`

Active Profile
This is a portion of the surface of the gear tooth which at some phase of the meshing cycle
contacts the active profile of the mating gear tooth. In other words, it is the part of the gear
tooth profile which actually comes in contact with the profile of its mating gear tooth along the
line of action.
It extends from the limit diameter or SAP (start of active profile) (2) to the effective outside
diameter (1) or EAP (end of active profile) near the tip of the tooth.

Addendum
The height of the tooth above the pitch circle or the radial distance between the Tip
Diameter (1) and the Pitch Diameter (2)
Whereas:
From Gear Data
Mn = normal module pitch (8)
DPn = normal diametral pitch (3.175)
x = profile shift coefficient (0)
Formula:
Addendum Module Pitch:
= Mn*(1+x)
= 8mm

Addendum Diametral Pitch:

= 1/(DPn*(1+x))
= 1/3.175
= 0.315inches

Addendum Modification (Profile Shift)

When gears are produced by a generating process, the datum line of the basic rack
Fig 1. No addendum modification
profile need not necessarily form a tangent to the reference circle. The tooth form can be
altered by shifting the datum line from the tangential position. The involute shape of the
tooth profile is retained, the effect is merely to use parts further from or nearer to the
origin of the same involute. The radial displacement from the tangential position is termed
addendum modification.
The displacement is considered positive when in the direction away from the centre of the
gear and negative when in the direction towards the centre of the gear.
The effect of addendum modification on the tooth form is shown in figs. 1, 2 & 3.
The load carrying capacity of the teeth with no addendum modification (fig.1) can be
improved by the positive addendum modification (fig.2). An extremely large addendum Fig 2. Favourable addendum
modification
modification results in an unsuitable tooth form with pointed teeth as in fig.3.
The addendum modification coefficient (x) is the amount of the addendum modification
divided by the module. Thus, the amount of the addendum modification = x * m.

See also Addendum

Fig 3. Excessive addendum

modification
 Addendum Modification Coefficient
I have had literally hundreds of requests for an explanation of this term, its seem to
confuse and scare many people, so here goes.

Why the confusion? - due in part, to the many names used to describe this process,
addendum modification, correction, addendum modification coefficient, profile shift,
long addendum, short addendum. These terms are often used in the wrong context
and most are a definite term in its own right.
Why modify? - addendum modification is applied in order to reinforce the gear root
especially to avoid undercut in pinions with small numbers of teeth and also to
decrease the relative sliding speed and Hertzian stress of the mating flanks.
Addendum modification is therefore a simple means for improving the load capacity of
gear pairs.

What is addendum modification? - in simple terms, it is the displacement of the basic

rack profile.
It is achieved by removing the active portion of the involute away from the base circle
and so obtain better contact conditions due to increased radius of curvature and
reduction in sliding contact.
During manufacture, the depth of insertion of the cutter determines the tooth
thickness. In a pair of mating gears, if the cutter is inserted so that the gear reference
diameter just touches the cutter reference line (where the cutter tooth thickness is
equal to the cutter gap width), then 'standard proportion' gears are generated. This
would have zero backlash for a given centre distance, however, it is usual to insert
the cutter a little deeper to provide backlash.
This feature can also be used by the designer to provide correction, addendum
modification or profile shift to increase the modification beyond the minimum
necessary to avoid undercutting and also to apply it to pinions having more than the
number of teeth at which undercutting commences.
The reason is to remove the active portion of the involute away from the base circle
and so obtain better contact conditions due to increased radius of curvature and
reduction in sliding contact.

Addendum modification is positive if it increases the tooth thickness and negative if it

decreases the tooth thickness.
This modification or radial displacement of the cutting rack can now be defined as a
factor: Addendum Modification Coefficient (x) = The amount by which the reference
line is offset from the reference diameter when divided by the module mn.
i.e., x = addendum modification/mn

Long addendum - a gear with a positive addendum modification coefficient (x) is said
to have a 'long addendum'. Its value is defined as (1+x)mn
Short addendum - a gear with a negative addendum modification coefficient (x) is said
to have a 'short addendum'. Its value is defined as (1-x)mn

Arc of Approach
The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile travels from its contact-point until the point of contact
arrives at the mesh or pitch-point.
While the contact-point of a pair of mating teeth is travelling along the path of contact towards the mesh-point, the
teeth are said to be in the 'Arc of Approach'; afterwards they are in the 'Arc of Recession'.
 Arc of Action
The arc on the pitch circle through which a tooth profile travels from the beginning to the end of contact with a
mating tooth profile.
Whereas:
From Gear Data
Mn = normal module (8)
z1 = number of teeth in gear 1 (14)
z2 = number of teeth in gear 2 (61)
ß = helix angle (15º)
n = normal pressure angle (20º)
da1 = tip diameter of gear 1 (136.75mm)
da2 = tip diameter of gear 2 (521.21mm)
aw = centre distance (314mm)
Calculated
t = transverse pressure angle (20.6469º)
db1 = base diameter gear 1 (108.504mm)
db2 = base diameter gear 2 (472.765mm)
wt = working transverse pressure angle (22.242874º)
Pt = transverse pitch (26.019mm)
g = length of path of contact (32.475mm)
Formula:
Calculation sequence:
1. Transverse pressure Angle: t
= atan(tan(n)/cos(ß)
= atan(tan(20)/COs(15)
= atan(0.363970/0.965925)
= 20.6469º

2a. Base Diameter Pinion: db1

= Mn*(z1/COs(ß))*COs(t)
= 8*(14/COs(15))*COs(20.6469)
= 8*(14/0.965925)*0.935771
= 108.504mm

2b. Base Diameter Gear: db2

= Mn*(z2/COs(ß))*COs(t)
= 8*(61/COs(15))*COs(20.6469)
= 8*(61/0.965925)*0.935771
= 472.765mm

3. Working Transverse Pressure Angle: wt

= acos(((z1+z2)/(2*aw))*(Mn/COs(ß))*COs(t))
= acos(((14+61)/(2*314))*(8/COs(15))*COs(20.6469))
= acos(((14+61)/(2*314))*(8/0.965925)*0.935771)
= 22.242874º

4. Transverse Pitch: Pt
= (Mn*Pi)/COs(ß)
= (8*3.141592)/COs(15)
= (8*3.141592)/0.965925
= 26.019mm

5. Length of Path of Contact: g

= 0.5*[sqr(da22-db22)+sqr(da12-db12)-(db1+db2)*tan(wt)]
= 0.5*[sqr(521.212-472.7652)+sqr(136.752-108.5042)-(108.504+472.765)*tan(22.242874)]
= 0.5[sqr(48152.6862)+sqr(6927.444484)-581.269*0.408965]
= 0.5*(219.437203+83.23186-581.269*0.408965)
= 32.475mm

6. Arc of Action:
= g/COs(t)
= 32.475/COs(20.6469)
= 32.475/0.935771
= 34.704

Arc of Recess

The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile travels from its contact at the mesh or pitch-point until
contact ends.
While the contact-point of a pair of mating teeth is travelling along the path of contact towards the mesh-point, the
teeth are said to be in the 'Arc of Approach'; afterwards they are in the 'Arc of Recession'.

Arcoid
The term Arcoid is used by Hurth-Modul the machine manufacturer, for Gleason type gears and pinions made on
their machines by the single indexing method (both constant tooth depth and tapered tooth depth) using a tool with
only one tool axis which means all blades of the cutter head have a circular position to the rotating axis of the tool.
Further details are in preparation.
Hurth-Modul are a long-standing manufacturer of gear cutting machines. They are noted for their quality products
for a very reasonable cost.
Hurth-Modul website - www.hurth-modul.de

Axial Hobbing
This is the most widely used form of hobbing.
Hob path :- (see diagram)
1) traverse in:- to clear of component.
2) feed in:- to required depth.
3) feed:- in the direction of axial feed (up for climb hobbing, down for conventional
hobbing)
4) traverse out:- clear of component.
5) traverse down:- to position 1.

See hobbing machine for horizontal hobbing and vertical hobbing

Axial Pitch
The theoretical distance between corresponding points on adjacent teeth or worm
threads, measured in an axial plane (across the face width).

Axial pitch tolerance:

The allowable amount of axial pitch variation.

Axial pitch variation:

The difference in the axial pitch and the measured distance between any two adjacent
teeth or worm threads.

Note: Use this dimension to check the lead gears on a hobbing machine by first marking
the OD with a light cut (about 1mm deep) then scribing a line at right angles to the face
and measuring the axial pitch.
I used this everytime when producing the big gears.
Where:
From Gear Data
Mn = normal module (8)
ß = helix angle (15º)
Formula:
= (Mn*Pi)/sin(ß)
= (8*3.141592)/sin(15)
= (8*3.141592)/0.258819
= 97.105mm

Axial Pitch
The theoretical distance between corresponding points on adjacent teeth or worm
threads, measured in an axial plane (across the face width).

Axial pitch tolerance:

The allowable amount of axial pitch variation.

Axial pitch variation:

The difference in the axial pitch and the measured distance between any two adjacent
teeth or worm threads.

