acceptance sampling is sampling to determine whether internal control compliance is

greater than or less than the tolerable deviation rate.

accounting and review services are governed by official pronouncements covering
compilation and review engagements. Compilation is presenting in the form of financial
statements information that is the representation of management (owners) without
expressing assurance. Review is inquiry and analytical procedures to provide the
accountant a basis for expressing limited assurance that there are no material
modifications that should be made to the statements for them to be in conformity with
U.S. generally accepted accounting principles.
accounting data includes journals, ledgers and other records, such as spreadsheets,
that support financial statements. It may be in computer readable form or on paper.
accounting estimate An approximation of a financial statement element. Estimates are
included in historical financial statements because some amounts are uncertain pending
outcome of future events and relevant data about events that have occurred cannot be
accumulated on a timely, cost-effective basis.
accounting principles are alternative ways of reporting and disclosing information in
financial statements and related footnotes.
accounts receivable Debts due from customers from sales of products and services
reported as a current asset.
accounting records are the records of initial accounting entries and supporting
records, such as checks and records of electronic fund transfers; invoices; contracts;
the general and subsidiary ledgers; journal entries and other adjustments to the
financial statements that are not reflected in journal entries; and records, such as work
sheets and spreadsheets, supporting cost allocations, computations, reconciliations,
and disclosures.
accounting research bulletins (ARBs) were issued years ago to set generally
accepted accounting principles. Some have not been superseded by pronouncements
of the Financial Accounting Standards Board. Those old pronouncements still qualify as
generally accepted accounting principles.
adjusting entries are accounting entries made at the end of an accounting period to
allocate items between accounting periods.
adverse An audit opinion that the financial statements as a whole are not in conformity
with U.S. GAAP.
advisory services are a consulting service in which the CPA develops the findings,
conclusions, and recommendations presented for client decision-making. This differs
from attestation, where the CPA expresses a conclusion about a written assertion of
another.
aggregate (aggregated) Constituting the whole. Aggregate expenses include expenses
of all divisions combined for the entire year.
agreed-upon procedures An engagement where the client specifies procedures and
the accountant agrees to perform those procedures. An accountant may accept an
engagement to apply agreed-upon procedures to financial statement elements, where
the scope of the engagement is not sufficient to express an opinion, if the users assume
responsibility for sufficiency of the procedures, and use of the report is restricted to
specified users.
aicpa American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. The professional organization
of CPAs in the U.S. It is a private organization of CPAs, not an arm of the government.
Each state issues CPA certificates, not the AICPA. Since each state makes its own
laws, each state could prepare and grade their own CPA examination. However, each
state uses the uniform CPA exam prepared and graded by the AICPA.
allocation Distribution according to a plan. Depreciation, amortization, and depletion
are methods to allocate costs to periods benefited.
allowance for doubtful accounts A contra asset account with a credit balance used to
reduce the carrying amount of accounts receivable to net realizable value. The
allowance balance is the estimated total of uncollectible accounts included in accounts
receivable.
allowance for sampling risk The difference between a sample estimate and the
projected population characteristic at a specified sampling risk. This allowance is also
the difference between the expected error rate and the tolerable deviation rate.
analytical procedure A comparison of financial statement amounts with an auditor's
expectation. An example is to compare actual interest expense for the year (a financial
statement amount) with an estimate of what that interest expense should be. The
estimate can be found by multiplying a reasonable interest rate times the average
balance of interest bearing debt outstanding during the year (the auditor's expectation).
If actual interest expense differs significantly from the expectation, the auditor explains
the difference in audit documentation.
analyze Identify and classify items for further study.
anticipated Expected.
apb opinions The Accounting Principles Board existed before the Financial Accounting
Standards Board. It issued opinions, some of which are still part of generally accepted
accounting principles.
applicable financial reporting framework is the financial reporting framework adopted
in the preparation of the financial statements that is acceptable in view of the nature of
the entity and the objective of the financial statements, or that is required by law or
regulation.
application control Programmed procedure in application software designed to ensure
completeness and accuracy of information.
appropriate audit evidence is relevant (pertains to the proposition supported)
and reliable (trustworthy).
approve To authorize. A manager authorizes a cash payment by signing a voucher
providing approval for the disbursement.
arm's length transactions are transactions between people who have no relationship
other than that of buyer and seller. The price is the true fair market value of the goods
or services sold. If you buy or sell something to a close relative, you might give better
terms than to an unrelated party, so the price might not represent the true market value
of the goods or services.
ascertain An audit procedure to determine or to discover with certainty. For example, to
ascertain the date on which an investment was purchased by examining source
documents.
assertion Management asserts financial statements are correct with regard to
existence or occurrence of assets, liabilities or transactions, completeness of
information in the financial statements, rights and obligations at a point in time,
appropriate valuation or allocation, presentation, and disclosure.
assess To determine the value, significance, or extent of.
assessed Determined. The level of control risk determined by the auditor, based on
tests of controls, is the assessed level of control risk.
assurance The level of confidence one has.
assurance engagement is an engagement in which an accountant issues a report
designed to enhance the degree of confidence of third parties and management about
the outcome of an evaluation or measurement of financial statements (subject matter)
against an applicable financial reporting framework (criteria).
attest (attestation) report In an attest engagement, a practitioner issues a written
conclusion about the reliability of a written assertion that is the responsibility of another.
attestation risk is the risk the CPA may unknowingly fail to modify the report on
management’s assertion. It is composed of inherent risk, control risk, and detection risk.
attorney's letter is signed by the client's lawyer and addressed to the auditor. It is the
auditor's primary means to corroborate information furnished by management about
litigation, claims, and assessments.
attribute sampling The characteristic tested is a property that has only two possible
values (an error exists or it does not).
audit adjustment is a correction of a financial information misstatement identified by
the auditor, whether recorded or not.
audit committee A committee of the board of directors responsible for oversight of the
financial reporting process, selection of the independent auditor, and receipt of audit
results.
audit documentation (working papers) are records kept by the auditor of procedures
applied, tests performed, information obtained, and pertinent conclusions reached in the
engagement. The documentation provides the principal support for the auditor's report.
audit evidence is information used by the auditor in arriving at the conclusions on
which the auditor's opinion is based.
audit objective In obtaining evidence in support of financial statement assertions, the
auditor develops specific audit objectives in light of those assertions. For example, an
objective related to the completeness assertion for inventory balances is that inventory
quantities include all products, materials, and supplies on hand.
audit planning is developing an overall strategy for the audit. The nature, extent, and
timing of planning varies with size and complexity of the entity, experience with the
entity, and knowledge of the entity's business.
audit risk A combination of the risk that material errors will occur in the accounting
process and the risk the errors will not be discovered by audit tests. Audit risk includes
uncertainties due to sampling (sampling risk) and to other factors (nonsampling risk).
auditing standards board Statements on Auditing Standards are issued by the
auditing standards board, the body of the AICPA designated to issue auditing
pronouncements.
authorize (authorization) To give permission for. A manager authorizes a transaction
by signing a voucher authorizing the disbursement.
backup A copy of a computer program or data stored separately from the original.
batch A set of computer data or jobs to be processed in a single program run.
