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Toward a Theoretical Framework

for Information Science
Amanda Spink
The Pennsylvania State University
spink@ist.psu.edu

Abstract
Information Science is beginning to develop a theoretical framework for the modeling of users’ interactions with information retrieval (IR) technologies
within the more holistic context of human information behavior (Spink, 1998b). This paper addresses the following questions: (1) What is the nature of
Information Science? and (2) What theoretical framework and model is most appropriate for Information Science? This paper proposes a theoretical
framework for Information Science based on an explication of the processes of human information coordinating behavior and information feedback
that facilitate the relationship between human information behavior and human interaction with information retrieval (IR) technologies (Web, digital
libraries, etc.).

Keywords: feedback, information science, human information coordinating behavior

Science is based on facilitating interactive information proc-

Introduction esses, involving information feedback and human information
coordinating behaviors. All these concepts provide the building
Nature of information science blocks for deriving a general framework for Informatics.
To begin, we examine: What is the nature of Information Sci-
ence? Information Science seeks to understand the complex Theoretical Framework
process that involves and requires a number of information-
related activities: human information seeking and retrieving be- Second, the paper deals with the question: What theoretical
haviors; organization of a collection of texts, and more recently framework and model is most appropriate for Information
images, sounds or multimedia, that bear some cognitive content; Science? Information Science research is concerned with how
an intellectual representation of such texts, be it derived by hu- humans create, seek, retrieve and use information; particularly
mans directly or indirectly by a variety of algorithms; intellec- human interactions with information systems that now include
tual ways and means of searching and retrieval by users; and the digital libraries and the Web. Information Science processes
systems and techniques to accomplish all of these. The complex- include human creating, seeking, retrieving and using informa-
ity of human information seeking and retrieving is derived not tion; particularly human interaction with information systems.
only from these very difficult processes, but from the direct Information Science focuses on many different processes that
involvement of human generators and users of texts in occur over time, including a human information problem that
information systems, bringing in cognitive, affective, social and initiates information behavior related to a human problem state,
situational (problem, task) variables. cognitive state and knowledge state (Ingwersen, 1992, 1996),
including information seeking behavior (Kuhlthau, 1993), hu-
In other words, Information Science is not only a technical but man searching behavior with information retrieval (IR) systems
even more so a cognitive, social, and situational process. With (Saracevic, 1996,1997), with interactive issues such as feedback
the marriage of computers and telecommunications, Information (Spink, 1998b; Spink & Saracevic, 1998) and relevance (Spink,
Greisdorf & Bateman, 1998).
Material published as part of this journal, either on-line or in print, is
copyrighted by the publisher of Informing Science. Permission to In other words, information seekers coordinate a number of ele-
make digital or paper copy of part or all of these works for personal or
classroom use is granted without fee provided that the copies are not
ments, including their cognitive state, level of domain knowl-
made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage AND that edge, and their understanding of their information problem, into
copies 1) bear this notice in full and 2) give the full citation on the first a coherent series of activities that may include seeking, search-
page. It is permissible to abstract these works so long as credit is
given. To copy in all other cases or to republish or to post on a server
ing, interactive browsing and retrieving and constructing infor-
or to redistribute to lists requires specific permission and payment of mation (Kuhlthau, 1993).
a fee. Contact Editor@inform.nu to request redistribution permission.
7KHRUHWLFDO )UDPHZRUN

