Control valves for critical applications

Special print from

»HYDROCARBON PROCESSING«
June 2001
WA 104 EN

By: HYDROCARBON PROCESSING

Dr.-Ing. Jörg Kiesbauer

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 es/Reliability
Control valves for
critical applications
Know the causes of cavitation and flashing and how to prevent them

J. Kiesbauer, Samson AG, Frankfurt, Germany

n refineries, the process media flowing through

I valves are primarily liquids. With liquids, critical

operating conditions caused by cavitation or
flashing may occur. Symptoms are, for instance,
increased noise emission, valve and pipe component
erosion or low-frequency mechanical vibration in
the valve and the connected pipeline. Under these
conditions, in particular, neglecting details can result
in negative influences on plant performance and
costs of ownership. Unfortunately, common practice
today is to select control valves in a “quick and dirty”
fashion, because the phases of planning, bidding
and order processing are connected with significant
pressures of cost and time.
This article presents the basic principles under-
lying these problems and shows how to eliminate
them based on practical examples from refineries.
Moreover, a new throttling element is introduced,
that is especially suited to reducing noise emission
produced by cavitation. This new throttling element
is being implemented in refineries with increasing
success.

Typical refinery process conditions. Fig. 1a illus-

trates normal refinery process data. A typical cen-
trifugal pump with constant speed and normal pres-
sure losses in the hydraulic system is characterized
by the following:
Valve inlet pressure, p1, decreases as mass flow,
W, increases, while valve outlet pressure, p 2 ,
increases. Vapor pressure, pv, depends on process
medium temperature.
Flow conditions known as cavitation and flashing
originate from vaporization occurring in the throt-
tling area. Cavitation occurs when the differential
pressure ratio,
p1 − p2
at outlet size, due Fig. 1. Typical refinery conditions, process data (a), differential
pressure ratio and cavitation/flashing (b) and sound level (c).
xF = to vena contracta effect
p1 − pv
generally decreases as W increases. The three dif-
(according to IEC 60534-8-41,2 ), is higher than the ferent areas of flow status in the valve are marked by
valve’s coefficient of incipient cavitation, x F z. Vapor the following colors:
bubbles are formed in the valve where they soon • Purely turbulent flow for xF < x F z (green area
implode again because p2 > pv. The cavitation index, in Fig. 1b)
␴I, for incipient cavitation in citation 3 is equivalent • Cavitation for x F ≥ x F z and x F < 1 (light blue
to the reciprocal value of x F z. If p2 is lower than pv, area in Fig. 1b)
flashing occurs and the vaporization continues into • Flashing for x F ≥ 1 (yellow area in Fig. 1b).
the pipeline. Vapor pressure, pv, in combination with operat-
Fig. 1b shows in accordance with Fig. 1a that xF ing pressures, p1 and p2, as well as the valve coef-

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 Fig. 2. Pressure and velocity during cavitation and flashing (1: valve Fig. 3. Visualization of cavitation (a) and flashing (b) with flow com-
inlet, vc: vena contracta and 2: valve outlet). ing from below.