benford's law is a mathematical law that applies to any population of numbers derived
from other numbers (such as the dollar amount of a sale, found by multiplying the
quantity sold times the unit price). It holds that 30% of the time the first non-zero digit of
this derived number will be one, and it will be a nine only 4.6% of the time. Benford's law
is used by auditors to identify fictitious populations of numbers.
bill of lading A document issued by a carrier to a shipper, listing and acknowledging
receipt of goods for transport and specifying terms of delivery.
blind trust A financial arrangement in which a person avoids possible conflict of interest
by transferring financial affairs to a fiduciary who has sole asset management
discretion. The person establishing the trust also gives up the right to information
regarding the assets.
business risks are risks that could adversely affect an entity's ability to achieve its
objectives and execute its strategies or from the setting of inappropriate objectives and
strategies.
cancel supporting documents To mark supporting documents as having been used to
support a transaction so the same documents can't be used to support another
transaction. An example is stamping vouchers "paid.”
capitalized Recorded as an asset. A capitalized lease is in substance a purchase to the
lessee. An asset is recorded equal to the present value of the lease payments, which is
also recorded as a liability. Payments, partly interest and partly principal, are made on
the lease liability. The leased asset is depreciated by the lessee as though it were
legally owned by the lessee.
caveat A warning or caution.
check digit A redundant digit added to a code to check accuracy of other characters in
the code.
check register A listing of checks issued in numeric sequence and in order by date
issued.
classification Arrangement or grouping. Assets and liabilities are normally classified as
current or noncurrent.
collateralize To pledge property as security (collateral) for a debt.
collusion A secret agreement between two or more parties for fraud or deceit.
comfort letter A letter written by the auditor to an underwriter of securities, which
expresses an opinion about whether the audited financial statements and schedules in
the registration statement comply as to form with applicable accounting requirements of
the SEC Act of 1933 and related rules and regulations adopted by the SEC. Procedures
performed are specified by the underwriter.
comparability Users evaluate accounting information by comparison. Similar
companies account for similar transactions in similar ways. Another goal is comparison
of one company's information from one period to the next (consistency). Operating
trends should not be disguised by changing accounting methods.
comparative Financial statements of a prior period shown with those of the current
period to aid in comparisons between periods.
compare (comparison) An audit procedure. The auditor observes similarities and
differences between items such as an account from one year to the next.
compensating balance An offsetting balance. A requirement by some banks that a
borrower maintain a minimum balance in a checking or savings account as a condition
of a loan. The offsetting balance increases the effective interest rate to the bank since
the net amount loaned is reduced but the interest paid is unchanged.
competence of an internal audit staff is a function of qualifications, including education,
certification, and supervision.
compile (compilation) A compilation is presenting in the form of financial statements
information that is the representation of management without expressing assurance.
Compilation of a financial projection is assembling prospective statements based on
assumptions of a responsible party, considering appropriateness of presentation, and
issuing a compilation report. No assurance is provided on the statements or underlying
assumptions. The accountant need not be independent.
completeness Assertions about completeness deal with whether all transactions and
accounts that should be in the financial statements are included. For example,
management asserts that all purchases of goods and services are included in the
financial statements. Similarly, management asserts that notes payable in the balance
sheet include all such obligations of the entity.
compliance Following applicable internal control procedures, rules, or laws.
comprehensive basis of accounting A complete set of rules other than U.S. GAAP
applied to all items in a set of financial statements. Examples include a basis of
accounting required by a regulatory agency, a basis of accounting the entity uses for its
income tax return and the cash receipts and disbursements basis.
computer controls Internal controls performed by computer (software controls) as
opposed to manual controls. Also means general and application controls over the
computer processing of data.
condensed financial statements are presented in considerably less detail than
complete financial statements.
confirm (confirmation) Communication with outside parties to authenticate internal
evidence.
consignment Transfer of possession but not title to goods. Title stays with the
consignor, while the consignee has possession.
consistency To achieve comparability of information over time, the same accounting
methods must be followed. If accounting methods are changed from period to period,
the effects must be disclosed.
consulted Sought advice or information.
consulting services performed by CPAs include consultations, advisory services,
implementation services, product services, transaction services, and staff and support
services.
contingency is an existing condition involving uncertainty as to possible gain (gain
contingency) or loss (loss contingency) that will be resolved by future events. Estimates,
such as the useful life of an asset, are not contingencies. Eventual expiration of the
asset's utility is not uncertain.
continuing auditor is the auditor of the current year who also audited the financial
statements of the client for the previous year.
continuing accounting significance means matters normally included in the
permanent audit documentation, such as the analysis of balance sheet accounts, and
those relating to contingencies. Such information from a prior year is used by the auditor
in the current year's audit and is updated each year.
control A policy or procedure that is part of internal control.
control accounts are general ledger accounts that report totals of details included in
subsidiary ledger accounts. For example, Accounts Receivable is a general ledger
account with a balance equal to the total of the individual receivables included in the
subsidiary accounts receivable ledger.
control deficiencies exist when the design or operation of a control does not allow
employees, in their assigned functions, to prevent or detect misstatements on a timely
basis.
control environment is the attitude, awareness, and actions of the board,
management, owners, and others about the importance of control. This includes
integrity and ethical rules, commitment to competence, board or audit committee
participation, organizational structure, assignment of authority and responsibility, and
human resource policies and practices.
control policies and procedures Control activities are the policies and procedures that
help ensure management directives are carried out. Those pertinent to an audit include
performance reviews, information processing, physical controls and segregation of
duties.
control risk The risk that material error in a balance or transaction class will not be
prevented or detected on a timely basis by internal controls.
controller An officer who supervises financial affairs of an entity. In internal control the
controller is often the person with record keeping (general ledger) responsibilities, as
contrasted with asset custody, management decision-making, and internal audit
functions.
corroborate (corroborating) (corroboration) (corroborative) To strengthen with
other evidence, to make more certain.
count Enumerate some characteristic such as the number of items in inventory.
cumulative effect of changing to a new accounting principle is the effect on retained
earnings at the beginning of the current period.
current ratio Total current assets divided by total current liabilities.
custodian One who has possession or is in charge of something. Some entities entrust
investment securities to a bank, which is custodian of the company's securities.
custody Possession.
cutoff Designating a point of termination. An auditor uses tests of cutoff to obtain
evidence that transactions for each year are included in the financial statements of the
appropriate year.
defalcation To misuse or embezzle funds.
deficiency An internal control shortcoming or opportunity to strengthen internal
controls.
detection risk The risk audit procedures will lead to a conclusion that material error
does not exist when in fact such error does exist.
detective control A control designed to discover an unintended event or result.
deviation Departure from prescribed internal control. Often expressed as a rate at
which the departure occurs.
disclaimer (disclaim) A statement that the auditor is unable to express an opinion as to
the presentation of financial statements in conformity with U.S. GAAP.
disclosure Revealing information. Financial statement footnotes are one way of
providing necessary disclosures.
discovery sampling Acceptance sampling (sampling to determine whether internal
control compliance is greater than or less than the tolerable deviation rate) when the
expected attribute occurrence rate is zero.
document (documentary) (documentation) Written or printed paper that bears
information that can be used to furnish decisive evidence. Could also be a recording,
computer readable information, or a photograph.