In particular, this paper introduces and elaborates on the concept lem into a form that allows them to construct information from
of human information coordinating behavior (HICB) as an texts in the broadest sense. Bringing the elements of their infor-
important linking process for Informatics that binds together the mation problem to an effective information-seeking and search-
many processes involved in human information seeking and ing process is essential to an effective coordination process.
retrieving. The development of our understanding of informa-
tion-related processes necessitates a theoretical and empirical For example, a human is seeking information on her family his-
explication of the important nature and role of HICB. The next tory. She enters a library or begins to search the Web. To enable
section of the paper proposes a theoretical framework for the her information-seeking and searching process to move forward
key process of human information coordination behavior. she must understand the dimensions of her information problem
and coordinate her information seeking and searching processes
The Binding Process: Human to the degree that she is able to interact with the functional
structure of the library or Web system. This coordination proc-
Information Coordinating Behavior ess between information problem and information-
HICB is an integrating behavior that binds and draws to- seeking/searching process must take place before a user enters a
gether processes at the heart of Information Science. Human keyword into the Web or begins to browse the library shelves.
information coordination binds and draws together other proc- The output of the Web search or the books found on the library
esses at the heart of human information seeking and retrieving. shelves are coordinated through information feedback by the
Information Science research focuses on many different aspects information-seeker with her information problem through vari-
of information coordinating behavior, including modeling hu- ous judgments of the relevance, magnitude and strategic aspects
man information behavior (Wilson, 1997), information seeking of the information system’s output (Spink, 1997b).
behavior (Kuhlthau, 1993), human searching behavior with IR
systems (Saracevic, 1996, 1997; Belkin, Cool, Stein & Theil, Establishing and maintaining an effective information seeking
1995; Ingwersen, 1992, 1996) and processes central to human and searching process requires humans to develop effective and
information seeking and searching such as relevance (Spink, coherent information coordinating behaviors and processes. In
Greisdorf & Bateman, 1998), feedback (Spink, 1997a,b), repre- other words, information seekers must coordinate a number of
sentation and interaction. elements, including their cognitive state, level of knowledge,
their understanding of their information problem, into a coherent
A growing number of researchers are working towards a more series of activities that may include seeking, searching, retriev-
integrated view of human information seeking and searching ing and using information. We know that hand-eye coordination
(Spink, 1998b). However, without human coordination of vari- is a physiological process humans develop from childhood. But,
ous elements of the human information seeking and searching how do humans learn the process of coordinating their informa-
process there would be no process. Human information coordi- tion needs into coherent processes of human information seeking
nation behavior is not a phenomenon unfamiliar to the models and retrieving behaviors? The information feedback loop forms
and processes of concern to informatics. However, as an implicit the basis of the looping HICB process. How do humans achieve
process, its nature, manifestations and effects have not previ- coordination, including recognizing, making sense of and cogni-
ously been explicitly investigated. tively articulating an information need or gap in their knowl-
edge, and construct and maintain an information seeking proc-
This paper proposes an integrating theoretical framework for the ess? What is the relationship between information feedback and
human process of information coordination as an integrating HICB?
notion for Information Science. I propose that there exist vari-
ous levels of human information coordination – The informational feedback loop of coordination behavior is one
of the most penetrating fundamentals in the information sciences
1. Information seeking level and the basis for a theory of interaction. An important theoreti-
2. Information searching (HCI) level cal foundation for the human information coordination process
Humans cognitively coordinate their information seeking level is information feedback. A basic issue confronting Information
behaviors with their information searching level (human-system Science is the nature, manifestations and effects of feedback. In
interaction) behaviors; including the recognition and making previous publications I reviewed the current state of feedback
sense of and cognitively articulating an information need or a research in information science (Spink, 1997a,b; Spink,
gap in their knowledge. Humans then coordinate these processes 1998a,b; Spink & Losee, 1996; Spink & Saracevic, 1998).
to construct an information-seeking process. Coordination is Feedback, as a basic element of Information Science, is related
also related to movement through a human information seeking to other basic elements including information, interpretation,
process. Humans coordinate information in order to move representation, knowledge state, relevance, shifts and interac-
through their information-seeking process. Part of the informa- tion. The process of information feedback (Spink & Saracevic,
tion-seeking process is the translation of their information prob- 1998) facilitates human information seeking and searching

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(Spink, 1997a,b) and binds the human process of coordinating

information seeking and searching. References
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Further Issues Spink, A., & Losee, R. M. (1996). Feedback in information retrieval. An-
nual Review of Information Science and Technology, 31, 33-78.
Further important issues to examine include: How do humans
coordinate the various elements of their information seeking and Spink, A., & Saracevic, T. (1998). Human-computer interaction in infor-
searching into a coherent process? What is the relationship be- mation retrieval: Nature and manifestations of feedback. Interacting
tween informational feedback as a coordinating behavior and With Computers: The International Journal of Human-Computer In-
interdependence, interpretation, information, purpose and mean- teraction.
ing? How in HCI does information feedback facilitate coordinat-
ing behavior? Wilson, T. D. (1997). Information behavior: An interdisciplinary perspec-
tive. Information Processing and Management, 33(4), 551-572

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