Note: Use this dimension to check the lead gears on a hobbing machine by first marking
the OD with a light cut (about 1mm deep) then scribing a line at right angles to the face
and measuring the axial pitch.
I used this everytime when producing the big gears.
Where:
From Gear Data
Mn = normal module (8)
ß = helix angle (15º)
Formula:
= (Mn*Pi)/sin(ß)
= (8*3.141592)/sin(15)
= (8*3.141592)/0.258819
= 97.105mm

Axial Plane
In a pair of gears it is the plane that contains the two axes. In a single gear it is any plane
containing the axis and a given point.
 Axial Runout
The total deviation of the axial reference surface noted during one revolution of the
workpiece.
It is expressed as TIR (Total Indicator Reading).

See Radial Runout

Axial Thrust
Axial Thrust is created by two helical gears running together.

Direction of Axial Thrust on Driving and Driven gears

Hand of Helix Rotation Driving Gear Driven Gear
Left Clockwise Toward viewer Away from viewer
Counter-
Left Away from viewer Toward viewer
Clockwise
Right Clockwise Away from viewer Toward viewer
Counter-
Right Toward viewer Away from viewer
Clockwise
Whereas:
Wx = Axial Thrust
Wt = Tangential Driving Load
T = Torque
Pn = Horsepower
RPM = Revolutions Per Minute
ß = Helix Angle ()
Formula: Wx = Wt * tan(ß)
Calculation Procedure:
T = (Pn*63.025)/RPM
Wt = T/Pitch Circle Radius

Backlash
1. The amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of the engaging tooth on the
pitch circles.
2. The play between mating tooth surfaces at the tightest point of mesh in a direction normal to the
tooth surface when the gears are mounted in their specified positions.
The amount of backlash in a pair of mating gears can be affected by:
a. Changes in centre distance
b. Variance in tooth thickness.
c. Temperature ranges cause differential expansion of the gears and mountings.

Minimum backlash: Occurs when all tolerances give the shortest centre distance and the thickest teeth
at the highest point of pitch line runout.
Maximum backlash: Occurs when all tolerances give the greatest centre distance and the thinnest
teeth at the lowest point of pitch line runout.
Backlash Tolerance:
The allowable amount of backlash.
Backlash Variation:
The difference between the maximum and minimum backlash occurring in a whole revolution of the
larger of a mating pair of gears.

Dimension over Balls for External Gears DOW, DOP, MOW, MOP
Description: The accurate measurement of gear teeth is essential for the smooth running of
mating gears.

The following calculations for ball diameter and dimension over balls are in two columns.
Left-Hand Column = for external gears with EVEN numbers of teeth.
Right-Hand Column = for external gears with ODD numbers of teeth.
Many calculations are the same for both odd and even numbers of teeth but are repeated to
make the calculation procedure easier to follow.
Additional information: - Ball diameters for Internal Gears
Ball/Pin Diameter - For External Gears
Even Number of Teeth Odd Number of Teeth

Whereas: Whereas:
From Gear Data From Gear Data
Z = number of teeth in gear (50) Z = number of teeth in gear (61)
Mn = normal module (8) Mn = normal module (8)
 = helix angle (15º)  = helix angle (15º)
n = normal pressure angle (20º) n = normal pressure angle (20º)
x = profile shift coefficient (0) x = profile shift coefficient (0)
Calculated Calculated
1. zmn = virtual number of teeth (56.06031537) 1. zmn = virtual number of teeth (68.39358475)
2. vnm = normal pressure angle at Virtual C-Cylinder 2.vnm = normal pressure angle at Virtual C-Cylinder
(20°) (20°)
3. invn = involute of pressure angle normal 3. invn = involute of pressure angle normal
(0.014904384) (0.014904384)
4.knm = pressure angle at contact (21.60541373°) 4.knm = pressure angle at contact (21.31591289°)
5. Dm = ball pin diameter (14mm) (13.5142mm) 5. Dm = ball pin diameter (13) (13.48797374mm)
In calculation procedure 5. Ball diameter Dm, the function 'Int' is for the integer of Dm, this will produce a whole
number diameter (without any decimal places). Whole number ball diameters are easier to purchase and can be
used on other gears, whereas a ball with a diameter of 13.4879 mm will be specific to one gear only. This does not
affect the accuracy of the final size over balls. The +0.5 is to ensure the integer is in the right sector. Leave out the
Int and +0.5 if you prefer the full decimal ball size, (I have included the non-integer size in brackets for your
confirmation).
Formula: Ball diameter - Dm (EVEN number of teeth) Formula: Ball diameter - Dm (ODD number of teeth)
Calculation procedure:- Calculation procedure:-
1. Virtual number of teeth: znm 1. Virtual number of teeth: znm
3.3
= Z/((COS() )) = Z/((cos()3.3))
3.3
= 50/((COS(15) )) = 61/((cos(15)3.3))
3.3
= 50/((0.965925826) ) = 61/((0.965925826)3.3)
= 50/0.891896517 = 61/0.891896516
= 56.06031537 = 68.39358475

2. Normal pressure angle at virtual v-cylinder: vnm 2. Normal pressure angle at virtual v-cylinder: vnm
= acos((znm*cos(n))/(znm+2*x)) = acos((znm*cos(n))/(znm+2*x))
= acos((56.06031537*cos(20))/56.06031537+2*0)) = acos((68.39358475*cos(20))/68.39358475+2*0))
= acos((56.06031537*0.93969262)/56.06031537) = acos((68.39358475*0.93969262)/68.39358475)
= acos(52.679463/56.06031537) = acos(64.2689469/68.39358475)
= acos(0.939692621) = acos(0.939692621)
= 20° = 20°

3. Involute of the normal pressure angle: invn 3. Involute of the normal pressure angle: invn
= tan(n)-n = tan(n)-n
= tan(20)-20 = tan(20)-20
= 0.363970234-0.34906585(use n in radians) = 0.363970234-0.34906585(use n in radians)
= 0.014904384 = 0.014904384

4. Pressure angle at contact: knm 4. Pressure angle at contact: knm

= tan(vnm)-invn+((Pi-4*x*tan(n))/(2*znm)) = tan(vnm)-invn+((Pi-4*x*tan(n))/(2*znm))
= tan(20)-0.014904384+((Pi-4*0*tan(20))/ = tan(20)-0.014904384+((Pi-4*0*tan(20))/
(2*56.06031537)) (2*68.39358475))
= (0.363970234- = (0.363970234-
0.014904384)+(3.1415927/112.120637) 0.014904384)+(3.141592654/136.7871695)
= 0.34906585+0.028019755 = 0.34906585+0.022967013
= 0.377085606 = 0.372032863
= 21.60541373° = 21.31591289°

5. Ball diameter: Dm (EVEN number of teeth) 5. Ball diameter: Dm (ODD number of teeth)
= Int((znm*Mn*cos(n))*(tan(knm)-tan(vnm))+0.5) = Int((znm*Mn*cos(n))*(tan(knm)-tan(vnm))+0.5)
= Int((56.06031537*8*cos(20))*(tan(21.60541373)- = Int((68.39358475*8*cos(20))*(tan(21.31591289)-
tan(20))+0.5) tan(20))+0.5)
= Int((56.06031537*8*0.93969262)*(0.3960373- = Int((68.39358475*8*0.93969262)*(0.39020369-
0.363970234)+0.5) 0.36397023)+0.5)
= Int((421.43571*0.0320671)+0.5) = Int((514.1515748*0.026233458)+0.5)
= Int(13.514221+0.5) = Int(13.48797374+0.5)
= Int(14.014221) = Int(13.98797374)
= 14mm (13.5142mm non-integer size) = 13mm (13.48797374mm non-integer size)
 Dimension Over Balls/Pins - For External Gears

Even Number of Teeth Odd Number of Teeth

Whereas: Whereas:
From Gear Data From Gear Data
Z = number of teeth in gear (50) Z = number of teeth in gear (61)
Mn = normal module (8) Mn = normal module (8)
 = helix angle (15º)  = helix angle (15º)
n = normal pressure angle (20º) n = normal pressure angle (20º)
x = profile shift coefficient (0) x = profile shift coefficient (0)

Calculated Calculated
1. t = transverse pressure angle (20.64689649º) 1. t = transverse pressure angle (20.64689649º)
2. invt = involute of the transverse pressure angle 2. invt = involute of the transverse pressure angle
(0.01645339) (0.01645339)
3. bd = base diameter (387.5126702mm) 3. bd = base diameter (472.7654577mm )
4. b = base helix angle (14.07609542°) 4. b = base helix angle (14.07609542°)
5. invkt = involute of pressure angle in transverse 5. invkt = involute of pressure angle in transverse
section at circle through centre of ball (0.022283685) section at circle through centre of ball (0.019051628)
6. kt = inverse of invkt (22.753668°) 6. kt = inverse of invkt (21.641839°)
7. dk = diameter to centre of ball (420.21543mm) 7. dk = diameter to centre of ball (508.61935mm)
8. Mdk = dimension over balls (434.2154mm) 8. Mdk = dimension over balls (521.4507612mm)
9. Amd = change factor (2.5048006) 9. Amd = change factor (2.6268242)
Dm = ball diameter (14mm) Dm = ball diameter (13)
Formula: Formula:
Calculation procedure: Calculation procedure:
1. Transverse pressure angle: t 1. Transverse pressure angle: t
= atan(n)/cos(ß) = atan(n)/cos(ß)
= atan(tan(20)/cos(15) = atan(tan(20)/cos(15)
= atan(0.363970234/0.965925826) = atan(0.363970234/0.965925826)
= atan(0.376809714) = atan(0.376809714)
= 0.360356324radians (20.64689649º) = 0.360356324radians (20.64689649º)

