9.9 kN, which is about 10% lower that of the

PR
3 Since cladding requires non-planar blocks with dif- assembly. 35
ferent curvatures and dimensions, the mass production
5 method based on sintering in the mould may not be ap-
propriate. Two other alternatives, the method of rapid
5. Interlocking modular structures
D
7 prototyping or direct cutting from a bulk material will
have to be used for the purpose. 5.1. Self-adjusting modules for an extraterrestrial 37
TE

9 Protective cladding with osteomorphic blocks has base

also a property of high fracture resistance as demon-
11 strated by experiments presented in Fig. 12. Fig. 12a Further possible interlocking configurations are 39
shows the interlocking assembly of rectangular shape
EC

based on regular polyhedra. It was demonstrated that

13 of size 280 × 260 × 20 mm3 in a constraining frame. all five platonic solids (tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, 41
The thickness of the blocks (i.e. the thickness of the dodecahedron and icosahedron) can be arranged in
15 assembly) is 20 mm, other sizes are shown in Fig. 12a. interlocking layer-like structures [18]. Also, some 43
R

The interlocking blocks were cast from cement paste ‘derivatives’ of the tetrahedron shape were proposed
17 (Portland cement with 38% water ratio) and cured for in [27]. Figs. 3–5 show the assemblies of elements 45
R

21 days in a humidity room. The cup of 15 mm diame- that appear to be the most suitable ones for the pur-
19 ter in the centre of the assembly is a part of the inden- poses of extraterrestrial construction. Fig. 3 shows a 47
O

tor which delivers load to the structure. The structure square pattern of interlocked tetrahedral elements in
21 rests on a flat surface which simulates the material to the middle section of the assembly. Figs. 4 and 5 de- 49
C

be protected. pict a hexagonal tiling in the middle section of the as-

23 Fig. 12b shows the fracture pattern produced by semblies of interlocked cube- and octahedron-shaped 51
N

the indentation. It is seen that the fractures are con- elements. The main feature of these structures, viz.
25 tained within the loaded block and do not propagate their non-smooth surface, makes them less suitable 53
U

into the neighbouring blocks. Fig. 12c shows the for construction purposes. However, at a larger scale,
27 fracture pattern created in a reference solid plate of they can provide an interesting design for an extrater- 55
the same external size and the same material as the restrial station. Indeed, if each element in Figs. 3–5
29 interlocking assembly. In this case the fractures do represents a pre-fabricated module of a station, then 57
propagate over distances considerably larger than the these structures can be thought of as a cluster type
31 block dimensions. In the reported series of tests the organisation of the station as per Reynolds’ classi- 59
assembly failed at the average indentation load of fication (see [28]). The shapes shown on Figs. 3–5
 AA2296
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.V. Dyskin et al. / Acta Astronautica ( ) – 9

Fig. 13. Construction on uneven surface using the self-adjusting

property of the interlocking modules. Here for illustrative purposes

F
interlocking is indicated by two parallel sections: (a) initial posi-

O
tioning of the pre-fabricated modules uploaded on uneven ground;
the arrows indicate the assembling force applied to the collection
of modules and (b) the resultant assembly.

O
PR
The advantage of using the interlocking organisa- 5
tion of modules is in the inherent self-adjusting prop-
erty of topological interlocking. The same geometry 7
that locks the elements within the structure ensures
that if in a loose structure the elements are not prop- 9
D
erly aligned, application of lateral load will force them
into a regular planar arrangement. This is illustrated by 11
TE

Fig. 13 where the interlocking is indicated by two par-

allel sections (in reality the sections that ensure inter- 13
locking do not have to be parallel—they are shown par-
EC

allel for illustrative purposes only). Fig. 13a sketches 15

a collection of modules after they have been uploaded
on an uneven ground. Then a lateral force needs to 17
be applied to assemble them into a cohesive structure,
R