dollar unit sampling (also known as probability proportional to size sampling) A
sampling plan that bases the likelihood of selecting a particular account on the relative
size of that account, so larger accounts have a greater probability of being selected for
the sample than smaller accounts.
dual date If a major event comes to the auditor's attention between the report date and
issuance of the report, the financial statements may include the event as an adjustment
or disclosure. The auditor dual dates the audit report (as of the end of workpaper
review, except footnote XX, which is dated later).
dual-purpose test Audit procedures are classified as substantive tests or tests of
controls. If a procedure provides both types of evidence it is a dual-purpose test.
edi “Electronic Data Interchange” is the use of communication between an entity and
customers or suppliers to transact business electronically. Purchases, shipping, billing,
cash receipts, and cash disbursements can be completed entirely by exchanging
electronic messages.
edit checks Reasonableness, validity, limit, and completeness tests that are
programmed routines designed to check input data and processing results for
completeness, accuracy and reasonableness.
edp “Electronic Data Processing”. Processing of information by computer as opposed to
handwritten records.
effective income tax rate The income tax provision (expense) shown on an income
statement divided by pretax income. This differs from the statutory rate because of
deductions, credits, and exclusions.
effective internal control Reasonable assurance that operational objectives are
achieved, that published financial statements are reliably prepared, and that the entity
complies with applicable laws and regulations.
effectiveness Producing a desired outcome. An audit procedure is effective if the
evidence supports a correct conclusion.
efficiency The ratio of the audit evidence produced to audit resources used.
embedded audit modules are included in the client’s data processing systems to
facilitate the acquisition of data needed by auditors.
embedded control performance deals with unexpected changes to data.
embezzlement To take assets in violation of trust.
encryption is scrambling data so it is meaningless to anyone but the intended recipient,
who has the key to unscramble the data.
engagement letter A letter that represents the understanding about the engagement
between the client and the CPA. The letter identifies the financial statements and
describes the nature of procedures to be performed. It includes the objectives of the
procedures, an explanation that the financial information is the responsibility of the
company's management, and a description of the form of report.
enterprise risk management (ERM) identifies risks and opportunities, assesses them for likelihood and magnitude,
determines responses strategy, and monitors progress. ERM integrates strategic planning, operations management,
and internal control. Monitoring ERM is part of internal control activities.
environment The control environment is the attitude, awareness, and actions of the
board, management, owners, and others about importance of control. It includes
integrity and ethical rules, commitment to competence, board or audit committee
participation, organization structure, assignment of authority and responsibility, and
human resource policies and practices.
error Unintentional misstatements or omissions in financial statements. Errors may
involve mistakes in gathering or processing accounting data, incorrect estimates from
oversight or misinterpretation of facts, and mistakes in application of principles relating
to amount, classification, presentation or disclosure.
estimation sampling is sampling to estimate the actual value of a population
characteristic within a range of tolerable misstatement.
evidence (evidential matter) includes written and electronic information (such as
checks, records of electronic fund transfers, invoices, contracts, and other information)
that permits the auditor to reach conclusions through reasoning.
examination is evaluating the preparation of prospective statements, support
underlying assumptions, and presentation. The accountant reports whether, in his or her
opinion, the statements conform to AICPA guidelines and assumptions provide a
reasonable basis for the responsible party's forecast. The accountant should be
independent, proficient, plan the engagement, supervise assistants, and obtain
sufficient evidence to provide a reasonable basis for the report.
examine (examining) As an audit procedure to examine something is to look at it
critically.
except for A qualified opinion. An auditor can qualify the audit opinion for both
departures from U.S. GAAP in the financial statements and restrictions on the scope of
the audit. The opinion paragraph of the qualified report is worded "In our opinion, except
for..."
execute (execution) To carry out an internal control procedure, such as to sign and
mail a check after inspecting supporting documents.
existence Assertions about existence deal with whether assets or liabilities exist at a
given date. For example, management asserts that finished goods inventories in the
balance sheet are available for sale.
expenditure Cash paid or liability incurred.
explanatory A paragraph added to an audit report to explain something, such as the
reason for a qualified or adverse opinion.
explicitly Fully and clearly expressed, leaving nothing implied.
extend means to multiply one number by another (to test extensions is to test the
accuracy of multiplication done by the client). To extend audit procedures is to apply
additional audit procedures to obtain more evidence.
extent of an audit test is the sample size. A small number of transactions provides
less assurance than a large sample. There is more risk your conclusion will be incorrect
if you use a smaller sample size.
fasab Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board. An organization that sets GAAP
in the U.S. for federal government entities.
fasb Financial Accounting Standards Board. A nongovernment private organization that
sets GAAP in the U.S. for profit making entities and not-for-profit nongovernmental
organizations.
field work The performance of audit procedures outside the CPA's office. Much field
work, but not all, is done in the client's offices after the balance sheet date.
fifo “First In First Out” inventory cost flow.
financial forecasts are prospective financial statements that present expected future
financial position, results of operations, and cash flows based on expected
conditions. A financial forecast is of the most likely future scenario.
financial institution confirmation request A confirmation sent to the client's bank or
other financial institution asking the bank to confirm directly to the auditor information
about balances at a particular date.
financial projections are prospective financial statements that present, given one or
more hypothetical assumptions, an entity's expected financial position, results of
operations, and changes in financial position. A financial projection includes several
alternative scenarios while a forecast is the single most likely scenario.
financial reporting framework is a set of criteria used to determine measurement,
recognition, presentation, and disclosure of all material items appearing in the financial
statements.
financial statements are a structured representation of historical financial information,
including related notes, intended to communicate an entity's economic resources and
obligations at a point in time or the changes therein for a period of time in accordance
with a financial reporting framework.
flowchart A schematic representation of a sequence of operations in an accounting
system or computer program. Also called a flow diagram or flow sheet.
foot a column is to add a column of numbers. To test footing is to add the column
again to check accuracy.
fraud A deliberate deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain. False representation
intended to deceive relied on by another to that person's injury. Fraud includes
fraudulent financial reporting undertaken to render financial statements misleading,
sometimes called management fraud, and misappropriation of assets, sometimes called
defalcations.
gaap “Generally Accepted Accounting Principles.” According to Rule 203 of the AICPA
Code of Professional Conduct, GAAP for nongovernment entities include (in a conflict
the source earlier in the list prevails): 1. FASB Standards and Interpretations, APB
Opinions, ARBs. 2. FASB Technical Bulletins, AICPA Guides and AICPA Statements of
Position. 3. Positions of the FASB Emerging Issues Task Force and AICPA Practice
Bulletins. 4. AICPA accounting interpretations, FASB staff "Qs and As", and widely
recognized industry practices. 5. FASB Concepts Statements, textbooks, articles.
gaas “Generally Accepted Auditing Standards.” The ten auditing standards adopted by
the membership of the AICPA. Auditing standards differ from audit procedures in that
"procedures" relate to acts to be performed, whereas "standards" deal with quality of the
performance of those acts and objectives of the procedures.
gasb Government Accounting Standards Board. A nongovernment private organization
that sets GAAP in the United States for nonfederal governmental entities.
general controls Policies and procedures to assure proper operation of computer
systems, including controls over network operations, software acquisition and
maintenance, and access security.
general journal A book of original entry in a double-entry system. The journal lists
transactions and indicates accounts to which they are posted. The general journal
includes all transactions not included in specialized journals used for cash receipts,
cash disbursements, and other common transactions.
general ledger A record to which monetary transactions are posted (in the form of
debits and credits) from a journal. It is the final record from which financial statements
are prepared. General ledger accounts are often control accounts that report totals of
details included in subsidiary ledgers.
general standard In the ten U.S. generally accepted auditing standards there are three
general standards: 1. The examination is to be performed by a person or persons
having adequate technical training and proficiency as an auditor. 2. In all matters
relating to the assignment, an independence in mental attitude is to be maintained by
the auditor. 3. Due professional care is to be exercised in performing the examination
and preparation of the report.
generalized audit software Packaged computer programs used on a variety of
computers during audit field work to read computer files, select information, perform
calculations, create data files, and print reports in a format specified by the auditor.
going concern assumption assumes the company will continue in operation long
enough to realize its investment in assets through operations (as opposed to sale).