2. Involute of the transverse pressure angle: invt 2. Involute of the transverse pressure angle: invt
= tan(t)-(t) = tan(t)-(t)
= tan(20.64689649)-20.64689649 = tan(20.64689649)-20.64689649
= 0.376809714-0.360356324 = 0.376809714-0.360356324
= 0.01645339 = 0.01645339

3. Base diameter: db 3. Base diameter: db

= Mn*(Z/cos(ß))*cos(t) = Mn*(Z/cos(ß))*cos(t)
= 8*(50/cos(15))*cos(20.64689649) = 8*(61/cos(15))*cos(20.64689649)
= 8*(50/0.965925826)*0.9357712 = 8*(61/0.965925826)*0.93577124
= 8*51.76381*0.9357712 = 8*63.15184701*0.93577124
= 387.5126702mm = 472.7654577mm

4. Base helix angle: b 4. Base helix angle: b

= asin(sin(ß)*cos(n) = asin(sin(ß)*cos(n)
= asin(sin(15)*cos(20) = asin(sin(15)*cos(20)
= asin(0.258819045*0.939692621) = asin(0.258819045*0.939692621)
= asin(0.243210347) = asin(0.243210347)
= 0.245674211radians (14.07609542°) = 0.245674211radians (14.07609542°)

5. Involute of pressure angle in transverse section 5. Involute of pressure angle in transverse section at
at circle through centre of ball: invkt circle through centre of ball: invkt
= (Dm/(db*cos(b)))-((Pi-4*x*tan(n))/(2*Z))+invt = (Dm/(db*cos(b)))-((Pi-4*x*tan(n))/(2*Z))+invt
= (14/(387.5126702*cos(14.07609542)))-((Pi- = (13/(472.7654577*cos(14.07609542)))-((Pi-
4*x*tan(20))/(2*50))+0.01645339 4*x*tan(20))/(2*61))+0.01645339
= (14/375.87705)-(3.141592654/100)+0.01645339 = (13/458.5699989)-(3.141592654/122)+0.01645339
= 0.0372462-0.0314159+0.01645339 = 0.028348998-0.025750759+0.01645339
= 0.022283685 = 0.019051628
6. Inverse of invkt: kt 6. Inverse of invkt: kt
The evaluation of the inverse (i.e., the calculation of the The evaluation of the inverse (i.e., the calculation of the
angle which corresponds to a given involute value) can angle which corresponds to a given involute value) can
present a challenge. In many cases the term 'refer to present a challenge. In many cases the term 'refer to
tables' is used and for repeated manual calculations it is tables' is used and for repeated manual calculations it is
probably best to pre-calculate using a computer and probably best to pre-calculate using a computer and
forming a reference table. forming a reference table.
This is not satisfactory for a computer program, This is not satisfactory for a computer program,
however, so rapid convergence can be obtained from an however, so rapid convergence can be obtained from an
iteration using:- iteration using:-
Xi+1 = Xi+[inv()-inv(Xi)]*cos2(Xi) Xi+1 = Xi+[inv()-inv(Xi)]*cos2(Xi)
Using this method will provide the following:- Using this method will provide the following:-
= 22.753668° = 21.641839°

7. Diameter to centre of ball: dk 7. Diameter to centre of ball: dk

= db/cos(kt) = db/cos(kt)
= 387.5126702/cos(22.753668) = 472.7654577/cos(21.641839)
= 387.5126702/0.9221762 = 472.7654577/0.9295074
= 420.21543mm = 508.61935mm

8. Dimension over balls: Mdk 8. Dimension over balls: Mdk

= dk+Dm = dk*cos(Pi/(2*z))+Dm
= 420.21543+14 = 508.61935*cos(Pi/(2*61))+13
= 434.2154mm = 508.61935*cos(Pi/(122))+13
= 508.61935*0.999668468+13
9. Change factor: Amd .... see Change Factor = 521.4507612mm
= cos(t)/(sin(kt)*cos(ß))
= cos(20.64689649)/(sin(22.753668)*cos(15) 9. Change factor: Amd .... see Change Factor
= 0.9357712/(0.38677*0.9659258) = cos(t)/(sin(kt)*cos(ß))
= 0.9357712/0.3735911 = cos(20.64689649)/(sin(21.641839)*cos(15)
= 2.5048006 = 0.9357712/(0.3688034*0.9659258)
= 0.9357712/0.3562367
= 2.6268242

Base Circle Diameter

The base circle from which an involute tooth curve is generated or developed.
Whereas:
From Gear Data
Mn = module normal (8)
z = number of teeth in the gear (61)
ß = helix angle (15º)
n = pressure angle normal (20º)
Calculated:
t = pressure angle transverse (20.6469º)
Formula:
= Mn*(z/cos(ß))*Cos(t)
= 8*(61/cos(15))*cos(20.6469)
= 8*(61*0.965925)*0.935771
= 472.765mm

PAt (Pressure Angle Transverse)

= atan(tan(n)/cos(ß))
= atan(tan(20)/cos(15))
= atan(0.363970/0.965925)
= 20.6469º

Base Helix Angle

The angle, at the base cylinder of an involute gear, that the tooth makes with the gear axis.
Whereas:
From Gear data
ß = helix angle (15º)
n = pressure angle normal (20º)
Formula:
Base Helix Angle: b
= asin(sin(ß)*cos(n)
= asin(sin(15)*cos(20)
= asin(0.258819*0.9396926)
= asin(0.2432103)
= 0.245674211radians (14.07609542º)

Bevel Gears
These are conical gears used to connect shafts with intersecting axes and they are the most popular method of
turning a drive through 90º.
Types of bevel gears include:
Straight bevel gears.
This is the most common type of bevel gear where the teeth are radial to the point of intersection of the shaft axes
or apex. The teeth are similar to spur gears in that they make a line contact across the face of the teeth but they
are smaller at the front end than at the rear of the teeth. The shaft angle most commonly encountered is 90º and
when of this angle and of equal speeds they are termed mitre gears.
Spiral bevel gears.
This type of gear fulfils the same purpose as straight bevel gears but the teeth have a form of spiral or developed
curve in the longitudinal direction. In other words, spiral bevel gears have the same relationship to straight bevel
gears as do helical gears to spur gears in that they transmit motion more smoothly than straight bevels.
Zerol bevel gears.
The teeth of Zerol bevel gears are curved but lie in the same direction as the teeth of straight bevels (along the
axis), with a mean spiral angle of zero.
Hypoid gears.

Chordal Addendum
The height from the two points of a chord on the circular thickness arc to the top of the tooth.
It is used to set a gear tooth vernier when measuring the chordal thickness.
Circular Thickness
The length of arc between the two sides of a gear tooth, on the pitch circle unless otherwise specified.

Chordal Thickness
Length between two points across the chord of the circular thickness arc.
It is used to measure the circular thickness with a Gear-Tooth Vernier.
Whereas:
From Gear Data
z = number of teeth in gear (61)
mn = normal module (8)
n = normal pressure angle (20°)
 = helix angle (15°)
x = profile shift coefficient (0)
da = tip diameter (521.21mm)
Calculated:
 = tooth thickness half angle () at reference diameter (0.025750759 radians 1.475409836°)
Sn = normal chordal thickness at reference diameter (12.56524266mm)
ha = the height above the chord (Sn) (8.0705mm)
Formula: Normal Chordal Thickness - External gears
1. Tooth Thickness Half Angle () at Reference Diameter
= (Pi+4*x*tan(n))/(2*z)
= (Pi+4*0*tan(20))/(2*61)
= 3.141592654/122
= 0.025750759 radians 1.475409836°

2. Normal Chordal Thickness at Reference Diameter: (Sn)

= (mn*z*sin((*cos()3))/COs()3
= (8*61*sin((1.475409836*COs(15)3))/COs(15)3
= (8*61*sin(1.329670424))/0.901221065
= 11.32406138/0.901221065
= 12.56524266mm

3. The Height (ha) above the Chord (Sn)

= (0.5*(da-(z*(mn/COs()))))+(0.25*mn*z*2*COs()3
= (0.5*(521.21-(61*(8/COs(15)))))+(0.25*8*61*1.4754098362*COs(15)3
= (0.5*(521.21-(61*(8/0.965925826))))+(0.072907339)
= (0.5*(521.21-(61*8.282209443)))+0.072907339
= (0.5*(521.21-505.214776))+0.072907339
= (0.5*15.99522396)+0.072907339
= 7.99761198+0.072907339
= 8.0705mm
4. Change Factor of Normal Chordal Tooth Thickness: As .... see Change Factor
The change factor As is only significant for small numbers of teeth and is normal put equal to 1.
If required, the full calculation is as follows:-
= ((dv*COs(v))/(d*COs()))*(COs(v)-sin(v)*tan(vt-v))
= ((

Clearance
The amount by which the dedendum in a given gear exceeds the addendum of its mating gear. Also the radial
distance between the top of a tooth and the bottom of the mating tooth space.
In bevel and hypoid gears, the distance between the face cone of one gear and the root cone of the mating gear
when the two gears are assembled in mesh with each other.

