TOPIC 1

UNDAMPED BEAM OSCILLATIONS

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. Comprehend the concept of undamped beam oscillations
(LO4,LO5,LO3)
2. Determine the elastic/deflection coefficient (stiffness) of the spring
(LO3, LO4, L05)
3. Measure the natural frequency of the beam using different spring
types and positioning (LO3, LO4, L05)

CONTENTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Undamped oscillation is an oscillation in which the amplitude remains
constant with respect to time. To strengthen the undamped (ζ = 0) situation,
the system oscillates at its natural resonant frequency (ωo)

1.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

To determine the deflection coefficient of spring:

Force = Kx (1)

where, K = elastic coefficient of spring and x = spring elongation

K =
(m2 − m1)g
x2 − x1 (2)
2
ϖ n = 3Ka
Natural frequency angle: mL2
(3)

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Natural Frequency:
f =
1
2π
• [3Ka 2

mL 2
]
(4)

t = 2π •  mL 
2
 3Ka 2 
Time Interval: (5)

Beam mass = 1.628kg

Beam length = 730mm

spring

beam

Figure 1.1 Spri ng S tiffness F igure 1 .2 Na tura l Frequency of Beam

1.3 EXPERI MENTAL EQU IPMENTS

Table 1.1 Apparatus

Quantity Apparatus
3 Spring, type K1, K2, K3
1 Steel ruler 1m
1 Stop Watch
1 TM150 Universal Vibration System
Apparatus
5 50gm Load Hook
1 Weight set (50g, 150g, 200g)
1 Vernier Caliper

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1.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

1.4.1 DETERMINE THE SPRING DEFLECTION COEFFICIENT

a. Prepare test apparatus as in Figure 1.1 in the TM150 Universal
Vibration Apparatus.
b. Measure the length of spring K1 without any load.
c. Attach a 200g load at the spring end and measure the length of spring
again.
d. Add another 200g load to the spring and measure the length of spring.
e. Add another 200g load to the spring which makes a total of 600g.
Measure the length of spring again.
f. Add another 200g load to the spring which makes a total of 800g.
Measure the length of spring again.
g. Complete the Table 1.2.
h. Repeat the steps a – e for the springs K2 and K3

1.4.2 DETERMINE THE NATURAL FREQUENCY OF BEAM

a. Prepare the test apparatus as in Figure 1.2 in the TM150 Universal
Vibration Apparatus
b. Attach the end of spring to the lever arm at a distance of 350mm from
the lever end.
c. Level the lever arm with the spring attached. Arrange the grid paper to
be at the center of the marker.
d. Switch on the power.
e. Pull and release the lever end and at the same time switch on motor to
operate the paper grid. Record 10 oscillations.
f. Repeat the steps a – e by changing the distance of spring position to
650 mm from the lever end.
g. Repeat the steps a – f by using different types of springs provided.
Complete the Tables 1.3 and 1.4. .

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DATA FOR TEST 1

Table 1.2 Spring Deflection Determination

Spring
Spring Elongation
Weight(g) Load(N) Length
Type (mm)
(mm)
200

400
K1
600

800

200

400
K2
600

800

200

400
K3
600

800

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DATA FOR TEST 2

Table 1.3 Effect of Spring Stiffness on the Natural Frequency of the

Beam

Spring Length of Lever ‘a’ Natural Frequency

Sample
Stiffness(N/mm) (mm) (Hz)
1
K1 350 mm
2
K1 650 mm
3
K2 350 mm
4
K2 650 mm
5
K3 350 mm
6
K3 650 mm

Table 1.4 Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Natural

Frequencies of the Beam

Natural Time(s) Natural

Sample
Time(s) Frequency(Hz) Frequency Hz
(Experimental) (Theoretical)
1

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 TOPIC 2

BALANCING OF ROTATING MASS

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. Understand the concept of balancing for the single and multiple plane
(LO4,LO5,LO3)
2. to study the different balancing of the following body at single plane
and multiple-plane (LO3, LO4, L05)
3. to study the different balancing of the following body at static and
dynamic state for the multiple plane (LO3, LO4, L05)

CONTENTS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The high speed of engines and other machines is a common phenomenon
now-a-days. It is, therefore, very essential that all the rotating and
reciprocating parts should be completely balanced as far as possible. If these
parts are not properly balanced, the dynamic forces are set up. These forces
not only increase the loads on bearings and stresses in the various
members, but also produce unpleasant and even dangerous vibrations. In
this experiment we shall discuss the balancing of unbalanced forces caused
by rotating masses, in order to minimize the vibration occurred.

2.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

This experiment is to prove on the basic principle of balancing. Before
implementing the experiment (2.4.1) and (2.4.2), sector plate B5 and C5

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need to be installed at the internal position of disc by using the short screw
(5/8) as shown in Figur e 2. 1.

Figure 2.1 Disc of Balancing of Rotating Masses

2.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 2.1 Apparatus

Quantity Apparatus Label

1 Dynamic balancing
apparatus
1 set Set of weight Refer procedure
1 set Screw/Nut Refer procedure
1 Toolbox

2.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

2.4.1 BALANCING IN A SINGLE PLANE OF REVOLUTION

a. Place m1 = 30 at , r1 = 60mm where
m1 – mass at the single plane
r1 – distance m1 from centre of gravity and plane of rotation

Therefore, m1 x r1 = 30 x 60 = 1800 (not zero)

OR m1r1 =
m1r1

This situation will contribute to the imbalance observe oscillations.

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b. Place m1 = 30 at , r1 = 60mm and
m2 = 30 at , r2 = 60mm where
m1 – mass at the single plane
r1 – distance m1 from centre of gravity and plane of rotation

Therefore, m1r1 + m2r2 = (30 x 60 ) – (30 x 60)

= 0 ( zero)

m2r2

OR m1r1 + m2r2 =
m1r1

This situation will contribute to the balance observe no oscillations.

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c. Place m1 = 30 at , r1 = 60mm and
m2 = 60 at , r2 = 30mm where

Therefore, m1r1 + m2r2 = (30 x 60 ) – (60 x 30)

= 0 ( zero)

m2r2

OR m1r1 + m2r2 =
m1r1

This situation will contribute to the balance observe no oscillations.

d. Place m1 = 30 at , r1 = 60mm and

m2 = 30 at , r2 = 30mm
m3 = 15 at , r3 = 60mm where

Therefore, m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 = (30 x 60 ) – (30 x30) – (15 x 60)

=0

m3r3 m2r2

OR m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 =

m1r1

This situation will contribute to the balance observe no oscillations.

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e. Place m1 = 30 at , r1 = 60mm and
m2 = 30 at , r2 = 60mm
m3 = 30 at , r3 = 60mm where

m1 located at the slot centre and therefore , angle θ1 = 0°, θ2 =12 0°, and
θ3 = 240°

Therefore, m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 =

This situation will contribute to the balance observe no oscillations.