Presenting assets at historical cost is justified by assuming productive assets will be
used rather than sold. This makes market values irrelevant and supports accounting
methods that match the actual cost of an asset to periods benefited.
government auditing standards A book issued by the comptroller general of the
United States, sometimes called the "yellow book." Government Auditing Standards
contains standards for audits of government organizations, programs, activities, and
functions and of government assistance received by organizations. The audit is
designed to provide reasonable assurance of detecting material misstatements resulting
from noncompliance with provisions of contracts or grant agreements that have a direct
and material effect on determination of financial statement amounts, are followed when
required by law, regulation, agreement, contract, or policy.
gross margin percentage The gross margin from an income statement divided by net
sales revenue.
hard copy A printed copy of information as opposed to information stored in computer
readable form.
hardware A computer and associated physical equipment involved in data processing
or communications functions as opposed to software (the computer programs that
provide instructions the computer follows).
hardware control Computer controls built into physical equipment by the manufacturer.
hash total A control total that has no meaning in itself except for control, e.g., total
social security numbers of employees paid.
hedges protect an entity against the risk of adverse price or interest-rate movements on
its assets, liabilities, or anticipated transactions. A hedge reduces risk by
counterbalancing losses with gains on separate positions.
Image-processing systems scan documents into electronic images for storage.
Reference and source documents may not be retained after conversion.
immaterial Of no importance. Something in financial statements that will not change
decisions of investors.
implementation of internal control means the auditor determines that the relevant
controls exist and that the entity is using them.
implicitly Implied or understood even though not directly expressed.
implied control performance deals with expected changes to data.
incompatible duties Internal control systems rely on separation of duties to reduce the
chance of errors or fraud. Duties are incompatible if they should be separated for
control. For example, one person should not be in a position to both embezzle funds
and to hide the embezzlement by changing the recorded accountability.
incorrect acceptance The risk of incorrect acceptance is the risk the sample supports
the conclusion that the recorded balance is not materially misstated when it is materially
misstated.
incorrect rejection The risk of incorrect rejection is the risk the sample supports the
conclusion that the recorded balance is materially misstated when it is not materially
misstated.
independent In all matters relating to the assignment, an independence in mental
attitude is to be maintained by the auditors. This means freedom from bias, which is
possible even when auditing one's own business (independence in fact). However, it is
important that the auditor be independent in appearance (that others believe the auditor
is independent).
inference control is a control used in the output of databases to stop a person who has
access to only summary information from being able to determine (infer) a particular
value for a particular record.
information systems consist of infrastructure (physical and hardware components),
software, people, procedures (manual and automated), and data.
inherent limitation The potential effectiveness of an entity's internal control is subject
to inherent limitations. Human fallibility, collusion, and management override are
examples.
inherent risk The susceptibility of a balance or transaction class to error that could be
material, when aggregated with other errors, assuming no related internal controls.
input controls Computer controls designed to provide reasonable assurance that
transactions are properly authorized before processed by the computer, accurately
converted to machine readable form and recorded in the computer, that data files and
transactions are not lost, added, duplicated or improperly changed, and that incorrect
transactions are rejected, corrected and, if necessary, resubmitted on a timely basis.
inquire (inquiry) Ask questions of client personnel.
inspect (inspection) As an audit procedure, to scrutinize or critically examine a
document. As part of a CPA firm's quality control system, a procedure to monitor the
effectiveness of the system.
integrated test facility (integrated test data) A "dummy" unit (e.g., a department or
employee) is established. Test (fictitious) transactions are posted to the dummy unit
during the normal processing cycle. If test transactions are processed correctly that
provides evidence that transactions of other units are processed correctly as well.
integrity Consistent adherence to an ethical code. If client management lacks integrity
the auditor must be more skeptical than usual.
interim audit procedures are done during the year under audit, before year-end.
interim financial information means financial statements of a time period less than a
full year.
internal auditors are employees of the client responsible for providing analyses,
evaluations, assurances, recommendations, and other information to the entity's
management and board. An important responsibility of internal auditors is to monitor
performance of controls.
internal control Policies and procedures designed to provide reasonable assurance
that specific entity objectives will be achieved. It consists of the control environment, risk
assessment, control activities, information and communications, and monitoring.
internal control questionnaire A list of questions about the existing internal control
system to be answered (with answers such as yes, no, or not applicable) during audit
fieldwork. The questionnaire is a part of the documentation of the auditor's
understanding of the client's internal controls.
internal control weakness A defect in the design or operation of internal controls.
introductory paragraph The first paragraph of the auditor's standard report which
identifies the financial statements audited and states the financial statements are the
responsibility of management and that the auditor's responsibility is to express an
opinion on the financial statements based on the audit.
inventory tag A tag attached to inventory items that identifies the inventory items to aid
in counting the physical inventory.
inverse The opposite or reverse. An inverse relationship between two variables means
that when one increases the other decreases.
investee The company in which an investment is held. Often used to describe an equity
method investment, in which the investor reports a share of the investee's net income.
invoice An itemized list of goods shipped or services rendered with costs.
isb Independence Standards Board.
issuer is a company that must file reports with the SEC. This includes companies with
securities traded on a stock exchange and larger companies traded over-the-counter
(more than 500 investors with assets over $10 million).
journal A book of original entry in a double-entry system. The journal lists all
transactions and the accounts to which they are posted.
just-in-time An inventory system that attempts to minimize inventory costs that do not
add value for the customer. It arranges for suppliers to deliver small quantities of raw
materials just before those units are needed in production. Storing, insuring, and
handling raw materials are costs that add no value to the product, and are minimized in
a just in time system.
kiting Drawing a check on insufficient funds to take advantage of the time required for
collection.
lapping A scheme to cover an embezzlement by using payments made by one
customer to reduce the receivables balance of another customer.
lead schedule The schedule at the beginning of audit documentation that summarizes
the detailed schedules.
lifo “Last In First Out” inventory cost flow.
limit test (limit check). A computer program step that compares data with
predetermined limits as a reasonableness test (hours worked over 60 per week).
liquidity The availability of cash or ability to obtain it quickly. Debt paying ability.
lockbox (bank lockbox) speeds the availability of funds from cash collections by
reducing the time from the customer mailing the check until the funds are available to
spend. Remittances are sent to a bank near the customer and the bank deposits funds
speedily to the payee's account.
management is the person(s) with executive responsibility for the conduct of the entity's
operations.
management controls are controls performed by one or more managers.
management representation letter A letter addressed to the auditor, signed by the
client's chief executive officer and chief financial officer. During an audit, management
makes many representations to the auditor. Written representations from management
in the letter confirm oral representations given to the auditor, document the continuing
appropriateness of such representations, and reduce the possibility of
misunderstanding.
management's specialist is an individual or organization possessing expertise in a
field other than accounting or auditing, whose work in that field is used by the entity to
assist the entity in preparing the financial statements
manual controls are controls performed manually, not by computer.
material (materiality) Information important enough to change an investor's decision.