Fig. 13b. Thus, one can envisage an express method 19

of station assembly on planets with low gravity which
R

does not require special ground preparation. 21

Suppose that the angle between a face of contact
O

and the vertical line is
, while the friction angle for 23

contacting faces is  and cohesion can be neglected.
C

Then, in order to lift a module of weight P, a lateral 25

Fig. 12. Fracture resistance of assembly of osteomorphic blocks
force given by
N

vis-à-vis that of a solid plate: (a) the osteomorphic assembly in a

constraining frame; the cup in the middle is a part of the indenting P
F= cot(
− ), (2)
U

device, (b) fracturing of the osteomorphic assembly is contained 27

within the loaded block and (c) unconstrained fracturing of a solid n
reference plate. needs to be applied to the neighbouring modules,
with n = 2 for square-based assemblies and n = 3 for 29
1 are, of course, not the only possible ones. The osteo- hexagon-based assemblies. The total force necessary
morphic shape could also be suitable for the purpose; for assembling the structure will depend upon the 31
3 however, manufacturing of modules of such a shape structure configuration, the number of the modules to
is more involved. be lifted, their mass and the planet’s gravity. Eq. (2) 33
 AA2296
ARTICLE IN PRESS
10 A.V. Dyskin et al. / Acta Astronautica ( ) –

1 shows that there is a critical parameter in this method,

viz. the friction angle. For the method to work, the
3 friction angle must be smaller than the face inclina-
tion angle. (Already when  =
the force needed
5 to lift a module becomes infinite.) For the structures
discussed here the inclination angles are
= 35.3◦
7 for tetrahedra and cubes and
= 19.5◦ for octahedra.
Therefore, assemblies of tetrahedra or cubes are more
9 preferable from this point of view.

5.2. Removing of modules from the structure

F
11 Another aspect of the topological interlocking is

O
that it can give rise to assemblies with high toler-
13 ance to missing blocks. The aforementioned structures

O
differ in this regard. The structures assembled from
15 osteomorphic blocks (Fig. 2) as well as the square- Fig. 14. A path to service a faulty module (highlighted): broken
tiling based structures (Fig. 3) are tolerant to missing

PR
lines show the modules that should be removed to access the faulty
17 blocks, i.e. the structural integrity of the assemblies module.
are maintained even if isolated individual blocks are
19 removed [16]. On the other hand, the hexagon-tiling
based structures (Figs. 4 and 5) do not tolerate miss-
D
21 ing blocks and disintegrate once a single block is re-
moved or fails. This imposes certain restrictions on
TE

23 the geometric shape to be chosen for interlocking as-

semblies of modules of a station. In the case when the Fig. 15. Schematics of a spacecraft assembled from independent
25 overall integrity is the main issue, and loss of part of modules. The arrows indicate the direction of the thrust (upward
EC

the modules is acceptable, either square-tiling based in this illustration): a small horizontal component is needed for
27 or osteomorphic blocks should be used. If however, integrity of the spacecraft structure to be maintained.
easy replacement of the modules is important, then one
29 should use the hexagon-tiling based structures, since into a small spacecraft in its own right. Then at the 45
R

in that case each module can be accessed by remov- object of interest (e.g., a planet with satellites) the
31 ing modules one by one via the shortest route leading modular spacecraft can be disassembled into sepa- 47
R

to it, Fig. 14. rate spacecraft-modules to explore different parts of

the object. After finishing the exploration the modular 49
O

33 5.3. Spaceship based on interlocked modules spacecraft can be reassembled for further interplan-
etary journey. A particular design could for instance 51
C

Another possible application of interlocking struc- provide the landing capability to only some of the
35 tures is the in-orbit assembly of a spacecraft from in- modules, while equipping the peripheral modules with 53
N

dependent modules. In this case the thrust shall be special engines to provide the main thrust for distant
37 used to keep the modules together by inclining the jets journeys. 55
U

slightly such that they generate a small in-plane force,

39 Fig. 15. The interlocking structures are quite flexible 6. Conclusion
[20], which will provide additional shock absorption
41 for central modules that can be used as living quarters. The principle of topological interlocking offers new 57
This type of organisation of the spacecraft opens possibilities for extraterrestrial construction:
43 up yet another interesting possibility. Each module 1. Various mortar free and demountable structures 59
can be equipped with its own engine and thus turned can be built from osteomorphic bricks. The osteomor-
 AA2296
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.V. Dyskin et al. / Acta Astronautica ( ) – 11