If m1 located at the end slot, the total of vector as follows;

m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 =

This situation will contribute to the imbalance observe no oscillations.

f. Place m1 = 30 at , r1 = 60mm and

m2 = 40 at , r2 = 45mm
m3 = 60 at , r3 = 30mm where
angle θ1 = 0°, θ2 =12 0° and θ3 = 240°

Therefore, m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 =

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This situation will contribute to the balance observe no oscillations.

2.4.2 BALANCING IN SEPARATE PLANE OF REVOLUTION

a.) Locate the mass, m1 = 30 at r1 = 60mm on plane B

m2 = 30 at r2 = 60mm on plane C
m3 = 60 at r3 = 60mm on plane D
where position m3 is in opposite of the radius m1 and m2

Get the plane A as the reference plane.

Therefore, distance L1 =X, L2 = 2X and L3 = 3X
The total of,
(m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3)
= ( 30 x 60 ) + ( 30 x 60 ) - ( 60 x 60 )
=0

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Vector equation : m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 =

This situation will contribute to the balancing plane during static state

But total,
m1r1L1 + m2r2L2 + m3r3L3
= ( 30 x 60 x X ) + ( 30 x 60 x 2X ) - ( 60 x 60 x 3X )
= - 5400 X (not zero)

Vector equation : m1r1L1 + m2r2L2 + m3r3L3 =

This situation will contribute to the imbalance plane during dynamic state

b.) Locate the mass, m1 = 30 at r1 = 60mm on plane B

m2 = 30 at r2 = 60mm on plane C
m3 = 30 at r3 = 60mm on plane D
m4 = 30 at r4 = 60mm on plane A
where position m3 and m4 is in opposite of the radius m1 and m2

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Get the plane A as the reference plane.
Therefore, distance L1 =X, L2 = 2X and L3 = 3X and L4 = 0
The total of,
(m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 + m4r4)
= ( 30 x 60 ) + ( 30 x 60 ) - ( 30 x 60 ) – (30 x 60)
=0

Vector equation : m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 + m4r4 =

This situation will contribute to the balancing plane during static state

But total,

m1r1L1 + m2r2L2 + m3r3L3 + m4r4L4

= ( 30 x 60 x X ) + ( 30 x 60 x 2X ) - ( 30 x 60 x 3X ) + 0
= 0 (zero)

Vector equation : m1r1L1 + m2r2L2 + m3r3L3 + m4r4L4 =

This situation will contribute to the balancing plane during dynamic state

c.) Locate the mass, m1 = 60 at r1 = 60mm on plane B

m2 = 60 at r2 = 60mm on plane C
m3 = 20 at r3 = 60mm on plane D

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 m4 = 20 at r4 = 60mm on plane A
where position m2 and m4 is in opposite of the radius m1 and m3

Get the plane A as the reference plane.

Therefore, distance L1 =X, L2 = 2X and L3 = 3X and L4 = 0
The total of,
(m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 + m4r4)
= ( 60 x 60 ) - ( 60 x 60 ) +( 20 x 60 ) – (20 x 60)
=0

Vector equation : m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 + m4r4 =

This situation will contribute to the balancing plane during static state

But, total
m1r1L1 + m2r2L2 + m3r3L3 + m4r4L4
= ( 60 x 60 x X ) - ( 60 x 60 x 2X ) + ( 20 x 60 x 3X ) - 0
= 0 (zero)

Vector equation : m1r1L1 + m2r2L2 + m3r3L3 + m4r4L4 =

This situation will contribute to the balancing plane during dynamic state

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d.) Locate the mass, m1 = 60 at r1 = 60mm on plane B
m2 = 20 at r2 = 60mm on plane D
m3 = 40 at r3 = 60mm on plane A
where position m2 and m3 is in opposite of the radius m1

Get the plane A as the reference plane.

Therefore, distance L1 =X, L2 = 3X and L3 = 0
The total of,
(m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3)
= ( 60 x 60 ) - ( 20 x 60 ) - ( 40 x 60 )
=0

Vector equation : m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 + =

This situation will contribute to the balancing plane during static state

But total,
m1r1L1 + m2r2L2 + m3r3L3
= ( 60 x 60 x X ) - ( 20 x 60 x 3X ) - 0
= 0 (zero)

Vector equation : m1r1L1 + m2r2L2 + m3r3L3 + m4r4L4 =

This situation will contribute to the balancing plane during dynamic state

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DATA FOR TEST

BALANCING IN A SINGLE PLANE OF REVOLUTION

Table 2.2 Experiment 1 Results

EXPERIMENTS THEORETICAL EXPERIMENTAL

CONDITION CONDITION

a Imbalance

b Balance

c Balance

d Balance

e Balance

f Balance

BALANCING IN SEPARATE PLANE OF REVOLUTION

Table 2.3 Experiment 2 Results

EXPERIMENTS THEORETICAL EXPERIMENTAL

CONDITION CONDITION

Static Dynamic Static Dynamic

a Balance Imbalance

b Balance Balance

c Balance Balance

d Balance Balance

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2.5 ACTIVITIES

2.5.1 RESULTS (30%)

a. Fill in the experimental result in the Table 2.1 and 2.2.

2.5.2 DISCUSSIONS (70%)

a. Explain the results obtained from the balancing of rotating masses for
single plane (15%)
b. Explain the results obtained from the balancing of rotating masses for
multiple plane (15%)
c. Give an example on the application of balancing of rotating masses in
real time world and describe why balancing of rotating masses is
important (40%)

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 TOPIC 3

COMPUTERIZED GEAR SYSTEM

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. Describe the different type of gear system and some of their application
(LO4,LO5,LO3)
2. Calculate gear ratios, angular velocity, input and output torque (LO3, LO4,
L05)
3. Calculate the efficiency of the gears (LO3, LO4, L05)
4. Understand the concept of gear system, types of gears and its related
function and application (LO3, LO4, L05)

CONTENTS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Gears are a means of changing the rate of rotation of a machinery shaft.
They can also change the direction of the axis of rotation and can
change rotary motion to linear motion. A gear is a toothed wheel designed to
transmit torque to another gear or toothed component. Different size gears
are often used in pairs, allowing the torque of the driving gear to produce a
large torque in the driven gear at lower speed, or a smaller torque at higher
speed. The larger gear is known as wheel and the smaller gear as a pinion

3.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Consider a simple schematic of a gear box with an input and output shaft as
shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Simple Schematic of Gear Box

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Gear ratio, G.R = Input Speed / Output Speed , = N1 / N2
Gear ratio , G.R = (product of driven teeth )/ (product of driver teeth)
Gear ratio, G.R = Input Speed / Output Speed, = ω1 /ω2
The power transmitted by a torque, T (Nm) applied to the shaft rotating at N
(rev/min) is given by:
Power, P = Tω
P = [ 2π N T] / 60
In the ideal gearbox, the input and output power are the same so,
[ 2π N1 T1] / 60 = [ 2π N2 T2] / 60
In a real gear box, power is lost through friction and the power output is
smaller than the power input.
The efficiency is defined as;