Insignificant information has no effect on decisions, so there is no need to report it.
Materiality includes the absolute value and relationship of an amount to other
information.
material weakness is a deficiency in internal control such that there is a reasonable
possibility that a material misstatement of the entity’s financial statements will not be
prevented, or detected and corrected on a timely basis.
memos Written records supporting journal entries. Credit memos support credits, while
debit memos support debit entries.
misappropriate To embezzle or appropriate dishonestly for one's own use.
misstatement is a difference between the amount, classification, presentation, or
disclosure of a reported financial statement item and the amount, classification,
presentation, or disclosure that is required for the item to be in accordance with the
applicable financial reporting framework.
mitigating Reducing in force or intensity.
monitoring Evaluation of the firm’s system of quality control to provide reasonable assurance that it is
designed appropriately and operating effectively.
narrative A written description of an internal control system.
nature of audit testing means the type of testing, such as tests of internal controls,
tests of transactions, or tests of balances in balance sheet accounts.
negative assurance A statement of what the CPA does not know as opposed to what
the CPA believes (positive assurance). A statement that the CPA was "not aware of
material modifications that should be made to financial statements for them to conform
with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles" is negative assurance used in
review reports.
negative confirmation request The negative form of accounts receivable confirmation
asks the client's customer to respond only if the customer disagrees with the balance
determined by the client. The positive form asks the customer to respond whether the
customer agrees or disagrees with the client's receivable balance. The negative form is
used when controls over receivables are strong and accounts receivable consists of
many accounts with small balances. The positive form is used when controls are weak
or there are fewer, but larger, accounts.
nonissuer means all entities except for those that register their securities with the SEC.
nonsampling risk is audit risk not due to sampling. An auditor may apply a procedure
to all transactions or balances and fail to detect a material misstatement. Nonsampling
risk includes the possibility of selecting audit procedures that are not appropriate to
achieve a specific objective. For example, confirming recorded receivables cannot
reveal unrecorded receivables. Nonsampling risk can be reduced to a negligible level
through adequate planning and supervision.
objective A goal.
objectivity The internal auditors' objectivity depends on the organizational status of the
internal audit function, whether the internal auditor has direct access and reports
regularly to the board, the audit committee, or owner-manager, and who oversees
internal auditor employment decisions.
obligations Assertions about obligations deal with whether liabilities are obligations of
the entity at a given date. For example, management asserts that amounts capitalized
for leases in the balance sheet represent the cost of the entity's rights to leased property
and that the corresponding lease liability represents an obligation of the entity.
obliterate To do away with something so as to leave no trace.
observe (observation) Watch and test a client action (such as taking inventory).
occurrence Assertions about occurrence deal with whether recorded transactions have
occurred during a given period. For example, management asserts that sales in the
income statement represent the exchange of goods or services with customers for cash
or other consideration.
online Access to a computer for immediate processing without having to wait for a
batch of transactions to be processed at a later time.
operating effectiveness How an internal control was applied, the consistency with
which it was applied, and by whom.
operating income from continuing operations is reported on an income statement.
opinion A CPA's conclusion held with confidence but not substantiated by positive
knowledge or proof.
opinion paragraph The paragraph in the audit report that expresses the auditor's
conclusions. The wording of the standard, unqualified opinion paragraph is: "In our
opinion, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects,
the financial position of XYZ Company at December 31, year A, and the results of its
operations and its cash flows for the year then ended in conformity with U.S. generally
accepted accounting principles."
order is a listing of goods or services requested from a supplier with specifications and
desired delivery method. A company starts the purchase process internally with a
requisition, which results in an order being transmitted to a supplier. When the supplier
ships the goods or provides the service, an invoice is sent to the customer telling the
customer the specifications, delivery method, and price of those goods or services.
other comprehensive basis of accounting (OCBOA) means a definite set of criteria,
other than accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America or
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs), having substantial support
underlying the preparation of financial statements prepared pursuant to that basis.
other information Financial and nonfinancial information (other than the financial
statements and the auditor's report) included in a document containing audited financial
statements and the auditor's report thereon, excluding required supplementary
information.
overall review The objective of the overall review stage of the audit is to assess
conclusions reached, and evaluate the overall financial statement presentation. The
overall review includes reading the financial statements and notes and considering
adequacy of evidence gathered in response to unusual or unexpected balances.
Results of an overall review may indicate the need for additional evidence.
parallel processing is the simultaneous performance of multiple operations, usually in
reference to computer systems.
parallel simulation testing is the simultaneous performance of multiple operations. It
provides evidence of the validity of processing if the second processing system yields
the same results as the first. Auditors use their own generalized audit software to
process the same data as was processed by the client’s software. If the output of the
audit software is the same as the output of the client’s software that is evidence that the
client’s software is performing properly.
parity bit A redundant bit added to a string of bits to increase the accuracy of data
transmission.
password A sequence of characters required to gain access to a computer system.
Passwords are used to restrict computer system access to only authorized persons.
payroll Department that determines amounts of wage or salary due to each employee.
peer review A practice monitoring program in which the audit documentation of one
CPA firm is periodically reviewed by independent partners of other firms to determine
that it conforms to the standards of the profession.
pending Legal proceedings not yet decided.
per diem An allowance for daily expenses. Often used to reimburse employees for
estimated expenses as opposed to accounting for each small component of the
expenses.
performance materiality means the amounts set by the auditor at less than materiality
to reduce to an appropriately low level the probability that the aggregate of uncorrected
and undetected misstatements exceeds materiality for the financial statements as a
whole.
permanent audit documentation includes items of continuing accounting significance,
such as the analysis of balance sheet accounts and contingencies. Such information
from a prior year is used in the current audit and updated each year. Sometimes called
the continuing file.
perpetrate Carry out an action such as a crime.
perpetual An inventory accounting system updated for each addition to inventory and
each issuance from inventory, so the records indicate the exact quantity on hand at any
moment. The alternative is a periodic inventory system where actual inventory on hand
is determined only once a year.
personal financial statements of individuals present assets and liabilities at estimated
current value on an individual's balance sheet (statement of financial condition). A
statement of changes in net worth presents major changes in net worth during a period.