Contact Ratio
To assure smooth continuous tooth action, as one pair of teeth ceases contact a succeeding pair of teeth must
already have come into engagement. It is desirable to have as much overlap as possible. A measure of this
overlapping action is the Contact Ratio. This is a ratio of the length of the line of action to the base pitch. (The
ratio of the arc of action to the circular pitch). Put quite simply the Contact Ratio is the average number of
teeth in contact.
It is good practice to maintain a Contact Ratio of 1.2 or greater. Under no circumstances should a ratio drop
below 1.1, calculated for all tolerances at their worst case values.
A Contact Ratio between 1 and 2 means that part of the time two pairs of teeth are in contact and during the
remaining time one pair is in contact. A ratio between 2 and 3 means 2 or 3 pairs of teeth are always in contact.
Whereas:
From Gear Data
Mn = normal module (8)
z1 = number of teeth in pinion (14)
z2 = number of teeth in gear (61)
ß = helix angle (15º)
x1 = profile shift coefficient, pinion (0.3mm)
x2 = profile shift coefficient, gear (0.0mm)
n = normal pressure angle (20º)
da1 = tip diameter of gear 1 (136.75mm)
da2 = tip diameter of gear 2 (521.21mm)
aw = centre distance (314mm) (312.916mm?)

Calculated
t = transverse pressure angle (20.6469º)
db1 = base diameter pinion (108.504mm)
db2 = base diameter gear (472.765mm)
wt = working transverse pressure angle (22.242874º)
Pt = transverse pitch (26.019mm)
Pet = transverse pitch on path of contact (24.348mm)
g = length of path of contact (32.475mm)
Formula: Contact Ratio  

Calculation sequence:
1. Transverse Pressure Angle: t
= atan(tan(n)/cos(ß)
= atan(tan(20)/cos(15)
= atan(0.363970/0.965925)
= 20.6469º

2a. Base Diameter Pinion: db1

= Mn*(z1/cos(ß))*cos(t)
= 8*(14/cos(15))*cos(20.6469)
= 8*(14/0.965925)*0.935771
= 108.504mm

2b. Base Diameter Gear: db2

= Mn*(z2/cos(ß))*cos(t)
= 8*(61/cos(15))*cos(20.6469)
= 8*(61/0.965925)*0.935771
= 472.765mm

3. Working Transverse Pressure Angle: wt

= acos(((z1+z2)/(2*aw))*(Mn/cos(ß))*cos(t))
= acos(((14+61)/(2*314))*(8/cos(15))*cos(20.6469))
= acos(((14+61)/(2*314))*(8/0.965925)*0.935771)
= 22.242874º

Pt (Transverse Pitch)
= (Mn*Pi)/cos(ß)
= (8*3.141592)/cos(15)
= (8*3.141592)/0.965925
= 26.019mm

5. Transverse Pitch on Path of Contact: Pet

= Pt*cos(t)
= 26.019*cos(20.6469)
= 26.019*0.935771
= 24.348mm

6. Length of Path of Contact: g

= 0.5*[sqr(da22-db22)+sqr(da12-db12)-(db1+db2)*tan(wt)]
=0.5*[sqr(521.212-472.7652)+sqr(136.752-108.5042)-(108.504+472.765)*tan(22.242874)]
= 0.5[sqr(48152.6862)+sqr(6927.444484)-581.269*0.408965]
= 0.5*(219.437203+83.23186-581.269*0.408965)
= 32.475mm

7. Contact Ratio: 
= g/Pet
= 32.475/24.348
= 1.334

Dedendum
The depth of tooth space below the pitch circle (1) or the radial dimension between the pitch
circle (1) and the bottom of the tooth space (2).
Whereas:
From Gear Data
Formula:

Diametral Pitch
The ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch diameter in inches.
In other words - the number of gear teeth to each inch of pitch diameter.
Normal Diametral Pitch: This is the value of the DP in the Normal Plane, usually measured on
the pitch line. see diagram. The calculation of the Transverse DP is shown below.
Transverse Diametral Pitch: This is the value of the module in the Transverse Plane, usually
measured on the pitch line. See diagram. The calculation of the Transverse DP is shown
below.
As the DP number increases, the actual pitch size decrease. Normal DP
For example: 1 DP teeth are larger than 2 DP.
Whereas:
From Gear Data
z = number of teeth in gear (61)
PD = pitch diameter of gear (19.212inches)
OD = outside diameter of gear (19.842inches)
ß = helix angle (15°)
Formula:
Normal DP 1: Known - Pitch diameter, Number of teeth in gear
= z/PD Transverse DP
= 61/19.212
= 3.175 DP normal

Normal DP 2: Known - Outside diameter, Number of teeth in gear

= (z+2)/OD
= (61+2)/19.842
= 63/19.842
= 3.175 DP normal

Transverse DP 1: Known - Pitch diameter, Number of teeth in gear, Helix angle

= (z/PD)/cos(ß)
= (61/19.212)/COs(15)
= 3.175/0.965925
= 3.287 DP transverse

Transverse DP 2: Known - Outside diameter, Number of teeth, Helix angle

= (z+2)/OD)/COs(ß)
= (61+2)/19.842)/COs(15)
= (63/19.842)/0.965925
= 3.175/0.965925
= 3.287 DP transverse

Conversions:
Diametral Pitch (DPn = 1) to Circular Pitch (CPn)
= Pi/DPn
= 3.141592/1
= 3.141592 CP

Diametral Pitch (DPn = 1) to Module Pitch (Mn)

= 25.4/DPn
= 25.4/1
= 25.4 module

Diametral Pitch normal (DPn) to Diametral Pitch transverse (DPt)

= DPn/COs(ß)
= 3.175/COs(15)
= 3.175/0.965925
= 3.287 DP transverse

Diametral Pitch transverse (DPt) to Diametral Pitch normal (DPn)

= DPt*COs(ß)
= 3.287*COs(15)
= 3.287*0.965925
= 3.175 DP normal

Effective Face Width

The portion of the face width that actually comes into contact with mating teeth. In load rating and capacity of
gears, it is the portion that carries the load.
In Crown gears or misaligned gears, this may be less than the face width.
Gear Efficiency
The actual torque ratio of a gear set divided by its gear ratio.

Gear Ratio
Gear Ratio
Ratio of the numbers of teeth on mating gears. Ordinarily the ratio is found by dividing the number of teeth on
the larger gear by the number of teeth on the smaller gear or pinion. For example, if the ratio is 2 or “2 to 1”, this
usually means that the smaller gear or pinion makes two revolutions to one revolution of the larger mating gear.

Whereas:

Gear Extrusion
Used for the mass production of spur gears. The material is pushed (as opposed to pulled in cold drawing)
through a series of block dies, the final die being a cross section of the desired tooth element.
As the material passes through these dies, it is actually squeezed into the shape of the die. As the material is
displaced by pressure, the outside surface is work hardened and quite smooth.

Face of Tooth
The surface of the tooth between the pitch circle and the top of the tooth.

Fillet Curve
The concave portion of the tooth profile where it joins the bottom of the tooth space. The radius of this curve is
called the Fillet Radius.

Fillet Radius
Fillet Radius

Fillet Stress
Fillet Stress
The maximum tensile stress in the gear tooth fillet.

Flank of Tooth

The surface area of a gear tooth between the pitch circle and the bottom land along
the length of the tooth, including the fillet

Form Diameter
Form Diameter

This is a specified diameter on a gear above which the transverse profile is to

be in accordance with the drawing specifications on profile.
It is an inspection diameter and should be placed at a smaller radius than the
SAP diameter to allow for manufacturing tolerances.
 Fig.1 - Gash Lead Error

A longitudinal groove along the axis of the hob that forms the face of one row of hob
teeth and the back of the preceding row. Although technically called 'flutes' they are
more commonly known as 'gashes' and it is with this latter name that I shall refer.
The gashes, as well as providing a space for the chips (swarf) to form, also allows
the re-sharpening of the hob by grinding the teeth faces. Care must be taken when
re-sharpening a hob as the accuracy and alignment of the gashes has a large
influence on the quality of the gear produced.
Fig.2 - Gash Radiality
There are three main areas where errors can occur:-
1. Gash Lead
The gash's can be straight whereby they are parallel to the axis and commonly
called 'straight gash' or with a lead and called 'spiral gash'.
The hob must be sharpened at the gash lead specified on the end of the hob, if there
are errors, the cam relief will result in a taper on diameter.
With an incorrect gash lead ground in the hob the cam relief will cause a taper on
diameter also the hob lead being increased on one side of the tooth and decreased
on the other.
This will result in producing a hob with a pitch that varies from one end of the hob to
the other (Fig.1) and with a reduced pressure angle on one side of the tooth and an Fig.3a - Correctly Ground
increased pressure angle on the other side. This will cause variations in tooth form,
tooth thickness and tooth depth as the hob progresses through its hob shift.