η = Power Output / Power Input

η = [ 2πN2T2 x60 ] / [ 2πN1T1x60]
η = T2ω2 / T1ω1
Note;- N - speed in rev/ min ω - angular velocity ( rad/s )

Table 3.1 Technical Specification of Equipment

0 1 2 3

33 EXPER MENTAL EQU PMENTS

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 Figure 3.2 Connecting diagram

Figure 3.3 Simple Schematic of Gear Box

3.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

3.3.1 EXPERIMENTS FOR 4 STAGE GEAR WITH SAME SIZE GEAR -

GEAR SET 1

a. Make sure gear set 1 is in place. If not, install the gear set 1 into the
system according to the following steps:-
i. Remove the transparent protective cover of the system.
ii. Remove the locking bolts of the gear set.
iii. Remove the gear set by lifting it using the handles.
iv. Put the removed gear set by lifting on storage table.

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 v. Take the new gear set and put it on the system. Make sure the
gear set is completely in place.
vi. Tighten the locking bolts.
vii. Put the transparent protective cover of the system. The new set
is ready to operate.
b. Turn on the system by pressing ON button. The controller and motor
displays will ON.
c. Slowly increase the speed until it reaches 100rpm. Let the system run
and stabilize for an about 10 seconds. Using a Tachometer, take the
rotational speed of the gear by pointing the beam-pointer to the
reflector. Record the speed into the lab sheet accordingly.
d. Slowly increase the speed until it reaches 200rpm. Let the system run
and stabilize for about 10 seconds. Again use Tachometer to get
rotational speed. Record the speed into the lab sheet 1.
Follow the step 3.4.1.d to 3.4.1.g for the speed adjustment of 300rpm,
400rpm, 500rpm, 600rpm and 700rpm.
e. Turn OFF the potentiometer slowly
f. Record all values in Table 3.2.

3.3.2 EXPERIMENTS FOR 4 STAGE GEAR WITH DIFFERENT SIZE GEAR -

GEAR SET 2
a. Make sure gear set 2 is in place. If not, install the gear set 2 into the
system according to the steps 3.4.1.a ( i - vii )
b. Turn on the system by pressing ON button. The controller and motor
displays will ON.
c. Slowly increase the speed until it reaches 100rpm. Let the system run
and stabilize for an about 10 seconds. Using a Tachometer, take the
rotational speed of the gear by pointing the beam-pointer to the
reflector. Record the speed into the lab sheet accordingly.
d. Slowly increase the speed until it reaches 200rpm. Let the system run
and stabilize for about 10 seconds. Again use Tachometer to get
rotational speed. Record the speed into the data sheet.
e. Follow the step 3.4.2.a to 3.4.2.g. for the speed adjustment of 300rpm,
400rpm, 500rpm, 600rpm and 700rpm.

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f. Turn OFF the potentiometer slowly.
g. Record all values in Table 3.3.

Table 3.2 4 Stage Gear with Same Size Gear – Gear Set 1

Table 3.3 4 Stage Gear with Different Size Gear – Gear Set 2

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3.4 ACTIVITIES

3.4.1 RESULTS (30 %)

a. Fill in the experimental result in the Table 3.2 and 3.3

3.4.2 DISCUSSIONS (70%)

a. From Table 3.1 and 3.2, calculate gear ratio theoretically
and experimentally and compare the results. (15%)
b. What are the input torque and the output torque of the gear system.
Given that the input power Pin equal to 20kW and the efficiency, η
equal to 0.7. (10%)
c. Calculate the efficiency of gear system (gear set 1 and 2) of the
following combination gear. Given Pin = 20kW and system are idle,
(15%)
a. Gear 1 to gear 0
b. Gear 2 to gear 0
c. Gear 3 to gear 0
d. Beside than compound gear train, give another type of gearbox
constructions and also describe the applications. (30%)

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 TOPIC 4

BEVEL GEAR

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. Comprehend the concept of velocity ratio (V.R), mechanical advantage
(M.A) and efficiency (E) of the bevel gear unit according to different action
load of, (LO4,LO5,LO3)
b. Correct setting of gear teeth
c. Incorrect setting of gear teeth

CONTENTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Bevel gears are gears where the axes of the two shafts intersect and the
tooth-bearing faces of the gears themselves are conically shaped. Bevel
gears are most often mounted on shafts that are 90 degrees apart, but can
be designed to work at other angles as well. The pitch surface of bevel gears
is a cone.

4.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

In many machine and power transmission assemblies is necessary to have
shaft at 90 degrees to each other and the common method is to use bevel
wheels as shown in Figure 4.1. These gears can have a ratio of 1:1 or any
reasonable ratio. The sketch and model use 2:1 in which the pinion (small
gear) has 20T and the large gear has 40T. Bevel gear teeth are difficult to cut
as the size of the tooth changes from the inner pitch diameter X to the outer
one Y. For efficient transmission it is very important to set up the gears very
accurately. This is usually done by inspection of the joint – face Z.

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 Figure 4.1 Simple Bevel Gear

4.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 4.1 Apparatus

Quantity Apparatus Label

1 Unit gear bevel (with Ex 16
shim)
2 Bolt P2
2 Nut P1
2 Weight Hook, 100gm P12
2 Cord P18

Figure 4.2 Schematic Diagram Of Bevel Gear Experiments.

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4.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Examine the bevel gear unit and count the number of teeth on the Pinion (P)
and the Wheel (W). Ensure the gears are set at 90 degrees to each other
with a little clearance between the teeth so that they move freely. Now secure
the unit to the vertical panel as shown in Figure 4.2 and attach the cords and
weight hooks.

TEST 1 – CORRECT SETTING OF GEAR TEETH

a. Apply a load of 100g to hook P, while load at W is 200g.

b. Add load on P until it just run downwards to lift W.
c. Write the total load of pinion P and load wheel W. Measure the
downward distance of P and upward distance of W
d. Repeat step 4.4.a to 4.4.c by using load W as 300g, 400g, 500g and
600g and enter the results of pinion load P and load W. Record the
data in Table 4.2.

TEST 2 – INCORRECT SETTING OF GEAR TEETH

a. Loosen the blocks holding the gears and push the gears together so
that they do not run freely. This lowers the efficiency.
b. Apply a load of 100g to hook P, while load at W is 200g.
c. Add load on P until it just run downwards to lift W.
d. Write the total load of pinion P and load wheel W. Measure the
downward distance of P and upward distance of W.
e. Repeat step a to c by using load W as 300g, 400g, 500g and 600g
and enter the results of pinion load P and load W. Record the data in
Table 4.3.