The accrual basis is used for assets and liabilities, which are presented in order of
liquidity and maturity, without classification as to current and noncurrent. The cash value
of life insurance less the amount of loans against it is an asset. Deferred income tax on
the difference between the income tax basis and estimated current values is presented
between liabilities and equity.
personnel The department that maintains records of each individual's employment.
persuasive Having the power to influence. Most audit evidence is persuasive, but not
conclusive.
perturbation control is a restriction control to limit the access a particular user has to
details in a database. It introduces noise into the output (perturbs, or changes it) to
shield the specifics of one record from the person who has only access to summary
information.
pervasive Having the ability to permeate. An error is pervasive if it is material to more
than one of the primary financial statements.
piecemeal opinion Expression of an opinion on an item in financial statements is not
permitted as part of a disclaimer or adverse opinion on the financial statements as a
whole because it would tend to overshadow or contradict a disclaimer of opinion or an
adverse opinion.
plan Audit planning is developing an overall strategy for conduct and scope of the audit.
The nature, extent, and timing of planning vary with size and complexity of the entity,
experience with the entity, and knowledge of the business. In planning the audit, the
auditor considers the entity's business and its industry, its accounting policies and
procedures, methods used to process accounting information, the planned assessed
level of control risk, and the auditor's preliminary judgment about audit materiality.
pledge Something given as security to guarantee payment of a debt.
population size The number of items in the population from which a sample is drawn.
positive assurance A statement as to what the CPA believes. An example is an
opinion that the financial statements are presented fairly in conformity with U.S. GAAP.
The opposite is negative assurance, a statement about what the CPA does not know. A
statement that the CPA was "not aware of material modifications that should be made to
financial statements for them to conform with U.S. generally accepted accounting
principles" is negative assurance used in review reports.
positive confirmation (positive request) The positive form of receivables confirmation
asks the customer to respond whether the customer agrees or disagrees with the
client's reported receivable balance. The negative form of accounts receivable
confirmation asks the client's customer to respond only if the customer disagrees with
the balance determined by the client. The negative form is used when controls over
receivables are strong and accounts receivable consists of many accounts with small
balances. The positive form is used when controls are weak or there are fewer, but
larger, accounts.
predecessor auditor The auditor of a client for a prior year who no longer audits that
client.
presentation Assertions about presentation deal with whether particular financial
statement components are properly classified and described. For example,
management asserts that long-term liabilities in the balance sheet will not mature in one
year. Similarly, management asserts that extraordinary items in the income statement
are properly classified and described.
presumptively mandatory quality control requirements apply unless, in rare
circumstances, the firm documents the justification for the departure and how the
alternative procedures performed in the circumstances were sufficient to achieve the
objectives of the requirement. The word “should” indicates a presumptively mandatory
requirement.
preventative control A control designed to avoid an unintended event.
principal auditor The auditor responsible for the greater portion of financial statements.
The principal auditor may assume responsibility for the work of the other auditor or
divide responsibility with the other auditor.
pro forma The objective of pro forma financial information is to show effects on
historical financial information as if a proposed event had occurred earlier.
probability proportional to size (pps) (also known as dollar unit) sampling A
sampling plan that bases the likelihood of selecting a particular account on the relative
size of that account, so larger accounts have a greater probability of being selected for
the sample than smaller accounts.
probable A contingent loss is probable if it is uncertain but likely to happen.
procedure An action, such as a step performed as part of an audit program or as part
of the client's internal controls.
processing control is an internal control included in computer software designed to
assure that all transactions are handled as authorized and none omitted or added.
production cycle The portion of an entity that acquires resources and converts them to
the product or service for customers.
production order A document that initiates the manufacturing process.
proficiency as an auditor includes the auditor's formal education and subsequent
experience. The independent auditor must undergo training adequate in technical
scope, including commensurate general education. The assistant entering an auditing
career must obtain experience with proper supervision and review of his or her work by
a more experienced auditor.
program An audit program is a listing of audit procedures to be performed in
completing the audit. A computer program (software) is a listing of steps to be
performed in processing the data.
programmed controls are built into computer software and include reasonableness
tests, control totals, and sequence checks.
pronouncements of the FASB and GASB are rules that determine the principles for
external financial reporting and disclosure.
proof of cash is a reconciliation of the general ledger cash balance at both the
beginning and end of a period, combined with a reconciliation of cash deposited for the
period with the cash receipts journal, and a reconciliation of checks for the period with
the cash disbursements journal.
prospective financial statements are either financial forecasts or financial projections.
Prospective financial statements may cover a period that has partially expired.
Statements for periods that have completely expired are not prospective financial
statements.
prospectus A registration statement filed with the SEC includes audited financial
statements (balance sheet, income statement, and statement of cash flows) for the
previous three years. A prospectus contains the same information and must be supplied
to all parties to whom offers are made. There is a twenty-day waiting period between
the filing of the registration statement and the first sale of securities. During this period,
preliminary ads and a "red herring" prospectus can be provided to offerees but it must
be clearly marked as preliminary.
proxy A power of attorney granting a third party the right to a stockholder's vote. When
management or others solicit proxies from stockholders a copy of the proxy statement
must be filed with the SEC ten days before mailing the solicitation. The proxy statement
must include all information relevant to the matter voted on.
public company (also called an issuer) is a company that must file reports with the
SEC. This includes companies with securities traded on a stock exchange and larger
companies traded over-the-counter (more than 500 investors with assets over $10
million).
purchase order A document from a buyer to a seller placing an order and listing
quantities and specifications.
purport Intending to present.
qualified (qualify) An audit opinion that the financial statements as a whole are
presented in conformity with U.S. GAAP, with the exceptions noted.
qualitative Relating to the quality of a trait, as opposed to quantitative, which means
expressed as a number.
quality control systems provide a CPA firm with reasonable assurance that personnel
comply with professional standards and the firm's standards of quality, independence,
integrity, and objectivity. It covers personnel management, acceptance and continuance
of clients, engagement performance, and monitoring.
quantitative (quantitatively) Expressed as a number, as opposed to qualitative
measurement.
questionnaire An internal control questionnaire is a list of questions about the internal
control system to be answered (with answers such as yes, no, or not applicable) during
audit fieldwork. The questionnaire is part of the documentation of the auditor's
understanding of the client's internal controls.
quick ratio Quick assets divided by current liabilities. Quick assets are current assets
less inventories and prepaid expenses.
random sample (random-number sampling) Identical probability of each population
item being selected for a sample. Also, the use of random numbers to select a random
sample from a population.
ratio The relation between two quantities expressed as the quotient of one divided by
the other. The ratio of 8 to 2 is written 8/2 and equals four. Financial statement ratios
are used as analytical procedures in audits.
ratio estimation In audit sampling a ratio of the proportion of errors in the sample
applied to the population value to estimate total error.
reasonable assurance (in audit report) An auditor works within economic limits. The
audit opinion, to be economically useful, must be formed in a reasonable time and at
reasonable cost. The auditor must decide, exercising professional judgment, whether
evidence available within limits of time and cost is sufficient to justify an opinion.
reasonable assurance (in internal control) An internal control, no matter how well
designed and operated, cannot guarantee that an entity’s objectives will be met
because of inherent limitations in all internal control systems.
reaudit When an auditor is asked to audit and report on financial statements that have
been previously audited and reported on.
recalculate Perform procedures again and compare to original results.
receiving report A document completed in the receiving department, which identifies
the purchase order that initiated the purchase, and the date, quantity, and condition of
goods received.