ficient, x F z, determine if and when cavitation or flash- the pressure losses in pipes and elbows between the
ing occurs. If the vapor pressure is relatively low, valve and, for example, a vessel at constant pressure,
cavitation and noise emission will occur in the control influences valve outlet pressure and, hence, flow sta-
valve at small-to-medium flowrates. For the lower tus. Either flashing or cavitation can exist when the
vapor pressure value, p v = 7.2 psi, cavitation does operating point is near the sharp transition from cavi-
not occur between 180,000 and 225,000 lb/ h; it does tation to flashing at xF = 1.
occur, though, when the f lowrate is smaller than
180,000 lb/ h (Fig. 1b, green x F curve). Cavitation and flashing. All examination of these
Consequently, f lowrates between 22,500 and phenomena is based on the variation of pressure and
145,000 lb/ h induce a relatively high sound pressure flow velocity in the main flow stream of the medium
level, Lpe,a, i.e., between 80 and 88 dB(A) (Fig.1c, green through the control valve (Figs. 2a and b1 ).
Lpe,a curve). For the higher vapor pressure value, pv = Cavitation. Since pressure difference at the con-
290 psi, cavitation occurs when flowrate is in the trol valve increases with p1 held constant, minimum
upper range (Fig.1b, light blue xF curve). Flashing pressure at the throttling area, generally referred to as
occurs below 180,000 lb / h. Since noise emission vena contracta, vc, drops to the liquid vapor pressure,
induced by cavitation is clearly higher than the noise pv; for xF > xF z. Because p2 > pv , vapor bubbles in the
emission induced by flashing,1 the valve is noisy at area at and around the throttling element collapse in
flowrates between 155,000 and 225,000 lb/ h, reaching the valve space downstream of the vc. Fig. 3a illus-
decibel levels from 85 to 93 dB(A) (Fig.1c, light blue trates cavitation of the flow acting on the valve plug
Lpe,a curve). downstream of the vc.
To select a control valve suited to a particular appli- The following effects occur, depending on cavitation
cation, and to evaluate flow conditions in as much detail intensity:
as possible, knowledge of the exact process data is an 䉴 Noise emission due to cavitation with maximum
absolute must. This is especially true for the actual values of 100 dB(A) (Fig. 1c1)
pressure conditions downstream of the valve. Extent of 䉴 Damage to valve components or pipeline due to

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 Fig. 5. Erosion in rotary plug valve body induced by cavitation.

Fig. 4. Propagating shock waves during flashing result in pipeline

excitation (a: beginning shock wave, b: ending shock wave).
phase flow, may also cause great problems such as:
• Noise excitation, but at distinctively lower levels
cavitation erosion (Fig. 51) than those caused by intense cavitation (Fig. 1c)
䉴 Vibrational excitation of the throttling plug and • Damage to valve components and pipelines caused
entire valve (Fig. 8) by erosion due to liquid phase droplet impact, which
䉴 Choked flow which must be considered when cal- can be further intensified by corrosive medium con-
culating the Cv value.4 stituents
Flashing. Cavitation ends and flashing starts when • Vibration excitation of the entire pipeline due to
the pressure difference, p2 – pv, becomes ≤ 0. Vapor shock waves propagating from the valve outlet, caused
bubbles in the two-phase flow that exit the valve do by the imbalance between the liquid and vapor phases
not implode, but remain intact (Figs. 3b and 4a and b). (Figs. 4 a and b)
The result is a significantly reduced liquid/vapor mix- • Choked f low, and, in addition, substantially
ture density on the downstream side of the valve com- reduced flowrate in cases with two-phase flow at the
pared to the valve inlet side (which is liquid phase only). valve inlet.5
This is linked to an increase in average flow velocity,
which, in the case of flashing, is a multiple of the valve Measures against cavitation erosion. Erosion due
inlet velocity. In Fig. 2b, for instance, outlet velocity is to cavitation (Fig. 5) is most likely to occur when flow
approx. 130 fps, which is clearly higher than the inlet is choked due to a high vapor bubble formation rate1
velocity of 6.6 fps. The higher the average flow velocity at and when kinetic energy of the vapor bubbles swept
the valve outlet, the higher the imbalance between the liq- away by the cavitating flow (Fig. 3a) through the vc is
uid and vapor phases. Figs. 4a and b clearly show the high enough. The decisive parameters in the case of
propagating shock waves produced by the collapsing bub- cavitation are the cavitation index, K c , value6,7 (=1/␴c
bles, whereby the entire pipeline system can be excited to in citation 3), which corresponds to the differential
mechanical or low-frequency vibration (< 10 Hz). pressure ratio6 at incipient choked flow, and the pres-
In process applications with an inlet pressure that is sure differential, p1 – p2, which is directly linked to
just slightly higher than the vapor pressure, a two-phase kinetic energy of the cavitating flow.
liquid and vapor mixture is already present at the valve In general, outlet velocity should be below 7 fps and
inlet. As a result, the described effects are even more low-vibration valve plug designs should be used. Depend-
intensified. Correspondingly, flashing, i.e., true two- ing on valve trim design and material, a certain critical

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 Acceleration
sensors

Port-plug Parabolic-plug

Fig. 8. Differences in vibration behavior (horizontal to the plug stem

Fig. 6. Multistage axial plug prevents cavitation erosion. movement direction) of V-port plug vs. parabolic plug.