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4.5 ACTIVITIES

4.5.1 RESULTS (15%)

a. Fill in the experimental result in the Table 4.2 and 4.3

Table 4.2 Test 1 Result

TEST 1 : CORRECT setting of Bevel Gear

Distance
Total load, W Pinion load, P
load Distance pinion
(gram) (N) (gram) (N)
W (mm) P (mm)
200

300

400

500

600

Table 4.3 Test 2 Result

TEST 2 : INCORRECT setting of Bevel Gear

Pinion load, Distance
Total load, W load Distance pinion
P
(gram) (N) (gram) (N) W (mm) P (mm)
200

300

400

500

600

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4.5.2 DISCUSSIONS (70%)
a. Based on the data in TEST 1 and TEST 2, calculate the velocity ratio
(V.R), mechanical advantages (M.A) and efficiency (E) by using the
following formula; (15%)
Velocity Ratio (V.R) = [Downward distance of pinion P] / [Upward
distance of wheel W]

Mechanical Advantage (M.A) = [Total load, W] / [Pinion load, P]

Efficiency (E) = [Mechanical Advantage (M.A)] / [Velocity Ratio (V.R)]

Table 4.4 Correct Setting of Bevel Gear

TOTAL LOAD VELOCITY MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

W (g) RATIO (V.R) ADVANTAGE (M.A) (E)
200
300
400
500
600

Table 4.5 Incorrect Setting of Bevel Gear

TOTAL LOAD VELOCITY MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

W (g) RATIO (V.R) ADVANTAGE (M.A) (E)
200
300
400
500
600

b. Is there any different on the value of mechanical advantage and

efficiency from TEST 1 and TEST 2. Explain the factors that affecting
the following results. (25%)
c. There a lots of bevel gear application in engineering field. Name four
(4) types and applications of bevel gear. (30%)

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 TOPIC 5

BELT FRICTION

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. Comprehend the the relation between tight belt and angle of lap for flat
belt (LO4,LO5,LO3)
2. Compare the driving force at certain angle of lap of the following belt,
(LO3, LO4, L05)
a. Flat belt
b. V belt with incorrect slot installation/fixation
c. V belt with correct slot installation/fixation
3. Measure the natural frequency of the beam using different spring
types and positioning (LO3, LO4, L05)

CONTENTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Belt friction is a term describing the friction forces between a belt and a
surface, such as a belt wrapped around a pulley. When one end of the belt is
being pulled only part of this force is transmitted to the other end. The friction
force makes that the tension in the belt can be different at both ends of the
belt

5.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Consider a belt which moves on the pulley with the small angle of lap,δθ.
Consider that T is the tension at point a, and T + dT is the tension at point b.
R is the small surface for the pulley rim and the touching belt (see Figure
5.1). Figure 5.2 shows the triangle force, where R can be measured.

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Assume that the change on angle is so small, dθ and the change of the belt
tension is dT, therefore;

R = T dθ ---------------(1)

Figure 5.1 Belt and Pulley Figure 5.2 Triangle Force

Known that the coefficient of friction, µ = Friction force / Action of touching

surface,

Therefore, dT = µR --------------------------- (2)

Replace (1) into (2);

dT = µ(Tdθ) dT / T = µdθ

Log e T1/T2 = µθ ---------------- (3)

F gure

Figure 5.3 Belt and Pulley Schematic

From the equation (3), eµθ antilog of log 10e x µθ = antilog of 0.4342µθ
Where
e = exponent value of 2.718
µ = coefficient of friction between belt and pulley
θ = angle of lap (in radian)
T1 and T2 – belt tight, where T1 > T2

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 T1 = m1g
T2 = ( m1 - m2 ) g
Driving force, = ( T1 - T2 )R
=m2g

5.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 5.1 Apparatus

Quantity Apparatus Label

1 Set of pulley installed on the wall with
- flat belt groove, large groove and fit groove
1 Flat belt
1 V-belt
1 Nylon cord – to hang weight hook m2
2 Surface plate
5 Weight set of 100g, 200g, 500g, and 1 kg

5.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

5.4.1 TEST 1 – FLAT BELT AT DIFFERENT ANGLE OF LAP

a. Prepare the apparatus of experiment as shown in Figure 5.3.
b. Fix the flat belt at an angle of 60 degrees and through the correct
groove.
c. Hang the 500g at bottom end of belt
d. Wind the cord as many as you can on pulley in the opposite direction
of flat belt and hang 500g weight hook at the end of cord and state
500g as the first value of m2.
e. Support the m2 weight hook by hand at the early stage to avoid it from
moving downwards due to the rotation of pulley. Then add load at m1
weight hook, until m2 become stable. State the total load as the value
of m1.
f. Repeat step 5.4.1d to 5.4.1e by using the value of m2 as 700g, 900g,
1100g and 1300g. State the total load of m1 and m2.
g. Then, repeat step 5.4.1b – 5.4.1f by fixing the belt at different angle of
lap, 120°, 150°, and 180°. State the total value of load m1 and m2.

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 32

 cord

Figure 5.4 Flat and V-Belt at Different Setting

5.4.2 TEST 2 – FLAT BELT AND V-BELT AT DIFFERENT SETTING

a. Prepare the apparatus of experiment as shown in Figure 5.4.

b. Fix the V- belt at an angle of 90 degrees and through the incorrect V-
groove at (b).
c. Hang the 500g at bottom end of belt.
d. Wind the cord as many as you can on pulley in the opposite direction
of V- belt and hang 500g weight hook at the end of cord and state
500g as the first value of m2.
e. Support the weight hook m2 by hand at early stage to avoid from
moving downwards due to the rotation of pulley. Then add load m1
weight hook until m2 become stable. State the total load as the value
of m1
f. Repeat step 5.4.2d and 5.4.2e by using the value of m2 as 700g,
900g, 1100g and 1300g. State the total load of m1 and m2.
g. Then, repeat step 5.4.2b – 5.4.2f by fixing the belt for the V-belt with
correct fitting of groove (c). State the total value of load m1 and m2.