2. Gash Radiality
Hobs can be designed under certain circumstances with a negative or positive rake
but most are produced with a radial face rake, (Fig.2). The rake of the hob teeth will
be marked on the end of the hob and must be maintained throughout its life. Any
deviation outside of the permitted sharpening tolerance will result in generating Fig.3b - Incorrect Positive Rake
errors.
Fig.3a - A correctly sharpened hob presents a true basic rack generating a true
involute profile.
Fig.3b - An incorrectly sharpened hob showing a positive rake. The cam relief on the
hob causes the constant profile to drop from front to back on the hob tooth. Whilst
the tip of the hob tooth is correct, an error has been created at the root of the hob.
The cam effect is such that the tooth depth is enlarged and the pressure angle thus Fig.3c - Incorrect Negative Rake
reduced. A hob sharpened like this will generate an involute profile error with plus
metal at the tip of the gear.
Fig.3c - An incorrectly sharpened hob showing a negative rake. The effect will be the
reverse of Fig.3b.
Fig.3d - An incorrectly sharpened hob showing a convex rake. This is one of the
most common errors in hob sharpening and is normally the result of grinding a spiral
gash hob with a grinding wheel that has been dressed for a straight gash hob. The
helical interference as the hob spirals past the wheel will give a convex cutting face Fig.3d - Incorrect Convex Rake
resulting in hollow involute profiles.

3. Gash to Gash
This is eccentricity in the hob tooth spacing from one gash to the next. This
eccentricity will produce profile errors due to uneven stock removal, Fig. 4.

Hob Flutes - Gashes

Permissible Errors for grades AA, A, B, and D hobs BS 2062: Part 1:

Gash Lead
Departure (±) from angle of gash (expressed as a linear dimension of thousands of an inch)
AA A B C D
Hob Grade
0.0006 0.0010 0.0010 0.0010 0.0015

Adjacent Spacing Error

Dimensions expressed in thousands of an inch
Hob Grade
Preferred Diametral Pitch
1 to 1.9 2 to 2.9 3 to 3.9 4 to 4.9 5 to 5.9 6 to 8.9 9 to 12.9 13 to 19.9 20 to 29.9 30 to 50
AA - 0.0020 0.0020 0.0015 0.0010 0.0008 0.0008 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006
A 0.0040 0.0030 0.0025 0.0020 0.0015 0.0010 0.0010 0.0010 0.0010 0.0010
B 0.0050 0.0045 0.0040 0.0030 0.0020 0.0015 0.0015 0.0010 0.0010 0.0010
C 0.0050 0.0045 0.0040 0.0030 0.0020 0.0015 0.0015 0.0010 0.0010 0.0010
D 0.0060 0.0060 0.0050 0.0050 0.0030 0.0025 0.0025 0.0020 0.0017 0.0017

Cumulative Spacing Error

Dimensions expressed in thousands of an inch
Hob Grade
Preferred Diametral Pitch
1 to 1.9 2 to 2.9 3 to 3.9 4 to 4.9 5 to 5.9 6 to 8.9 9 to 12.9 13 to 19.9 20 to 29.9 30 to 50
AA - 0.0040 0.0040 0.0035 0.0025 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015
A 0.0080 0.0060 0.0050 0.0040 0.0030 0.0030 0.0030 0.0025 0.0025 0.0020
B 0.0100 0.0090 0.0080 0.0060 0.0050 0.0050 0.0050 0.0040 0.0035 0.0030
C 0.0100 0.0090 0.0080 0.0060 0.0050 0.0050 0.0050 0.0040 0.0035 0.0030
D 0.0120 0.0120 0.0100 0.0100 0.0080 0.0080 0.0070 0.0060 0.0060 0.0040

Radial Alignment of Gash over Cutting Depth

Hob Dimensions expressed in thousands of an inch
Grade Preferred Diametral Pitch
1 to 1.9 2 to 2.9 3 to 3.9 4 to 4.9 5 to 5.9 6 to 8.9 9 to 12.9 13 to 19.9 20 to 29.9 30 to 50
AA - 0.0010 0.0010 0.0008 0.0006 0.0005 0.0005 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003
A 0.0030 0.0015 0.0010 0.0008 0.0006 0.0005 0.0005 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003
B 0.0050 0.0025 0.0015 0.0010 0.0008 0.0007 0.0007 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
C 0.0050 0.0025 0.0015 0.0010 0.0008 0.0007 0.0007 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
D 0.0100 0.0075 0.0050 0.0040 0.0020 0.0020 0.0020 0.0015 0.0015 0.0010

Common Sharpening Problems

Problem Cause Correction
Worn index Worn index plate or latch Replace worn item
Loose index plate Tighten retaining nut
Centres (workholding) misaligned Align centres
Incorrect radial Diamond incorrectly positioned Reposition diamond
position and Dull diamond Turn or replace diamond
rake offset Incorrect wheel position Reposition wheel
Excessive feed or wheel breakdown Reduce feed and dress wheel
Work eccentric or loose on arbor True between neutral centres. Do not use shims
Dirt on faces of collars, nut or in centres Clean faces and centres
Faces of collars and nut not parallel Grind faces parallel
Worn index plate or latch Replace worn item
Loose index plate Tighten retaining nut
Centres (workholding) misaligned Align centres
Curved or Incomplete wheel dressing Dress wheel, ensure diamond traverses entire cone
stepped flute face
Wheel not properly lowered into flute Lower wheel
Excessive feed or wheel breakdown Reduce feed and dress wheel
Wheel head swivelled incorrectly Set wheel head at proper helix angle
Incorrect lead Tangent bar set incorrectly Reset
Tangent bar not clamped Clamp
Wheel 'sings' Dress with sharp diamond or faster traverse
Excessive table speed Reduce speed
 Work eccentric or loose on arbor True between neutral centres. Do not use shims
Dirt on faces of collars, nut or in centres Clean faces and centres
Faces of collars and nut not parallel Grind faces parallel
Worn index plate or latch Replace worn item
Loose index plate Tighten retaining nut
Centres (workholding) misaligned Align centres
Index errors Work arbor incorrectly tensioned between
centres Tension correctly
Excessive feed or wheel breakdown Reduce feed and dress wheel
Wheel 'sings' Dress with sharpened diamond, one pass only
Feeding at same flute each revolution Change feed cam setting
Work eccentric or loose on arbor True between neutral centres. Do not use shims
Dirt on faces of collars, nut or in centres Clean faces and centres
Faces of collars and nut not parallel Grind faces parallel
Burned teeth Improper coolant action Increase or redirect flow, change to different coolant
Glazed wheel Turn or replace diamond
Excessive feed Reduce feed
Insufficient table speed Increase speed
Sparking out too long Reduce number of revolutions of sparkout
Rough finish Dressing too rapidly Dress wheel more slowly
Wheel is too soft Use harder wheel
Excessive feed or wheel breakdown Reduce feed and dress wheel
Excessive table speed Reduce table speed
 Gear Deviations - Pitch Deviation
The expression 'error' was generally used for any kind of deviation inside or outside tolerance limits. This has been
replaced by the term 'deviation'. Deviation can be defined as 'the difference between the actual dimension and the
specified dimension'.
Except for the base pitch deviations, which are measured in base tangent planes, all pitch deviations are measured
on a circle concentric to the gear axis at approximately mid-depth of the teeth.
Single Pitch Deviation
Single pitch deviation fpt:
The algebraic difference between the actual pitch and the corresponding theoretical pitch in the
transverse plane, defined on a circle concentric with the gear axis at approximately mid-depth of
the tooth.

Normal pitch deviation fpn:

Sometimes, when a portable comparator suitable only for checking in the normal planes is used,
the normal pitch deviation instead of the (transverse) single pitch deviation is measured.

Base Pitch deviation fpb:

The algebraic difference between the actual value and the specified value of the base pitch. Pb. If
necessary, an appropriate index is added to indicate whether the deviation refers to the normal
section (fpbn) or to the transverse section (fpbt).
The result of base pitch measurement is not influenced by any chance eccentricity of the gear
teeth.
Mean base pitch deviation fpbm:
The algebraic difference between the arithmetic mean value of the base pitches measured on a
number of equi-spaced corresponding flanks around the gear and the specified base pitch pb.
It is often employed to determine the mean profile slope deviation or the base diameter
deviation, especially when no profile inspection is undertaken.
Adjacent pitch difference fu:
(no algebraic sign) is the difference between the actual measured values of two consecutive
transverse pitches of right or left flanks; it is equal to the difference between the transverse pitch
deviations of two consecutive flanks.