Table 1. Limit values for preventing cavitation

erosion
Valve design KC pcrit,cav ,psi
Single-stage globe valves with stellited
hardened valve plug and seat 0.7 360
Single-stage globe valves with
standard materials 0.7 220
Rotary plug valves (with eccentric
spherical disk) 0.4 140
Butterfly and ball valves 0.2 – 0.3 70

Measures against excessive noise emission

caused by cavitation. If noise emission reduction
Fig. 7. X F z as a function of FXF z = 0.93 • 1 FL Cv • Fd requirements are very strict, the control valve must be
selected so that xF z values (which depend on the valve
differential pressure value for significant cavitation stem position) are sufficiently high to fulfill existing
damage, pcrit,cav , is allowable. Based on this, the follow- process conditions, i.e., xF z > xF .
ing empirically gained values (“rules-of-thumb”) can be The K C value, as a measure for incipient choked
stated to prevent difficulties caused by cavitation ero- flow, is essentially determined by valve design, i.e.,
sion (assuming no corrosive medium ingredients !): globe or butterfly valve. Additionally, xF z values are
䉴 p1 – p2 < K C · ( p1 – pv): no problems influenced by the special design and geometry of the
䉴 p1 – p2 ≥ K C · ( p1 – pv) and p1 – p2 < pcrit,cav (see throttling element. Typical xF z values versus valve
Table 1): no problems stem position are listed in citation 1. A variety of mea-
䉴 p1 – p2 ≥ K C · ( p1 – pv) and p1 – p2 > pcrit,cav (see surements showed that the valve’s Reynolds number
Table 1): problems plays an important role. It is accounted for in the vari-
䉴 p1 – p2 ≥ K C · ( p1 – pv) and p1 – p2 > 360 psi: mul- able FxFz, as depicted in Fig. 7, which is used to approx-
tistage globe valve design recommended (e.g., axial imate xF z values for different valve types and sizes
plug, Fig. 6). with one curve. The black curve represents a mean
approximation which will also be
part of the currently being revised
Table 2. Noise behavior of various single-stage globe valve plugs IEC 534-8-4 standard2 at the sug-
gestion of the author. From this, two
Globe valve XFz for XFz for Resistance to Vibration fundamental tendencies can be
type 75% of Cv < 75% of Cv contamination behavior
derived as follows:
Parabolic plug 0.25 to 0.35 Clearly up to 0.8 High Poor for single- • As the Cv value rises, the xF z
guided plugs
value decreases
Piston-balanced 0.25 to 0.35 Up to 0.5 Low Good
• As the valve style factor, Fd4,
plug with cage decreases, the xF z value rises.
V-port plug 0.25 to 0.35 Up to 0.5 High Excellent Throttling element design details
Perforated plug 0.35 Very low Low Good are expressed by the Fd value. The
smaller the hydraulic diameter, the

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 Fig. 10. XFz values for 80 mm seat diameter with throttling system
as shown in Fig. 9 and V-port plug as shown in Figs. 8 and 14.