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DATA FOR TEST 1

Table 5.2 TEST 1

Angle of lap for flat belt, θ

0
No 90 1200 1500 1800
m1 (g) m2 (g) m1 (g) m2 (g) m1 (g) m2 (g) m1 (g) m2 (g)
1
2
3
4
5
T1 (N) T2 (N) T1 (N) T2 (N) T1 (N) T2 (N) T1 (N) T2 (N)
1
2
3
4
5
∑
T1/T2
loge[T1
/T2]

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DATA FOR TEST 2

Table 5.3 TEST 2

Angle of lap of the belt , at the angle of , θ = 900

V-belt large groove V- belt with correct /
Flat belt (a)
No (b) fit groove (c )
m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2
(g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g)
1
2
3
4
5
T1 T2 T1 -T2 T1 T2 T1 -T2 T1 T2 T1 -T2
(N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N)
1
2
3
4
5

5.5 ACTIVITIES

5.5.1 ADDITIONAL THEORY (15%)

a. Please describe additional theory according to this topic

5.5.2 RESULTS (15%)

a. Fill in the experimental result in the Table 5.2 and 5.3

5.5.3 OBSERVATIONS (10%)

a. Please make an observations of the experiment that you have
conducted

5.5.4 CALCULATIONS (10%)

a. Shows your calculations

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 35

5.5.5 DISCUSSIONS (15%)
a. Based on data T1, T2 from TEST 1, plot the graph of T1 versus T2
according to the angle of lap on the same graph paper. Discuss the
relation between the changes of driving force with the angle of lap.
(5%)
b. Based on data from TEST 1, plot the graph of loge[T1/T2] versus
angle of lap. Then calculate the value of coefficient of friction of flat
belt and review on the result. (5%)
c. Based on data from TEST 2, plot the graphs of ( T1 - T2 ) versus T1
according to the different type of belt on the same graph. Review the
results. (5%)

5.5.6 QUESTIONS (15%)

a. Transmission belt and roller chain are commonly used to transmit
power to the other unit of machine. Explain the advantages and
disadvantages of both item.

5.5.7 CONCLUSION (15%)

Deduce conclusions from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvements

5.5.8 REFERENCES (5%)

a. Please list down your references according to APA citation standard

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 36

 TOPIC 6

SIMPLE PENDULUM

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. investigate that the time of a simple pendulum depends only on the
length of the pendulum. (LO3, LO4, L05)
2. determine the value of the force of gravity using a simple pendulum.
(LO3, LO4, L05)

CONTENTS

6.1 INTRODUCTION
A small weight (or bob) suspended by a cord forms a simple pendulum.
When the pendulum is set swinging, the time (t) swing is found to be constant
for a given length of pendulum and is not affected by the weight of the bob or
(within limits) by the extent of the arc of swing. This constant time of swing of
a simple pendulum forms the basis of time-keeping by some clocks.

A pendulum swings under the action of gravity. The force of gravity acting on
a freely falling body will give it a steadily increasing speed, or acceleration,
which is the same for all bodies, whatever their weight. This acceleration
(denoted by g) can be calculated the time of swing of a simple pendulum.

6.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

A simple pendulum may be described ideally as a point mass suspended by
a mass less string from some point about which it is allowed to swing back
and forth in a place. A simple pendulum can be approximated by a small
metal sphere which has a small radius and a large mass when compared

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 37

relatively to the length and mass of the light string from which it is
suspended. If a pendulum is set in motion so that is swings back and forth, its
motion will be periodic. The time that it takes to make one complete
oscillation is defined as the period T. Another useful quantity used to
describe periodic motion is the frequency of oscillation. The frequency f of the
oscillations is the number of oscillations that occur per unit time and is the
inverse of the period, f = 1/T. Similarly, the period is the inverse of the
frequency, T = l/f. The maximum distance that the mass is displaced from its
equilibrium position is defined as the amplitude of the oscillation.

When a simple pendulum is displaced from its equilibrium position, there will
be a restoring force that moves the pendulum back towards its equilibrium
position. As the motion of the pendulum carries it past the equilibrium
position, the restoring force changes its direction so that it is still directed
towards the equilibrium position. If the restoring force F is opposite and
directly proportional to the displacement x from the equilibrium position, it
satisfies the relationship.

F=-kx (1)

then the motion of the pendulum will be simple harmonic motion and its
period can be calculated using the equation for the period of simple harmonic
motion

m
T = 2π (2)
k

It can be shown that if the amplitude of the motion is kept small, Equation (2)
will be satisfied and the motion of a simple pendulum will be simple harmonic
motion, and Equation (2) can be used.

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 38

 Figure 6.1 Diagram illustrating the restoring force for a simple
pendulum.

The restoring force for a simple pendulum is supplied by the vector sum of
the gravitational force on the mass. mg, and the tension in the string, T. The
magnitude of the restoring force depends on the gravitational force and the
displacement of the mass from the equilibrium position. Consider Figure 6.1
where a mass m is suspended by a string of length l and is displaced from its
equilibrium position by an angle θ and a distance x along the arc through
which the mass moves. The gravitational force can be resolved into two
components, one along the radial direction, away from the point of
suspension, and one along the arc in the direction that the mass moves.
The component of the gravitational force along the arc provides the
restoring force F and is given by:

F = - mg sin θ (3)

where g is the acceleration of gravity, θ is the angle the pendulum is

displaced, and the minus sign indicates that the force is opposite to the
displacement. For small amplitudes where θ is small, sinθ can be
approximated by θ measured in radians so that Equation (3) can be written
as:
F = - mg θ. (4)

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The angle θ in radians is x
L , the arc length divided by the length of the
pendulum or the radius of the circle in which the mass moves. The restoring
force is then given by:
x
F = - mg (5)
L

and is directly proportional to the displacement x and is in the form of

mg
Equation (1) where k = . Substituting this value of k into Equation (2), the
L
period of a simple pendulum can be found by:

T = 2π ට mg
m
(6)
ቀ ൗLቁ

and,

T = 2π ට
L
(7)
g

Therefore, for small amplitudes the period of a simple pendulum depends

only on its length and the value of the acceleration due to gravity.

6.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 6.1 Simple Pendulum Equipment List

No. Apparatus Qty.
1 Plumb Bob A 1
2 Plumb Bob B 1
3 Plumb Bob C 1
4 Threaded Rod (Bolt) 1
5 Knurled Nuts 2
6 Measurement Tape 1
7 Protractor (Build in) 1
8 Length of Cord (approx 600mm)
9 Stop Watch (or clock with second hand) 1

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6.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

PART A
a. The apparatus is shown in Figure 6.2.
b. Record the weight of each Plumb Bob A, B and C by using digital
scales.
c. The simple pendulum is composed of Plum Bob A suspended by a
cord which is attached to the threaded rod.
d. The pendulum length (L) should be approximately 140 mm long and
clamped between two nuts at the threaded rod.
e. Displace the pendulum about 10° from its equilibrium position and let it
swing back and forth.
f. Measure the total time that it takes to make 20 complete oscillations.
Repeat the total time measurement for 3 times and record that time in
Table 6.2.
g. Repeat step 5 until step 6 using the angle of 20° and 30°.
h. Repeat step 3 until step 7 by using Plumb Bob B and Plumb Bob C.

PART B
a. Use the Plumb Bob A and set the pendulum length (L) at 100mm.
b. Displace the pendulum about 20° from its equilibrium position and let it
swing back and forth.
c. Measure the total time that it takes to make 20 complete oscillations.
Repeat the total time measurement for 3 times and record that time in
Table 3.
d. Repeat step 1 until step 3 with different pendulum length (L) of
200mm, 300mm, 400mm, 500mm and 600mm.