Cumulative Pitch Deviations

Cumulative pitch deviation Fpk:
The cumulative pitch deviation over a sector of k pitches is the algebraic difference
between the actual length and the theoretical length of the relevant arc. It is equal to the
algebraic sum of the single pitch deviations of the same k pitches.
The purpose of tolerance specifications for this kind of deviation is to assure that in Cumulative pitch deviation Fpk/8
service conditions no substantial acceleration and dynamic loads are generated.
ISO quality standards contain formulae giving values for maximum permissible
cumulative pitch deviations Fpk for sectors of pitches with k ranging from 2 to z/8 pitches
(1/8 of circumference).
Total cumulative pitch deviation Fp:
The total cumulative pitch deviation is the maximum cumulative pitch deviation of any
sector of the corresponding flanks of a gear.
It is the difference between the actual and the theoretic length of the arc between those
two corresponding flanks which - with respect to the theoretic circular division - deviate
furthest, whether in the positive or negative sense, from their theoretic position.
In inspection practice, the total cumulative pitch deviation is often derived by
sequentially adding the transverse pitch deviations fpt: the distance between the highest
and the lowest points on the graph thus formed corresponds to the total cumulative
pitch deviation .
Pitch sector deviation fpS:
Cumulative pitch sector deviation FpkS:
Total cumulative pitch sector deviation Fps:
For economic reasons and - if comparator measurement is applied - also for reasons of
accuracy, the cumulative deviations of large gears are often determined by
measurement steps covering a sector of several pitches.
 Gear Deviations - Flank Deviations
Flank deviations are deviations of the actual tooth flank from the specified involute/helical surface within the
evaluation range. Specified profile and helix modifications are not considered to be deviations.
Flank inspection instruments record flank deviations in the form of flank diagrams. In the diagrams supplied by
most flank testers, both the nominal involute and the nominal helix appear as straight lines. All the following
explanations, figures and relationships are based on this assumption.
Slope and form deviations (fH, f)are referred to the 'mean profile' ('mean helix') which is a version of the design
profile (design helix), modified by an additive gradient component. This means contour is determined in such a way
that within the evaluation range, the sum of the squares of deviations of the actual profile (helix) from the 'mean
profile' ('mean helix') is minimal.
Profile Deviations: Are the deviations normal to the transverse involute profiles, i.e. in the plane tangent to the
base cylinder, measured within the profile evaluation range L. They are referred to the transverse section.
Unless otherwise specified, the following rules according to ISO 1328, part 1, shall apply: The length of the
evaluation range L is 92% of the active length LAE, extending from point E.
Point E is the end point of the effective contact with the mating gear or, if this is unknown, with a rack having
standard rack tooth proportions. In the remaining 8% of LAE, for the total profile deviation F and the profile form
deviation ff, excess material (plus deviation) which increases the amount of deviation must be taken into account,
whereas for minus metal deviation the tolerance shall be three times the tolerance specified for the evaluation
range L.
Total profile deviation FA:
The distance between two design profiles which enclose the actual profile over the
evaluation range L, subject to provisions of the above.

Profile slope deviation fH:

The distance between two design profiles which intersect the mean profile at the
end points of the evaluation range L.
The profile slope deviation FH is positive when the mean profile rises from the diagram to follow
design profile towards the nonmaterial side at the tooth tip; it is negative when the
mean profile drops towards the material side at the tooth tip.
The mean profile slope deviation fHm is the algebraic mean of the profile slope
deviations of a number of flanks distributed uniformly around the circumference.
Profile form deviation ff:
The distance between two profiles parallel to the mean profile which enclose the diagram to follow
actual profile over the evaluation range L.
Base diameter deviation fdb and Pressure angle deviation FA
Both the base diameter deviation fdb and the pressure angle deviation FA are
directly related to the profile slope deviation fH and can be calculated with the
following equations:
fdb = fH · (db/L)
dbeff = dB(1+(fHm/L))
If fH is given in µm and dB and L in mm, fdb is obtained in µm and FA in mrad (1
mrad = 206.26 arc seconds). diagram to follow
In practice, e.g. for correction of machine tool settings, calculations are mainly
made on the basis of arithmetic mean values fHm, fdbm, and fm.
For example:
fdbm = fHm · (dB/L)
dbeff = dB(1+(fHm/L))
A positive base diameter deviation corresponds to a negative pressure angle
deviation, and vice versa.
Profile undulation fw
A profile deviation which recurs periodically throughout the angle of generation or
the generating path, is termed profile undulation fw when it is recognised by a Diagram to follow
series of several waves of almost constant amplitude f wa and a constant
wavelength . A profile diagram might contain a number of different undulations
superimposed one on the other.
Helix Deviations: A helix is the intersection of the tooth flank with a cylinder concentric about the gear axis,
usually with the reference cylinder of the gear. Helix deviations are measured in the direction of transverse base
tangents over the helix evaluation range L.
Unless agreed otherwise, the evaluation range L according to ISO 1328, part 1, is applied: It is equal to the 'length
of diagram' (facewidth excluding tooth end chamfers), shortened at each end by the smaller of the two values - 5%
of facewidth or by the length equal to one module. In the '5% end zones', for the total helix deviation F and the
helix form deviation ff, excess material (plus deviation) which increases the amount of deviation must be taken into
account, whereas for minus metal deviation the tolerance shall be three times the tolerance specified for the
evaluation range L.
Total helix deviation F
the distance between two design helices which enclose the actual helix over the evaluation diagram to follow
range L.
Helix slope deviation fH
The distance between two design helices which intersect the mean helix at the extremities
of the evaluation range L.
The helix slope deviation is positive when it increases the absolute value of the helix angle,
and negative when it reduces it. In the case of spur gears, deviations are always positive. Diagram to follow
Their direction is identified by an index 'r' (in the sense of a right-hand thread), or 'l' (in the
sense of a left-hand thread).
The mean helix slope deviation fHm is the algebraic mean of the helix slope deviations of a
number of flanks distributed uniformly around the circumference.
Helix form deviation ff
The distance between the two design helices parallel to the mean helix which enclose the diagram to follow
actual helix over the evaluation range L.
Helix angle deviation f
The difference between the actual helix angle corresponding to the mean helix angle and
the specified helix angle.
It can be calculated from the helix slope deviation fhb, where approximately:
f = (fhb/LB) · cos2
If fhb is in µm and LB is in mm, f is supplied in mrad; multiplication by 206.26 further
supplies f in angular seconds.
Helix undulation fw
A helix form deviation which recurs periodically across the facewidth is termed helix
undulation fw when it is recognised by a series of several waves of almost constant Diagram to follow
amplitude fw and a constant wavelength .
A number of different undulations might also occur, mutually superimposed.

Generator Deviations: A generator is the line of intersection between the tooth flank and a plane tangent to the
base cylinder. It is a straight line, and its inclination agrees with the base helix angle of the gear teeth, i.e. with the
helix angle on the base cylinder, since the tangent plane can be regarded as the development of the base cylinder
surface. On spur gears the generator is identical with the helix.
Measurement of the deviation of the generator from its desired shape - if undertaken at all - is
taken in the transverse section and tangential to the base cylinder.

Helical Overlap
Helical Overlap
The effective face width of a helical gear divided by the axial pitch; also called the Face Overlap.

Helix Angle
Helix Angle
The angle between a helical gear tooth and the gear axis of rotation, usually taken to be at the pitch circle unless
otherwise stated.
Hob Runout
Hob Runout
One of the biggest causes of gear manufacturing problems is hob runout, yet this is often overlooked by the gear
industry.
It occurs in two areas but can be the result of numerous problems.
Area 1: In normal use on the hobbing machine.
Area 2: When resharpening the hob.

Area 1 - Runout on the hobbing machine:

These runout errors are made up from:
1. Problems within the machine itself
2. Result of poor setting of the hob.
These errors may not necessarily be encountered singly, it is not uncommon for more than one to be encountered
at the same time.
Machine Errors:
In Fig.1, you can see an extreme case of hob runout. These errors are seen both
radially (^) and laterally (>).
Problem 1: On the left of Fig.1 is the hob arbor tailsteady, problems occurring here will
result in radial runout of the hob and may be caused by:
a) tailsteady not being clamped securely,
b) worn or loose bearings in the tailsteady,
c) worn or undersized location diameter on the hob arbor. Fig.1 Runout in hobbing m/c
Problem 2: On the right of Fig.1 is the drive head, problems occurring here will show
both radial and lateral runout of the hob and may be caused by:
a) worn or loose bearings in the hob spindle,
b) hob arbor mis-located due to swarf or damage.
Each of these problems will be responsible for poor tooth surface finish and profile
irregularities in the component.
Hob Setting Errors:
If your hob manufacturers work is not to be undone, each hob MUST be checked for
runout after installing on the hobbing machine, but how do we do this?
During manufacture two reference diameters are ground that are true and concentric to
all diameters of the hob. These are used to check radial hob runout on the machine,
see Fig.2.
When clocking (indicating) these diameters, a hob must have a maximum runout of:
0.012mm (0.0005") TIR for rough hobbing Fig.2 Hob reference diameters
0.005mm (0.0002") TIR for finish hobbing
Any runout MUST be kept 'in phase' between the two ends of the hob.
Hob runout here can be the result of:
a) hob arbor not running true,
b) bent or damaged hob arbor,
c) undersize hob arbor,
d) oversize hob bore,
e) non-parallel hob arbor spacers,
f) hob arbor clamping nut face not square with the pitch diameter of the thread,
g) foreign material on the mounting surfaces.
In the following diagrams (Fig.3 through to Fig.6 inclusive) we can see the result on the profile that various types
of hob runout have on the component with the help of simulated gear graphs. The graphs depict the left and right
hand tooth flanks.
Fig.3 Fig.4 Fig.5 Fig.6