cal vibration that could result in a torn-off plug when

the plug stem is only single-guided in the top of the
valve body. V-port plugs with asymmetrical orifice
geometry show the least susceptibility to vibration
(Fig. 8). Similarly, cage-style valves and perforated
plugs have a smaller tendency to vibrate. However,
they have the disadvantage of being highly suscep-
tible to contamination from particulate matter, result-
ing in fretting (holes or channels formed by erosion)
and subsequent jamming problems.
Can the advantages of the individual plug types be
combined so that noise levels produced by cavitation
can be minimized?
Fig. 9 shows a new kind of throttling system that can
be integrated in standard globe control valve bodies.
This system has been optimized, using computational
Fig. 9. New type of throttling system for standard valve bodies to
minimize noise caused by cavitation. fluid dynamics (CFD) and performing a series of mea-
surements. The system has the following properties:
䉴 Seat size is not reduced to attain the thinnest
smaller this variable becomes. The smallest hydraulic annulus between the seat and the plug. The result is a
diameters in the vc can be achieved with small annular small hydraulic diameter and, therefore, small Fd fac-
gaps, while surface area of the throttling element tor, which has a positive effect on the xFz value. In addi-
remains the same compared to other vc geometries. tion, the longer “throttling channel” causes pressure
Such geometries are found with parabolic plugs that to decrease continuously (Fig. 11a).
have correspondingly a reduced rated Cv value and 䉴 To prevent mechanical vibration, the plug is dou-
maximum possible seat diameter in the valve body. ble-guided in the body, and optimally in the seat, near
Globe valves with a nominal size > 2 in. with relative the location where vibration is produced (Fig. 9, cir-
travels of 75% normally have xF z values between 0.2 cled letter A).
and 0.35. Depending on the type of throttling element 䉴 The seat has a “high seat joint” (seat/plug sealing
used, the xF z value increases more or less as relative surface Fig. 9, circled letter B), which increases the xFz
travel percentage decreases. This is directly linked to value for large valve plug openings because this has a
a more or less decreasing Fd value. positive effect on the vortex structure in the area below
Table 2 clearly shows that all plug types, except the plug (Fig. 11d).
the parabolic, in typical refinery applications such 䉴 The seat joint is cut back at the plug (Fig. 9, cir-
as in Figs. 1 and 2, can develop high-noise emission cled letter C). This design increases the xFz value when
levels produced by cavitation at differential operating the valve relative travel position is below 75%, because
pressure ratios xF > 0.5 to 0.8. Hence, parabolic plugs it has a positive effect on the vortex structure in the
have a distinct advantage due to their higher xFz val- area above the plug (Fig. 11c).
ues when valve relative travel position is below 75%. 䉴 Attenuation plates can be integrated in the seat
The disadvantage that goes with it, however, is that below the plug. They increase the xFz value additionally
occurrence of cavitation may cause strong mechani- when the valve-open position is over 75 % (Fig. 9, circled

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 Fig. 11. CFD simulations for two plug positions ( Cv = 5.9: a, c and Cv = 94: b, d): isobars and velocity vectors.

Based on the measured xFz value plots, Fig. 10 clearly

shows that such a system emanates noise produced by
cavitation only at differential pressure ratios that are
much higher than for V-port or piston-balanced cage-
style plugs.
This new type of throttling element was used, for
example, in a typical refinery application to adhere to
the required sound level < 70 dB(A) for the given oper-
ating points (Fig. 12). This application in practice con-
firmed measurements made on the test bench.
In a different refinery, a rotary plug valve caused
great noise and erosion problems at maximum valve
inlet pressures p1 = 220 psi and xF = 0.5 – 0.9. After 11⁄2
yr of operation, the valve body was eroded by cavita-
Fig. 12. Practical example from a refinery with high noise reduction tion (Fig. 5, critical cavitation, see Table 1) and was
requirements ( p1 = 160 psi, p2 = 58 psi, Q = 54,905 ... 263,000 lb/h
oil, XF = 0.64 and external sound pressure level, Lp e,a = 70 dB (A)!). replaced by the same rotary valve type. Valve body
thickness of the new valve was checked by thermo-
graphic visualization equipment in regular intervals
letter D). Additionally they further reduce noise level. by an independent consulting institute. After a fur-
䉴 The plug can also be designed as a pressure-bal- ther 11⁄2 yr and multiple valve investments, the rotary
anced version—without a cage (instead with a “hol- valve was replaced with a globe valve designed as
low” skirt-shaped plug bored with small holes and described previously. This new valve successfully elim-
sealed internally against an assembly fixed to the inated the problems in this case as well.
underside of the bonnet).
䉴 For pressure differentials > 145 psi with severe Measures against flashing. In case of flashing or
cavitation ( xF > K C ), the plug or seat should be stel- two-phase flow, it is imperative that a sufficiently
lited or, better yet, precipitation-hardened carbide or large nominal valve size be selected to limit average
martensitic steels. flow velocity on the downstream side of the valve,