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 THREADED ROD
AND NUTS

PROTRACTOR
STOPWATCH &
MEASURING
TAPE

CORD

PANEL BOARD

PLUMB BOB

A B C

Figure 6.2 Simple Pendulum Apparatus

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 42

6.5 ACTIVITIES

6.5.1 RESULTS (30 %)

a. Complete the Table 6.2 and Table 6.3. Record three separate times
for 20 swings.
b. Plot the graph of Amplitude versus Periodic Time (t) for each Plumb
Bob.
c. Plot the graph of Mass (Plumb Bob) versus Periodic Time (t) for each
amplitude tested.

d. Plot the graph of length L versus periodic time (t).

e. Calculate the average experimental (g) value and compare it with the
theoretical (g) value.

6.5.2 DISCUSSIONS (70%)

a. Discuss the graphs obtained. (10%)
b. Discuss, does the distance the pendulum swings alter its periodic time
(t). (15%)
c. Discuss, does the periodic timing (t) altered by the weight of pendulum
and amplitude of pendulum. (15%)
d. What are the factors that altered the periodic time for a pendulum?
(10%)
e. Explain the difference between simple pendulum and compound
pendulum. (20%)

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 43

6.6 DATA SHEETS

Table 6.2 PART A (length of pendulum constant = 140 mm)

Plumb Bob A Plumb Bob B Plumb Bob C

The time
(____________kg) (____________kg) (____________kg)
for 20
swings (s) Amplitude Amplitude Amplitude
(Degree) (Degree) (Degree)
10° 20° 30° 10° 20° 30° 10° 20° 30°

T1(s)

T2(s)

T3(s)

Average
result, (t)

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 Table 6.3 PART B

The time for 20 swings Periodic

Length of Acceleration
L Average time for
pendulum due gravity,
(m) T1 (s) T2 (s) T3 (s) results, one swing
L, (m) g (m/s2)
T(s) ( T/20)

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

* Data sheet must approved by the instructor

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 45

 TOPIC 7

PROJECTILE

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. investigate the concept of projectile motion.(LO3, LO4,LO5)
2. determine the distance travelled by the initial movement of an object
throughout a sliding platform and particle free-fall movement to the
ground under the action of gravity.

CONTENTS

7.1 INTRODUCTION
A projectile is a body which is propelled (or thrown) with some initial velocity,
and then allowed to be acted upon by the forces of gravity and possible drag.
The maximum upward distance reached by the projectile is called the height,
the horizontal distance travelled is called the range (or sometimes distance),
and the path of the object travel is called its trajectory. If a body is allowed to
free-fall under gravity and is acted upon by the drag of air resistance, it
reaches a maximum downward velocity known as the terminal velocity.

7.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

At point A, ball has a Potential Energy =

1
2
[ ]
mv 2 + Iω 2 .

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 Figure 7.1 Project Apparatus

When it reaches point B, the Kinetic Energy depends upon two components
of velocities, namely the rotational and translational kinetic energy.

Kinetic Energy =
1
2
[ ] 2 2
mu 2 + lw 2 , where, l golf = mr 12 ; l squash = mr 12 .
5 3
...(1)

w : angular velocity
m : mass of an object
r1 : radius of an object
u : velocity at point B

The sum of energy at point B =

1
2
[ ]
mu 2 + lw 2 + mgh 2 . ...(2)

Due to the law of conservation of energy,

The sum of energy at A = The sum of energy at B

mgh 1 =
1
2
[mu 2 + lw 2 ] ...(3)

lf no sliding (gelinciran) happened, u = wr2 , where r2 = OH – S

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 47

 Figure 7.2 Simple Pendulum Apparatus

At B, ball will move with a velocity U,

a. Calculated time, t when the ball drop at the height of h2 could be

obtained from an equation :

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 48

7.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 7.1 Projectile Equipment List

No. Apparatus Qty.

1 Sliding platform / plane 1

2 Ruler / Measuring Tape 1
3 Golf ball 2
5 Squash ball 1
5 Stop watch 1
6 Non Permanent Marker Pen 1

7.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

a. Put the sliding platform on the table at the suitable height and
measure the angle, S and the height, h1 and h2 (Refer Figure 7.1).
b. Put the Golf Ball 1 to the platform.
c. Release the ball when the time keeper and distance marker are ready.
d. Start the stop watch when the ball starts to move about from B and
keep the time until it touches the ground at point C.
e. Determine the location, point C when the ball landing to the ground.

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 49

f. Repeat the procedure several times and determine the distance, L and
time, t every time it landing at the ground. Determine the maximum
distance, minimum distance, average of the distances and average of
the time.

7.5 ACTIVITIES

7.5.1 ADDITIONAL THEORY (15%)

a. Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

7.5.2 RESULTS (15%)

a. Complete the Table 7.2.
b. From the theory, calculate the value of distance, L and time, t of the
golf ball and squash ball.

7.5.3 OBSERVATIONS (10%)

a. Please make observations of the experiment that you have conducted.

7.5.4 CALCULATIONS (10%)

a. Shows your calculations.

7.5.5 DISCUSSIONS (15%)

a. Discuss the result between Golf Ball 1, Golf Ball 2 and Squash Ball in
terms of time and distance obtained by the experiment. (5%)
b. What are the factors that affect the result of time and distance? (5%)
c. Discuss the differences between the experimental result and the
calculation result. (5%)

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 50

7.5.6 QUESTIONS (15%)
a. How and when do you think that Moment lnertia (l) of the object affect
the results? (5%)
b. Explain three (3) applications of Projectile. (10%)

7.5.7 CONCLUSIONS (15%)

Deduce conclusions from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvements

7.5.8 REFERENCES (5%)

a. Please list down your references according to APA citation standard

7.6 SUGGESTED REFERENCES

a. Hibbeler, R.C. (2007). “Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics”, 11th ed. in
Sl units, Singapore: Pearson Education. Call Number: TA352 .H524
2007.
b. Soutas-Little, R.W., lnman, D. J. and Balint, D.S. (2008). “Engineering
Mechanics: Dynamics”, Toronto: Thomson Learning. Call Number:
TA352 .S684 2008.
c. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E. R. and Flori, R.E. (2008). “Mechanics for
Engineers - Dynamics”, 5th Edition , New York : Mc Graw Hill. Call
Number: TA350 .B444 2008.