Hob running true Both sides out evenly One side out Both out unevenly

Fig.3 - the hob is running true, the graph shows slight undulations due to feed.
Fig.4 - the hob is running out both ends evenly, the graph shows an 'in phase' condition appearing as increased
undulations.
Fig.5 - the hob is running out on one end, the graph shows an 'out of phase' condition with increased undulations
on the right flank but still slightly affecting the left flank.
Fig.6 - the hob is running out both ends unevenly, the graph shows an 'out of phase' condition with greatly
All of these hob runout errors will result in a difference in profile from one tooth flank to the other in the
component. This will also vary from one end of the hob to the other with the use of the hobbing machine's
hobshift facility.
Involute
Area 2 - Runout during resharpening:
Involute
Hobs are precision tools manufactured to very strict limits. When you purchase a new hob you expect it to
The curve
produce formed
good bythroughout
gears the path of its
a point on a straight line
life, unfortunately, as the line
subsequent unwinds along
resharpening the
often circumference
affects of a circle.
the results.
This curve is generally used as the profile of gear teeth.
Despite all efforts to eliminate runout on the hobbing machine, if it is not running true when resharpened, runout
Therefore,
will be ground if a circular
into thedisc
hob!was placed on a drawing board, an involute curve would be scribed by the end of a
taut
See line
alsoifHob
it was unwound
Flutes fromfor
- Gashes theGash
disc.Lead,
The disc
Gashrepresents
Radialitywhat is known
and Gash as the
to Gash baseduring
Errors circle because this is
resharpening.
the circle
Addendum: from which the involute tooth curves are derived.
Often during lectures, with delegates numbering approximately 35 all from different companies, I will ask for a
show of hands to the following questions:
Land
Q: How many clock their hobs on the hobbing machine?
Land
A: On a good day I may get ONE or TWO put their hands up! (5%)
The top land is the top surface of a tooth, the bottom land is the surface of the gear between the fillets of
adjacent teeth.
Q: How many clock their hobs on the resharpening machine?
A: NO hands!
Q: How many don't know if their hobs are clocked at resharpening?
A: All hands up! Lead
Lead
Q: What
1. The wouldofbe
length your reply
a helical toothtointhe same
one questions
revolution, dear reader?
if unwound along the axis of the gear or worm.
Note: If I had a perfect response to these questions,
2. The axial advance of a helix for one revolution (360°) people
as inwould be either
the threads of fibbing or too
cylindrical goodand
worms to need my of
the teeth
lectures! I do
helical gears. tend to preach to the unconverted, but where are the converted?
I wonder what an internet poll would reveal?
Lead Tolerance:
The allowable lead variation.

Lead Variation:
The difference between the measured lead trace and the specified (or theoretical) lead trace measured normal
to the specified (or theoretical) lead trace.
Whereas:
From Gear Data
ß = helix angle
Calculate
PD pitch diameter
Formula:
Pi*PD*cotan(ß)

Module
Module

A unit of metric measurement indicating the size of the pitch of a gear.

It relates to the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth, thus the module of a gear =
pitch diameter (in millimetres) divided by the number of teeth in the gear.
Module pitch is an actual dimension, whereas Diametral Pitch is only a ratio.
Normal Module: This is the value of the module in the Normal Plane, usually measured on the
pitch line. see diagram. The calculation of the normal module is shown below. Normal module
Transverse Module: This is the value of the module in the Transverse Plane, usually measured
on the pitch line. See diagram. The calculation of the transverse module is shown below.

Whereas:
From Gear data
z = number of teeth in gear (61)
Mn = normal module (8)
Transverse module
PD = pitch diameter of gear (488mm)
OD = outside diameter of gear (504mm)
ß = helix angle (15)

Calculated
Formula:
Normal Module: Mn - Known - Pitch diameter, Number of teeth in gear
= PD/z
= 488/61
= 8 normal module

Normal Module: Mn - Known - Outside diameter, Number of teeth in gear

= OD/(z+2)
= 504/(61+2)
= 504/63
= 8 normal module

Transverse Module: Mt - Known - normal module, helix angle

= Mn/cos(ß)
= 8/COs(15)
= 8/0.9659258
= 8.2822097 transverse module

Transverse Module: Mt - Known - Pitch diameter, Number of teeth in gear, Helix angle
= (PD/z)/COs(ß)
= (488/61)/COs(15)
= 8/0.965925
= 8.2822097 transverse module

Transverse Module: Mt - Known - Outside diameter, Number of teeth, Helix angle

= (OD/(z+2))/COs(ß)
= (504/(61+2))/COs(15)
= (504/63)/0.965925
= 8/0.965925
= 8.2822097 transverse module

Pitch
1. The distance between similar, equally spaced tooth surfaces, in a given direction and along
a given curve or line.
2. The theoretical distance between corresponding points, on adjacent teeth. (Equal to the
average of all spacing measurements, or generated by angular positioning devices).

Normal Pitch: The pitch in the normal plane, see diagram.

Transverse Pitch: The pitch in the transverse plane, see diagram. Normal Pitch

Axial Pitch:
See Axial Pitch

Pitch Range:
The algebraic difference between the longest and the shortest measurement of pitch on the
entire gear.
Pitch-Range Tolerance:
The allowable amount of pitch range. Transverse Pitch
Pitch Tolerance:
The allowable amount of pitch variation. (Equal to the algebraic difference of allowable pitch
variations).
Pitch Variation:
The difference between pitch and the measured distance between any two adjacent teeth.
Whereas:
From Gear Data
z = no. of teeth in gear (61)
Axial Pitch
Mn = normal module (8)
n = normal pressure angle (20)
ß = helix angle (15)
x = profile shift coefficient (0)
Calculated
t = transverse pressure angle (20.647°)
Pt = transverse (circular) pitch (26.0193mm)
Formula:

Normal Pitch:
= Mn*Pi
= 8*3.141592654
= 25.133mm

Transverse (Circular) Pitch:

= (Mn*Pi)/cos(ß)
= (8*Pi)/COs(15)
= 25.13274123/0.965925826
= 26.0193mm

Normal Base Pitch:

= Pi*Mn*COs(n)
= 3.141592654*8*COs(20)
= 3.141592654*8*0.93969262
= 25.1327mm

Transverse Base Pitch:

= Pt*COs(t)
= 26.0193*COs(20.647)
= 26.0193*0.9357706
= 24.348mm

Axial Pitch:
= (Mn*Pi)/sin(ß)
= (8*3.141592654)/sin(15)
= 25.13274123/0.258819045
= 97.1054mm

Pitch Diameter
Pitch Diameter
The diameter of the circle on a gear determined by dividing the number of teeth in the gear by the diametral
pitch. In parallel shaft gears the pitch diameters can be determined directly from the centre distance and the
numbers of teeth by proportionality.
Operating Pitch Diameter (Working Pitch Diameter): the diameter of the circle on a gear which is proportional to
the gear ratio and the actual centre distance at which the gear pair will operate. A gear does not have an
operating pitch diameter until it is meshed with a mating gear.
Generating pitch diameter: the pitch diameter at which the gear is generated.
In a bevel or hypoid gear, the pitch diameter is understood to be at the outer ends of the teeth unless otherwise
specified.

Whereas:
From Gear Data
Mn = normal module pitch (8)
DPn = normal diametral pitch (3.175)
ß = helix angle (15)
z = no. teeth in gear (61)
C' = operating centre distance of mesh ()
z1 = number of teeth in pinion (17)
z2 = number of teeth in gear (61)
mg = gear ratio (3.588235294)
Formula:
Pitch Diameter: D' (known -Mn)
= (z* Mn)/cos(ß)
= (61*8)/COs(15)
= 488/0.965925
= 505.215mm

Pitch Diameter: D' (known -DPn)

= z/(DPn*COs(ß)
= (61/(3.175*COs(15))
= 61/(3.175*0.965925)
= 61/3.066811
= 19.890inches

Gear Ratio: mg
= z2/z1
= 61/17
= 3.588235294

Operating Pitch Diameter - Pinion: d'

= (2*C')/(mg+1)
=

Pitch Plane
Pitch Plane
In a single gear it may be any plane that is tangent to its pitch surface.
In a pair of gears it is the plane perpendicular to the axial plane and tangent to the pitch surfaces.

Pitch Point
Pitch Point
The point of tangency of two pitch circles The pitch point of a tooth profile is at its intersection with the pitch
circle.

Plane of Rotation
Plane of Rotation
Any plane perpendicular to a gear axis.

Pressure Angle
The angle between the tooth profile and a radial line at its pitch point. In involute teeth it is often described as the
angle between the line of action and the line tangent to the pitch circle.
In a spur gear, in which only one direction of cross-section needs to be considered, the general term pressure
angle may be used without qualification.
In helical gears the pressure angle may be specified in the transverse, normal, or axial plane.