1 phic bricks are self-adjusting, which relaxes the accu- [3] J.D. Burke, J. Young, Whither o splendid ship? The Planetary
racy requirements for both the production and the as- Report, XXII, No. 1, 2002, pp. 4–5. 39
3 sembly of the bricks, making the method ideal for in [4] M. Thangavelu, MALEO: modular assembly in low orbit, in:
D. Schrunk, B. Sharpe, B. Cooper, M. Thangavelu (Eds.), 41
situ production and robotisation. In addition, the inter- The Moon, Resources, Future Development and Colonization,
5 locking structures from osteomorphic bricks possess Wiley, Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore, 43
high resistance to fracture propagation and are toler- 1999, pp. 377–396.
7 ant to missing bricks. A peripheral constraint neces- [5] B. Shackel, Design and Construction of Interlocking 45
sary for stability of such structures can be provided Pavements, Elsevier Applied Science, London and New York,
1990. 47
9 either by utilising natural features of planetary topog-
[6] H.G. Harris, K. Oh, A.A. Hamid, Development of new
raphy or by artificial means, e.g. installation and post- interlocking and mortarless block masonry units for efficient 49
11 tensioning of internal cables or erecting an external building systems, in: Proceedings of the Sixth Canadian
constraining frame. Masonry Symposium, Saskatoon, Canada, June 1992, 51

F
13 2. A further possible application of interlocking pp. 15–17.
[7] F. VascoCosta, Plea for placement armour blocks in orderly 53

O
structures is in protective cladding (e.g., for thermal
patterns, in: Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference
15 or radiation protection) based on osteomorphic tiles on Coastal Engineering, October 4–9, 1992, Venice, Italy, 55

O
made from a suitable material. 1993, pp. 1091–1100.
17 3. Modular structures from interlocked modules (for [8] K.B. Anand, K. Ramamurthy, Development and performance 57
instance in the shape of tetrahedra, cubes or octahedra) evaluation of interlocking-block masonry, Journal of

PR
19 can be advantageous because their self-adjusting prop- Architectural Engineering 6 (2000) 45–51. 59
[9] D. Gilroy, E.D. Goffi, Modular interlocking brick system in
erty permits easy assembling by applying lateral force wide use at BHP, AISE Steel Technology, January, 2001. 61
21 to a group of uploaded modules even if the ground [10] C.C. Allen, J.C. Graf, D.S. McKay, Sintering bricks on
they are resting on is uneven. the Moon, in: Engineering, Construction and Operations in 63
D
23 4. Spacecraft can be built as interlocking assem- Space IV, Space ’94, Proceedings of the Fourth International
blies of a number of independent spacecraft as mod- Conference, ASCE, New York, 1994, pp. 1220–1229. 65
TE

[11] M. Rycroft, Shielding requirements and concepts, in: P.

25 ules. This offers a highly flexible multipurpose vehicle
Eckard (Ed.), The Lunar Base Handbook, An Introduction 67
suitable for both long-distance travel and simultane- to Lunar Base Design, Development and Operations,
27 ous exploration of extraterrestrial bodies clustered in The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, 1999, 69
EC

proximity of each other. pp. 511–539.

[12] D. McKay, L. Taylor, Lunar resource utilisation, in: P. Eckard 71
(Ed.), The Lunar Base Handbook, An Introduction to Lunar
Acknowledgements Base Design, Development and Operations, The McGraw-Hill 73
Companies, Inc., New York, 1999, pp. 603–663.
R

[13] G. Heiken, D. Vaniman, B. French, Lunar Sourcebook—A 75

Support from the Australian Research Council User’s Guide to the Moon, Cambridge University Press,
R

through the Discovery Grant DP0210574 (2002–2004) Cambridge, MA, 1991. 77

and Linkage International Grant LX0347195 [14] M.B. Duke, The Lunar environment, in: P. Eckard (Ed.), The
O