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 51

7.7 DATA SHEETS

Table 7.2 Result

Distance , L (m) Time (s)

Calculated , L
Types Experimental Experimental

Calculated , t
of ball

Ave, Ave.
L1 L2 L3 t1 t2 t3
L t

Golf 1

Golf 2

Squash

The mass of the Golf 1 = kg ; the diameter of the ball = m

The mass of the Golf 2 = kg ; the diameter of the ball = m

The mass of the Squash = kg ; the diameter of the ball = m

Diameter of the sliding platform, X = m;

Distance, h1 = m

The distance between two sliding platform, X1 = m;

Distance, h2 = m

Angle , S =

* Data sheet must approved by the instructor

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 52

 TOPIC 8

ENERGY CONSERVATION

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. investigate some aspects of potential energy and kinetic energy.
(LO3, LO4,LO5)
2. show that energy exist and can be transformed stored and given back.
(LO3, LO4,LO5)

CONTENTS

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The energy of body is a measure of its capability for doing work. Energy
exists in a variety of forms but it cannot be created or destroyed by human.
Energy can only be transformed. Conservation of energy states that during
the motion the sum of the particle’s kinetic and potential energy remains
constant. ln some cases, kinetic energy can be transformed into potential
energy, and vice versa. The conservation of energy equation is used to solve
problem involving velocity, displacement and conservative forces.

8.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Energy exists in a variety of forms but it cannot be created or destroyed.
Energy can only be transformed. When an engineer refers to losses in
energy he is only applying that it is not doing useful work. Because there are
‘losses’ in any machine the useful energy given out is always less than the
energy put in. ln other words:
Input Energy = Useful Energy + Useless Energy

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 53

Or to put it more technically:

Input Energy = Output Energy + losses

There are two types of energy which are called POTENTlAL and KlNETlC.
POTENTlAL ENERGY (PE) is the amount of WORK AVAlLABLE in a given
body at rest. A weight raised above some datum level is said to possess
potential energy, since it is able to do work in falling to the datum level.
KlNETlC ENERGY (KE) is the amount of WORK POSSESSED or stored by
a MOVlNG body. lf the weight described above is allowed to fall freely to the
datum level all the potential energy will be transformed to an equal quantity of
Kinetic energy provided the falling weight encounters no resistance.

WORK = Force x distance moved ...(1)

Figure 8.1 Energy losses diagram

Therefore if a weight (W) is raised through the distance (H1) the work
available is equal to W x H1, and this amount of energy was given up as the
weight fell as shown in Figure 8.1.
Potential Energy (Initial) = W x H1 ...(2)
BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 54
Where, W = weight and h = height of body from the datum

During the test weight (W) ascended to the height (H2). At this final position it
again possesses Potential Energy. Therefore:

Potential Energy (Final) = W x H2 ...(3)

Losses in PE = WH1 - WH2 ...(4)

8.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 8.1 Energy Conservation Equipment List

No Apparatus Qty.
.
1 Panel board 1
2 Flywheel assembly with cord 60 cm long attached 1
3 Nuts 2
4 Weight hook [0.1N] 1
5 Set of weights 1

8.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

a. Set up the panel board diagram as shown in Figure 8.2. Tighten the
flywheel to the top centre of the panel board with nuts.

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 Figure 8.2 Simple Pendulum Apparatus

b. Determine the suitable height for h1 ~ 400 mm. Record the value of
h1. Ensure the lowest position for weight hook exactly level with the
bottom edge of the panel.
c. Place a load of 0.7 N to the weight hook. Record the total load, W
d. Then, release the flywheel from the height, h1. Ensure there is no
obstructed during its fall. Wait until the weight reaches the lowest
position.
e. While flywheel lifts the load, be careful and mark the level of h2 at the
panel board.
f. Measure the maximum height and record h2.
g. Repeat procedure 3 to 6 using different load, 1.0N, 1.5N, 2.0N, 2.5N
and 3.0N.

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 56

8.5 ACTIVITIES

8.5.1 RESULTS (30 %)

a. Complete the Table 8.2. Calculate Potential Energy and Energy
Losses
b. Plot a graph of Load, W against energy losses (Wh1-Wh2).
c. Plot a graph of Load, W against height, h2

8.5.2 DISCUSSIONS (70%)

a. Discuss the graph of Load, W against energy losses (Wh1-Wh2). (10%)
b. Discuss the graph of Load, W against height, h2. (10%)
c. Judging from H1 and H2, approximately what proportion of the energy
had transformed, stored and given back? Discuss. (15%)
d. Which one most contributing for storing and giving back the energy,
the flywheel or the weight? Discuss. (15%)
e. Suggest some cause for the ‘losses’ in Potential Energy. (20%)

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 57

8.6 DATA SHEETS

Table 8.2 Result

Weight Height Potential Energy

Energy loss
load

lnitial Final lnitial Final

h1 h2 P.E1=Wh1 P.E2=Wh2 Wh1 - Wh2

W
(N) (m) (m) (Nm) (Nm) (Nm)

0.8

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

* Data sheet must approved by the instructor

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 58

 TOPIC 9

CRANK MOTION

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. verify the concept of crank motion and its application. (LO3, LO4,LO5)
2. investigate the characteristics of crank mechanism by constructing a
turning moment graph from experimental results. (LO3, LO4,LO5)
3. compare the experimental turning moment graph with the theoretical
graph. (LO3, LO4,LO5)

CONTENTS

9.1 INTRODUCTION
ln certain types of machines it is necessary to convert straight line (or linear)
motion into circular motion. The most common example is the reciprocating
engine, whether it is a steam or internal combustion engine as shown in
Figure 9.1. Energy is produced in the cylinder and the piston moves
backwards and forwards (or up and down). The piston transmits its motion
via the crosshead and connecting rod, to a point called the crankpin which is
fixed to an arm on the crankshaft. The crankshaft is free to revolve about a
fixed centre so that the crankpin rotates at radius (r); this radius (r) being
equal to half the stroke of the piston. By the link mechanism (called the crank
mechanism) the linear movement of the piston is converted into circular
motion at the crankshaft.

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 Figure 9.1 Reciprocating engine

9.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

The driving force, called the Turning Moment (TM) is continually changing
during each revolution of the crank. This is partly due to the fact that the force
(P) produced at the piston does NOT remain constant, and partly due to the
nature of the link mechanism. ln this experiment, the piston force (P) is
ASSUMED to be constant so that the effect of link mechanism may be
considered in detail without further complication. The Turning Moment (TM)
at any instant is equal to F x d, but both (F) and (d) vary as the crank
revolves as shown in Figure 9.2.

Turning Moment (TM) = E x R = F x d ...(1)

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Where, R ~ flywheel radius = 47.5 mm and E ~ Turning Force

Therefore, TM = 47.5 x E and TM = F x d ...(2)

Where, F ~ Force at the cord (trigonometry method)

d ~ distance between the line of force (F) and the center
of rotation , measured at right angles to the line of
force (F)

Figure 9.3 Forces on the crank

Figure 9.4 Forces trigonometry diagram

This experiment will show the rate at which Turning Moment (TM) varies and
that twice during each revolution the (TM) is zero and twice it will reach a
maximum . Turning Moment (TM) graph obtained as Figure 9.5.

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 Figure 9.5 Graph of tuning moment versus angle

9.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 9.1 Simple Pendulum Equipment List

No. Apparatus Qty.