recomputation Perform procedures again and compare to original results.
reconcile (reconciliation) A schedule establishing agreement between separate
sources of information, such as accounting records reconciled with the financial
statements.
registration statement A statement submitted to officially provide the SEC with
information about an offering of securities. A registration statement includes audited
financial statements (balance sheet, income statement, and statement of cash flows) for
the previous three years.
regression analysis A statistical method for finding the relationship between two or
more variables. Also called least squares or linear regression.
regulation s-x is a regulation of the SEC that explains the format of information to be
submitted to the SEC. It is entitled "Form and Content of and Requirements for
Financial Statements, Securities Act of 1933, Securities Exchange Act of 1934, Public
Utility Holding Company Act of 1935, Investment Company Act of 1940, and Energy
Policy and Conservation Act of 1975."
related parties are those with whom the client has a relationship that might destroy the
self-interest of one of the parties (accounting is based on measurement of arm's length
transactions). Related parties include affiliates of the client, principle owners,
management (decision makers who control business policy) and members of their
immediate families.
relevant assertion is a financial statement assertion that has a reasonable possibility of
containing a misstatement or misstatements that would cause the financial statements
to be materially misstated.
reliable (reliability) Different audit evidence provides different degrees of assurance to
the auditor. When evidence can be obtained from independent sources outside an entity
it provides greater assurance of reliability for an independent audit than that secured
solely in the entity. More effective internal controls provide assurance about reliability of
the accounting data and financial statements. The independent auditor's direct personal
knowledge, from physical examination, observation, computation, and inspection, is
more persuasive than information obtained indirectly.
remittance Sending money to someone. A remittance advice is a record of the amount
sent, purpose of the payment, and associated account identification.
remote A contingency with only a slight chance of occurring. In computer processing of
information, a distant computer.
reperformance The repeating by the auditor of a computation made by the client to
check its accuracy.
representation A letter from management to the auditor representing that the financial
statements are fairly presented. The letter is addressed to the independent auditor, and
dated at the date of the auditor's report. It is signed by members of management whom
the auditor believes are responsible for, and knowledgeable about, matters covered
(chief executive officer and chief financial officer).
requisition A formal written request for something needed. A purchase by a company
is initiated internally by a requisition, resulting in the issuance of a purchase order to the
outside supplier.
restriction control is one type of inference control over output from a database. To
prevent a user who has access only to summary information from inferring details of a
particular record the user can see the results from only five or more records combined,
not fewer than five records.
revenue cycle The portion of a company that fills customer orders, accounts for
receivables, and collects those receivables.
review To examine again. The overall review of audit documentation is completed after
field work. A peer review is a practice monitoring program in which audit documentation
of one CPA firm is periodically reviewed by independent partners of other firms to
determine that they conform to professional standards. An analytical review is a type of
substantive audit procedure. A review of financial statements of a nonpublic company is
an engagement that results in the expression of less assurance than an audit, but more
than in a compilation. A review of interim financial statements of a public company
consists of analytical procedures and inquiries.
review evidence is information used by the accountant to provide a reasonable basis
for the obtaining of limited assurance.
rfid “radio frequency identification tag” is attached to and identifies a thing such as an
item in inventory, a case of items, a pallet of cases, a car passing through a reader on a
toll way, or a person passing through a doorway. It is like a UPC (universal product
code) on items in a store, but can be scanned from a longer distance. A transceiver
sends an activating signal and receives identification information. An active RFID tag
has an internal battery and has a longer range than a passive tag which is powered by
the radio signal it receives.
rights Assertions about rights deal with whether the entity has rights to the asset at a
given date. For example, management asserts that amounts capitalized for leases in
the balance sheet represent the cost of the entity's rights to leased property.
risk analysis An analysis of the possibility of suffering loss.
risk assessment procedures are the audit procedures performed to obtain an
understanding of the entity and its environment, including the entity's internal control, to
identify and assess the risks of material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error, at
the financial statement and relevant assertion levels.
sample size The number of population items selected when a sample is drawn from a
population.
sampling error Unless the auditor examines 100% of the population, there is some
chance the sample results will mislead the auditor. This risk is sampling error. The
larger the sample, the less chance of sampling error and the greater the reliability of the
results.
sampling risk The possibility that conclusions drawn from the sample may not
represent correct conclusions for the entire population.
sarbanes-oxley act established the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board and
added requirements for publicly traded companies, their officers, boards and auditors. It
increased penalties for corporate financial fraud.
sas "Statements on Auditing Standards" are interpretations of U.S. generally accepted
auditing standards issued by the AICPA’s auditing standards board.
scope The type of engagement. The scope of an engagement might be a review, an
audit, or a compilation. A scope limitation is a restriction on the evidence the auditor can
gather.
scope paragraph The paragraph in the audit report that explains the scope of the
engagement. The wording of the standard scope paragraph is: "We conducted our audit
in accordance with U.S. generally accepted auditing standards. Those standards
require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about
whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. An audit includes
examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the
financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used
and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall
financial statement presentation. We believe that our audit provides a reasonable basis
for our opinion."
sec The Securities and Exchange Commission is an agency that administers Federal
securities laws which require disclosure of information about publicly traded securities.
The SEC investigates securities fraud and regulates securities exchanges and brokers.
second request When an auditor confirms receivables, some customers of the client
fail to respond to the first confirmation request. Another request sent to the same
customers is the second request.
secured transaction Right to repossess goods as security for payment of a debt.
segregation of duties means assigning different people the responsibilities of
authorizing transactions, recording transactions, and maintaining custody of assets.
Segregation of duties reduces the opportunities for one person to both perpetrate and
conceal errors or fraud.
self-checking digit An extra digit is added to a number. The extra digit is computed
from the other digits in the number. The computer program can then check input by
recomputing and comparing the check digit. This is a useful control over the input of
account numbers.
service auditor The auditor of an organization that provides services such as data
processing or pension trust administration to other organizations (the users). Auditors of
the users (user auditors) rely on a report from the service auditor about controls in the
service organization that apply to financial statements of the user organization they are
auditing.
shipping document A document prepared when goods are shipped. It lists the date
shipped, the customer, method of shipment, and quantities and specifications of goods
shipped.
significant deficiency is a deficiency in internal control that is less severe than a
material weakness, yet important enough to merit attention by those charged with
governance.
significant risk is an identified and assessed risk of material misstatement that, in the
auditor's judgment, requires special audit consideration.
simulation Representation of the operation or features of one process or system
through the use of another. Computer simulation of waiting lines can determine the
number of employees needed to serve customers at a particular time.
single audit act This federal legislation requires state and local governments that
receive federal aid of $500,000 or more in a fiscal year to have an audit under the act. A
government that receives less than $500,000 can have an audit under the act or with
specific laws and regulations of programs in which the government participates.
Auditors report whether the audited entity has followed laws and regulations that may
have a material effect on each major federal aid program.
software Programs and languages that control computer hardware.
specialist An expert at activities not usually done by auditors (such as an appraiser for
valuation).
sqcs Statement on Quality Control Standards.