(2002–2004) as well as from the DFG through Grant Lunar Base Handbook, An Introduction to Lunar Base Design, 79
Es 74/10-1 is acknowledged. One of the authors (E.P.) Development and Operations, The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., New York, 1999, pp. 105–151. 81
C

acknowledges financial support through an Alexander [15] Y. Estrin, A.V. Dyskin, A.J. Kanel-Belov, E. Pasternak,
von Humboldt Research Fellowship 2002–2003. Materials with novel architectonics: assemblies of interlocked 83
N

elements, in: B. Karihaloo (Ed.), IUTAM Symposium on

Analytical and Computational Fracture Mechanics of Non- 85
References
U

homogeneous Materials, Kluwer Academic Press, Dordrecht,

2002, pp. 51–56. 87
31 [1] F.M. Jenkins, P.G. Chamberlain, E.R. Podnieks, Developing [16] H.C. Khor, A.V. Dyskin, E. Pasternak, Y. Estrin, A.J. Kanel-
resource utilisation technology for space, in: J.-C. Roediers Belov, Integrity and fracture of plate-like assemblies of 89
33 (Ed.), Rock Mechanics as a Multidisciplinary Science, topologically interlocked elements, in: A.V. Dyskin, X.Z.
Balkema, Rotterdam, 1991, pp. 1199–1204. Hu, E. Sahouryeh (Eds.), Structural Integrity and Fracture, 91
35 [2] D. Schrunk, B. Sharpe, B. Cooper, M. Thangavelu, The Moon, SIF2002, Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse, 2002, pp. 449–456.
Resources, Future Development and Colonization, Wiley, [17] A.V. Dyskin, Y. Estrin, E. Pasternak, H.C. Khor, A.J. Kanel- 93
37 Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore, 1999. Belov, Fracture resistant structures based on topological
 AA2296
ARTICLE IN PRESS
12 A.V. Dyskin et al. / Acta Astronautica ( ) –

1 interlocking with non-planar contacts, Advanced Engineering [24] J. Estrin, N. Müller, A. Dyskin, D. Trenke, E. Pasternak,
Materials 5 (3) (2003) 116–119. Aus Elementen zusammengesetzte Struktur und Verfahren zu 21
3 [18] A.V. Dyskin, Y. Estrin, A.J. Kanel-Belov, E. Pasternak, ihrer Herstellung, Dt. Patent 10223796, 2003.
Topological interlocking of platonic solids: a way to new [25] L. Seow, Lunar Construction Techniques, Final Year Thesis, 23
5 materials and structures, Philosophical Magazine Letters 83 UWA, Department of Civil and Resource Engineering, 2000.
(3) (2003) 197–203. [26] Y. Estrin, A.V. Dyskin, E. Pasternak, H.C. Khor, A.J. 25
7 [19] M. Glickman, The G-block system of vertically interlocking Kanel-Belov, Topological interlocking of protective tiles for
paving, in: Second International Conference on Concrete space shuttle, Philosophical Magazine Letters 83 (6) (2003) 27
9 Block Paving, Delft, April 10–12, 1984, pp. 345–348. 351–355.
[20] A.V. Dyskin, Y. Estrin, A.J. Kanel-Belov, E. Pasternak, A new [27] A.V. Dyskin, Y. Estrin, A.J. Kanel-Belov, E. Pasternak, 29
11 concept in design of materials and structures: assemblies of Toughening by fragmentation—how topology helps,
interlocked tetrahedron-shaped elements, Scripta Materialia Advanced Engineering Materials 3 (11) (2001) 885–888. 31
13 44 (2001) 2689–2694. [28] S. Johnson, Habitats, laboratories and airlocks, in: P. Eckard
[21] D.A. Robson, Deutsches Patent DE-AS 25 54 516, 1978. (Ed.), The Lunar Base Handbook, An Introduction to Lunar 33

F
15 [22] R.F. Warner, Concrete Structures, Longman, South Base Design, Development and Operations, The McGraw-Hill
Melbourne, 1998. Companies, Inc., New York, 1999, pp. 263–301. 35

O
17 [23] T.Y. Lin, N.H. Burns, Design of Prestressed Concrete
Structures, Wiley, Berkeley, California and Austin, Texas,

O
19 1981.

PR
D
TE
EC
R
R
O
C
N
U

View publication stats