1 Crank Assembly (EX35) 1
2 Adjustable Hook 1
3 10N Spring Balance (P8) 1
4 Adjustable Pulley 1
5 Knurled Nuts 4
6 Weight Hook 1
7 Set of Weights (P) 1

9.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

a. Set up panel board as shown in Figure 9.6.

b. Place a weight of 10N on the weight hook, making a total weight
10.1N. The weight on the hook will pull the crank out ‘flat’, a position
generally called dead center which is angle = 0˚.
c. Hang the 10N spring balance with adjustable hook. Ensure the value
of spring balance, E = 0.

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d. Then, shift the adjustable hook until 0 angle = 10˚. Fix the piston and
record the spring balance reading, E shown on the spring balance
scale.
e. Repeat step 4 and each time increasing the angle 0 = 10˚. The final
angle is 170˚ from zero.

Figure 9.6 Experimental setup

BDA 27401-Edition I/2018 63

9.5 ACTIVITIES

9.5.1 RESULTS (15%)

a. Complete the Table 9.2. Calculate experimental Turning Moment
(TM).
b. Plot a graph of turning moment, TM against crank angle (S) revolution
for both theoretical and experimental results.
c. On the same graph, plot TM maximum values against crank angle (S)
for both theoretical and experimental results.

9.5.2 DISCUSSIONS (70%)

a. Discuss the graphs obtained. (10%)
b. Compare results between theoretical Turning Moment and
experimental results. (10%)
c. Discuss, at what angle (S) did the Turning Moment reach maximum?
(10%)
d. How many maximum TM values are reached during each revolution of
the crank? Discuss. (10%)

e. Give two (2) examples of Crank Mechanism application. Explain how

its work. (30%)

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 9.7 DATA SHEET

Table 9.2 Result

Crank Turning Moment, TM

Centrifugal Force
Angle Experimental Theoretical
θ (degree) E (N) 47.5 x E(Nmm) (Nmm)
0 0 0 0
10 55,2
20 107,8
30 155,3
40 195,5
50 226,8
60 248,2
70 259,3
80 260,4
90 252,5
100 236,9
110 215,2
120 189,1
130 160.0
140 129,1
150 97,2
160 64,9
170 32,5
180 0 0 0

* Data sheet must approved by the instructor

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 TOPIC 10

UNIVERSAL COUPLING

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:.
1. investigate the effect of introducing universal couplings to a simple
drive shaft. (LO3, LO4,LO5)
2. investigate the uniformity of angular movement between the driving
and the driven end of the shaft in a straight line assembly and then
again with an angular transmission. (LO3, LO4,LO5)
3. investigate with the couplings set up at incorrect position assembly to
see how this interferes with uniform angular transmission. (LO3,
LO4,LO5)

CONTENTS

10.1 INTRODUCTION
A flexible coupling or universal joint is frequently used to link with two shafts
and transmit circular motion from the other. lndeed continuous circular
motion is perhaps the single largest thing that mankind produces in the world
with the available energy. A universal joint is simply and combination of
machine elements which transmit rotation from one axis to another.

10.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Shafts are used to transmit rotary motion and in most cases these shafts
rotate in bearings set in a straight line. However, there are cases where the
shaft cannot be straight and it has to be operated through an angle X, refer
Figure 10.1. A good example in common use is the shaft which transmit

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power from a motor car engine through its gearbox to the back axle to drive
the rear wheels. Here the shaft is generally at an angle and the operation is
further complicated by the fact that the angle varies when the motor car runs
over bumps in the road. A problem like this can be solved by the use of
Universal Couplings, also known as Universal joints.

The universal Coupling apparatus is a straight rod with two couplings based
on the simple Hookes and Cardan Principle. The couplings are not constant
velocity (CV) couplings. Such condition can be satisfied by the use of
universal couplings as shown at A and C in Figure 10.1. For uniform power
transmission the design and assembly of the two couplings must be carefully
considered.

Figure 10.1 Universal coupling experimental setup

10.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 10.1 Universal Coupling Equipment List

No. Apparatus Qty.
1 Universal Joint Assembly 1
2 Knurled Screws 2
3 Knurled Nuts 2

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10.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

TEST 1: Straight Line Link with Mirrored Couplings

a. Joint assembly to the panel board in a convenient position.
b. Set right coupling so that the shaft is in a straight line. Refer to A-B
position in Figure 10.1.
c. Set the left and right coupling position with tighten the screws D1, D2,
D3 and D4. [Please refer to Figure 10.2 for the correct couplings
and screws position].
d. Now set the right and left coupling scales as 0 degrees.
e. Move the left hand scale at 20˚ increments and note the reading on
the right hand scale.
f. Repeat this at 20˚ increments until 180˚ is reached and recorded.

Figure 10.2 Coupling position for Test 1 and Test 3 (top view)

TEST 2: TEST 4: Straight Line Link with 90° Rotated Couplings

a. Set right coupling so that the shaft is in a straight line. Refer to A-B
position in Figure 10.3.
b. Set the left and right coupling position with tighten the screws D1, D2,
D3 and D4. [Please refer to Figure 10.3 for the correct couplings
and screws position]
c. Repeat procedure (4) until (6) in test 1.

Figure 10.3 Coupling position for Test 2 and Test 4 (top view)

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TEST 3: Angle Link with Mirrored Couplings
a. Remove the right coupling assembly and move it to Position C as
shown in Figure 10.2.
b. Set the left and right coupling position with tighten the screws D1, D2,
D3 and D4. [Please refer to Figure 10.2 for the correct couplings
and screws position].
c. Repeat procedure (4) until (6) in test 1.

TEST 4: Angle Link with 90° Rotated Couplings

a. Still in Position A-C as shown in Figure 10.3.
b. Set the left and right coupling position with tighten the screws D1, D2,
D3 and D4. [Please refer to Figure 10.3 for the correct couplings
and screws position].
c. Repeat procedure (4) until (6) in test 1.

10.5 ACTIVITIES

10.5.1 RESULTS (30%)

a. Complete the Table 10.2.
b. Plot the graph Right Hand Dial against Left Hand Dial Result for Test
1, Test 2, Test 3 and Test 4.

10.5.2 DISCUSSIONS (70%)

a. Discuss the graphs obtained. (10%)
b. Discuss about shaft and coupling in the straight line assembly. (10%)
c. Discuss about shaft and coupling in angular assembly. (10%)
d. Why each of the couplings must be set in certain way to achieve
uniform angular transmission. (10%)
e. Give two (2) example of Universal Couplings application in mechanical
engineering. Explain how its work. (30%)

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10.6 DATA SHEET

Table 10.2 Result

TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3 TEST 4

Coupling Coupling Coupling Coupling
Left Right Left Right Left Right Left Right
0 0 0 0
20 20 20 20
40 40 40 40
60 60 60 60
80 80 80 80
100 100 100 100
120 120 120 120
140 140 140 140
160 160 160 160
180 180 180 180

* Data sheet must approved by the instructor

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