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 significant role. Also, seat size should be reduced by at
least one step to instantly provide as much space as
possible for flow on the p2 side.
In a refinery, a 4-in. valve with the operating data
described below caused significant problems: In the
valve and in elbows upstream and downstream of the
valve (Fig. 13a), erosion in combination with corro-
sion occurred. Evaluating existing operating data—
including enthalpy data—showed that average out-
let velocity at standard flowrate and approximately
13% vaporization was approx. 820 fps. Therefore, wear
caused by erosion due to droplet impact was practi-
cally inevitable. An additional disadvantage was
installing the valve between two elbows within a short
distance.
The problems were eliminated when an 8-in. valve
featuring a low-vibration V-port plug with Cv 120 linear
trim (Hastelloy trim chosen for corrosion resistance)
was installed. The valve was centrally installed in the
long pipeline upstream of the first elbow. Here costs of
ownership were ten times higher than the first invest-
ment cost of the implemented valve.
At a different location in the same refinery, mas-
sive vibration problems resulted in cracking the
pipeline supports. The originally-installed rotary plug
valve was much too small (nominal size 12 in.). Result-
ing excessive flow velocities produced the flow condi-
tions shown in Figs. 4a and b, thus causing a strong
vibrational pipeline excitation that was further inten-
sified by the high-pressure recovery intrinsic to rotary
plug valves. Installing a globe valve with a larger
nominal size (20 in., Fig. 14) and a V-port plug solved
this problem. Similar to the examples described pre-
Fig. 13. Changes in valve and pipe isometry in a refinery system (a: viously, costs of ownership significantly added to the
before, b: after).
original investment cost, until a suitable valve solution
was finally selected and installed. 䊏

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The translation of the orginal German article version was revised
by Mark Kammerer, Samson Controls, Inc., Canada. Based on a pre-
sentation at the Annual Meeting of German Refineries, Leuna,
September 2000.

LITERATURE CITED
1 Kiesbauer, J., “An improved prediction method for hydrodynamic noise in control valves”,
Valve World, Vol. 3, Issue 3, June 1998, pp. 33–49.
2 Prediction of noise generated by hydrodynamic flow, International Standard IEC 534-8-

4: IEC 65B WG 9 (Secretary) 130B, 2000.

3 Considerations for Evaluating Control Valve Cavitation, Instrument Society of America

Recommended Practice, ISA-RP75.23.

4 Sizing Equations for Fluid Flow Under Installed Conditions, International Standard IEC

534-8-2-1: 2000 (International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, Switzerland).

5 Diener, R., L. Friedel and J. Kiesbauer, “Auslegung von Stellgeräten bei Zweiphasen-

strömung (Sizing of control valves for two-phase flow),” Automatisierungstechnische

Praxis, Vol. 42, Issue 3, pp. 26–34.
6 Stiles, G. F., “Cavitation In Control Valves,” Instruments & Control Systems (p. 2086–2093,

November 1961).
7 NRC (U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission), Standard CR-6031.

Dr. Jörg Kiesbauer is head of the “Devel-

opment Test Department” at Samson AG,
Mess-und Regeltechnik, Frankfurt/Main, Ger-
Fig. 14. Globe valve with low-vibration V-port plug.
many. His work fields include R&D in control
valves including accessories and self-oper-
thus minimizing the problems described in the sec- ated regulators (flow capacity, sound emis-
tion on cavitation and flashing. Experience shows sion, failure diagnostics, optimization of pre-
that a maximum value of 200 fps should not be diction methods). Since 1999, Dr. Kiesbauer
has been a guest expert of IEC committee
exceeded. 5 For applications with active corrosive 65B WG 9.
media, proper material selection additionally plays a

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