Whereas:
From Gear Data
z1 = number of teeth in pinion (14)
z2 = number of teeth in gear (61)
Mn = normal module (8)
ß = helix angle (15°)
n = pressure angle normal (20°)
aw = centre distance (314mm)
Formula:

Transverse Pressure Angle: t

= atan(tan(n)/cos(ß))
= atan(tan(20)/COs(15))
= atan(0.36397/0.965925)
= atan(0.3768097)
= 20.647°

Working Transverse Pressure Angle: wt (a working example of this calculation can be found at SAP)
= acos(((z1+z2)/(2*aw))*(Mn/COs(ß))*COs(t))
= acos(((14+61)/(2*314))*(8/COs(15))*COs(20.6469))
= acos(((14+61)/(2*314))*(8/0.965925)*0.935771)
= 22.242874º

Rack
A gear with teeth spaced along a straight line and suitable for producing straight-line motion (instead of in a circle).
It is used to convert a rotary motion (the pinion) to a linear motion (the rack).
A basic rack is one that is adopted as the basis of a system of interchangeable gears. Standard gear-tooth
proportions are often illustrated on an outline of the basic rack. A generating rack is a rack outline used to indicate
tooth details and dimensions for the design of a required generating tool, such as a hob or gear-shaper cutter

Radial Hobbing
In this method of hobbing, the hob feeds radially to depth at a controlled rate per revolution of
the component. When producing wormwheels this motion is all that is necessary and the work
is finished once the hob reaches full depth. It is also useful when the approach distance
required by axial hobbing is limited.
Hob path :- (see diagram) Radial Hobbing
1) traverse in:- to clear of component.
2) feed in:- to required depth.
3) traverse out:- clear of component.

Radial Runout
The total variation in a direction perpendicular to the axis of rotation of an indicated
surface from a plane surface of revolution.
It is expressed as TIR (Total Indicator Reading).

Radial Runout (TIR) = 0.3*Fp

Whereas Fp = Total cumulative pitch deviation

It should be noted that any runout of the gear will cause errors!

See also Axial Runout

 Shot Peening
Shot peening is a cold working process in which the surface of a part is bombarded with small spherical media
called shot. Each piece of shot striking the material acts as a tiny peening hammer, imparting to the surface a small
indentation or dimple. In order for the dimple to be created, the surface fibres of the material must be yielded in
tension. Below the surface, the fibres try to restore the surface to its original shape, thereby producing below the
dimple, a hemisphere of cold-worked material highly stressed in compression. Overlapping dimples develop an
even layer of metal in residual compressive stress. It is well known that cracks will not initiate or propagate in a
compressively stressed zone. Since nearly all fatigue and stress corrosion failures originate at the surface of a part,
compressive stresses induced by shot peening provide considerable increases in part life. The maximum
compressive residual stress produced at or under the surface of a part by shot peening is at least as great as half
the yield strength of the material being peened. Many materials will also increase in surface hardness due to the
cold working effect of shot peening.
Benefits obtained by shot peening are the result of the effect of the compressive stress and the cold working
induced. Compressive stresses are beneficial in increasing resistance to fatigue failures, corrosion fatigue, stress
corrosion cracking, hydrogen assisted cracking, fretting, galling and erosion caused by cavitation. Benefits obtained
due to cold working include work hardening, intergranular corrosion resistance, surface texturing, closing of
porosity and testing the bond of coatings. Both compressive stresses and cold working effects are used in the
application of shot peening in forming metal parts.

Shot peening of gears is one of the more common applications of the process. The fillets at the root of the gear are
usually the areas of high stress and should be shot peened. However, it has also been shown that the tiny
indentations produced by shot peening on the face of the gear act as very small oil reservoirs which help promote
better lubrication, reduce fretting, noise, spalling, scoring and lower operating temperature by reducing friction.
Gears which have been held to very close tolerances may be lapped or honed after shot peening providing the
lapping or honing operation does not remove more than 10% of the depth of the compressive stress induced.
Gears are frequently shot peened after carburising. Tests have found that the life of a case hardened gear, stressed
tp 80,000 psi (56kg/mm2), increased from 200,000 cycles before shot peening to 30,000,000 cycles after shot
peening. The use of special hardness shot is recommended for peening case hardened carburised gears in order
to produce a higher magnitude of compressive stress.

Fretting: Fretting can develop when the relative motion of microscopic amplitude occurs between two metal
surfaces. As the surfaces rub, fine abrasive oxides form, which contribute to the scoring of the surfaces. Fretting
gives rise to one or more forms of damage, such as fretting corrosion, fretting wear and/or fretting fatigue. Fretting
corrosion and fretting wear are any corrosion damage and wear damage, respectively, that occur as a direct result
of fretting. Surface discoloration, pitting, oxide layer build-up, loss of fit and sizing are all characteristics of these
forms of damage. Fretting fatigue is any fatigue damage that initiates from fretting. The most notable characteristic
of this form of damage is a reduction of fatigue strength of the parts.
Shot peening has proven to be successful in retarding fretting and eventually fretting fatigue by increasing the
surface hardening through cold working of the metal and providing residual compressive stresses at the fretting
surfaces. The minute pockets that are produced at the surface through shot peening act as oil reservoirs, thus
resulting in longer lubricant retention.

Galling: Galling is caused by strong adhesive forces whenever an imbalance of electrons exists between two
mating metal surfaces. At low stresses, minute junctions form at contacting surfaces and small fragments of metals
become detached when subsequent relative movement occurs. At higher stresses, however, much larger junctions
are formed and actual seizure may occur, stalling the equipment or freezing the action of the part.
The cold worked densified surface, generally obtained through shot peening, makes the material more resistant to
galling. In addition, the shallow indentations caused by the shot act as oil reservoirs and provide improved
lubrication throughout the pressure cycle. Also, the residual compressive stress from shot peening retards crack
growth and pit formation if a limited amount of galling occurs.

Spur Gear
Spur gears are the most common of all the gear types and geometrically are the most
simple in design. They fall into the parallel axis group of gears and their most common
application is to connect two parallel shafts which then turn in opposite directions.
The teeth are parallel to the axis of the gear and are identical in profile from one side to the
other.

Tip Relief
A discretionary modification of the tooth profile near the tip of the tooth to eliminate tip interference. It is considered
desirable for the involute to be a few thousandths minus at the tip - never plus.
 Total Face Width
The actual width dimension of a gear blank. It may exceed the effective face width, as in double-helical gears
where the total face width includes any distance separating the right-hand and left-hand helical teeth.

True Involute Form Diameter - TIF

The smallest diameter on the tooth at which the involute exists. This is the point of tangency of the involute tooth
profile and the fillet curve and is usually referred to as the TIF diameter.
There is often some confusion between TIF and SAP (start of active profile). Most people treat them as the same
but in reality the TIF diameter should be at least equal or slightly smaller than the SAP.
To be critical, TIF can compute to 0.5/Pitch smaller than the SAP on diameter which, if calculated, will prove to be a
very small amount hence peoples laziness in treating them the same.
For the calculation of SAP, click.

Undercut

A condition in generated gear teeth when any part of the fillet curve lies inside of a line drawn
tangent to the working profile at its lowest point. Undercut may be deliberately introduced to
facilitate finishing operations, as in pre-shaving.
On pinions with small numbers of teeth, the cutting tool will cut away a portion of the involute
which is near and below the base circle, this cutaway portion is called undercut, and it
increases as the number of teeth becomes less.
For 14.5º pressure angle spur gears with standard full-depth teeth, undercut occurs at about
32 (and fewer) teeth.
For 20º pressure angle spur gears with standard full-depth teeth, undercut occurs at about 18
(and fewer) teeth.
For 25º pressure angle spur gears it occurs at about 12 (and fewer) teeth.
Undercut pinions therefore have a less than standard active tooth profile, so contact ratio is
reduce. Also, the undercut reduces tooth strength since it decreases tooth thickness at the root
of the teeth. It is, therefore, an important consideration in gear design.
It is minimised, or sometimes eliminated altogether, by hobbing or shaping small pinions on
oversize diameters. A limiting factor in the amount of modification possible is the diameter at
which the tooth comes to a point.
Oversize modification of pinions is desirable for another reason, it increases the arc of recess
and reduces the arc of approach when the pinion is the driver.
The tooth action through the arc of approach tends to scuff the tooth surfaces under heavy
load, and the action through the arc of recess is a polishing action (providing the drive is
properly lubricated). So properly lubricated recess action gearing will operate more smoothly
and have longer life than gearing with standard tooth proportions.
Note, however, that if the gear drives the pinion, as it would in a speed increaser, and if the
pinion is oversize, the intended recess action would become approach action.

Working Depth
The depth of engagement of mating gears, i.e., the sum of their addendums.
The standard working distance is the depth to which a tooth extends into the tooth space of a
mating gear when the centre distance is standard.
Whereas:
From Gear data
ha1= addendum of pinion
ha2 = addendum of gear
mn = normal module pitch (8)
x = profile shift coefficient (0)
Formula:
Working depth:
= ha1+ha2
= 8+8
= 16mm

Addendum - Module Pitch: see Addendum for further information

= mn*(1+x)
= 8mm