ssars Statements on Standards for Accounting and Review Services (SSARS) are
pronouncements concerning unaudited financial information of a nonpublic entity issued
by the AICPA Accounting and Review Services Committee.
standard deviation A statistic used to measure dispersion equal to the square root of
the arithmetic mean of the squares of the deviations from the arithmetic mean.
statistical Making inferences in uncertain situations using applied mathematics.
Measurements from a small group, the sample, are used to infer the behavior of a larger
group, the population. Probability theory determines how well the sample represents the
population.
stop-or-go sampling Taking a sample from a population and checking after each
sample item is drawn whether the sample supports a desired conclusion. Sampling
ceases as soon as that conclusion is supported.
stratify To arrange a population or a sample in distinct layers. Stratified sampling is
used in auditing to select a greater percentage of accounts with high balances than of
accounts with low balances.
subject to Years ago there was a type of qualified audit opinion that was worded "In our
opinion, subject to....." Auditors are no longer permitted to issue such opinions.
subsequent events affect the client and occur between the balance sheet date and
issuance of the financial statements. Some such events provide additional evidence
about conditions that existed at the balance sheet date, such as the bankruptcy of a
customer with a history of financial difficulty. The financial statements are adjusted to
reflect this evidence. Conditions that did not exist at the balance sheet date, such as fire
that destroyed the client's plant after the balance sheet date, may be so significant as to
require disclosure.
subsidiary ledger The detailed information that totals to the balance in the general
ledger account. The total of all customer accounts receivable included in the subsidiary
ledger of accounts receivable is the balance in the general ledger accounts receivable
account.
substantiated Supported with proof or evidence.
substantive audit procedure is a direct test of a financial statement balance designed
to detect material misstatements at the assertion level. Substantive procedures
comprise tests of details (classes of transactions, account balances, and disclosures),
and substantive analytical procedures.
successor auditor The auditor of a client for the current year when that client had
another auditor in prior years. The auditor who no longer audits that client is the
predecessor auditor.
sufficiency (sufficient) A measure of the quantity of audit evidence. The independent
auditor's objective is to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable
basis for an opinion.
supervise Supervision is directing efforts of assistants in the audit and determining
whether objectives were accomplished. Elements of supervision include instructing
assistants, keeping informed of problems, reviewing work performed, and dealing with
differences of opinion among firm personnel. The appropriate extent of supervision
depends on the complexity of subject matter and qualifications of persons performing
the work.
suppliers provide goods or services to an audited entity. Sometimes called vendors.
systrust engagements A CPA tests a business system for its ability to operate without
material error and reports on its reliability.
test A sample from a population to estimate characteristics of the population.
test count As part of inventory audit procedures auditors normally observe the client's
employees counting physical inventory. A test count is inventory counted by the auditors
to check the client's count.
test data is run through a computer program to test the software. Test data can be used
to test compliance with controls in the software.
test of controls (tests of the operating effectiveness of internal controls) Auditors
evaluate the design of controls, then determine if the controls are in operation. In order
to rely on the controls they must also obtain evidence as to whether the controls are
operating effectively.
test of detail Direct tests of financial statement balances (substantive audit procedures)
that are not analytical procedures. If tests of details are performed as tests of controls
as well as substantive tests they are "dual-purpose" tests.
third parties are all persons, including those charged with governance, except for
members of management.
those charged with governance are the person(s) with responsibility for overseeing
the strategic direction of the entity and obligations related to the accountability of the
entity.
tick marks in audit work papers are footnotes represented by a symbol instead of by a
number. They indicate procedures that have been carried out on specific items in the
work papers.
times interest earned Income before interest and taxes divided by interest expense.
timing of audit testing means when the procedure is performed. If you perform a test
of balances procedure before year end there is a risk that internal controls are
inadequate to provide assurance up through the balance sheet date. There is less risk
if you do the procedure as of the balance sheet date.
tolerable deviation rate is the maximum rate of deviation from an internal control that
will allow the auditor to place the planned reliance on that control.
tolerable misstatement When planning a sample for a substantive test of details, the
auditor considers how much monetary misstatement may exist without causing the
financial statements to be materially misstated. This maximum misstatement is the
tolerable misstatement for the sample.
trace Follow a transaction through the steps of the system.
treasurer The officer who controls the entity's funds. The treasurer normally signs
checks and is responsible for cash management.
treasury stock is stock of the corporation that has been issued and later reacquired. It
is not an asset. It is a reduction of stockholders' equity. Treasury stock can be recorded
at either its cost or its par value.
trend analysis An analysis of the change in something over time. Analytical
procedures, which compare financial statement ratios of different years, are an example
of trend analysis.
trial balance A statement of open debit and credit accounts in a ledger to test their
equality.
turnover Inventory turnover is a measure of the time from receipt of inventory to its
sale. It is found by dividing cost of sales by average inventory. Receivables turnover is a
measure of the time it takes to collect receivables. It is found by dividing net credit sales
by average net receivables. Employee turnover is the rate at which new employees
replace old employees.
unconditional requirements apply in all cases. Quality control standards use the
words “must” or “is required” for an unconditional requirement.
uncorrected misstatements are misstatements that the auditor has accumulated
during the audit and that have not been corrected.
unqualified An audit opinion that the financial statements are in conformity with U.S.
GAAP.
update (updated) If an auditor notices events that affect financial statements on which
an audit report has been issued, they are considered when updating the report on those
statements. If those statements are changed, the updated report says they have been
restated and expresses the appropriate opinion. If an updated opinion differs from the
previous opinion, an explanatory paragraph preceding the opinion paragraph explains
that the report has been updated and discloses the date and type of opinion previously
expressed, and events that caused the revision.
user auditor A “service auditor” is the auditor of an organization that provides services
such as data processing or pension trust administration to other organizations (the
users). Auditors of the users (user auditors) rely on a report from the service auditor
about controls in the service organization that apply to financial statements of the user
organization they are auditing.
validity check Software control over input of data to a computer system. Data is
compared with the type of data properly included in each input field, e.g., only letters in
a name field.
valuation An assertion made by management that each asset and liability is recorded
at an appropriate carrying value.
value-added network A telecommunications network providing communication
facilities, which enhance basic telecommunications services. They add value by
passing, storing and converting messages. Also known as service providers and EDI
service providers. Operated by a clearing house, an organization that provides
message/file collection, routing and distribution service on behalf of other organizations.
variable sampling The characteristic tested has many possible values (such as dollar
value of inventory).
variance A statistical measure of dispersion in a population. The variance is the square
of the standard deviation. The standard deviation equals the square root of the
arithmetic mean of the squares of deviations from the arithmetic mean.
vendors provide goods or services to an entity. Also called suppliers.
verify (verification) Prove accuracy of numbers or existence of assets.
vouch Prove accuracy of accounting entries by tracing to supporting documents.
voucher A document in support of an expenditure. The signature of an appropriate
official on the voucher is authorization for the treasurer to issue a check.
webtrust engagements A CPA issues an opinion on a web site when the business and
information privacy practices, transaction integrity, and protection of customer
information meet certain standards.
working papers (written audit documentation) Records kept by the auditor of
procedures applied, tests performed, information obtained, and pertinent conclusions in
the engagement.
write-off Cancellation of part or all of a balance. Costs incurred that have no future
utility are charged (written-off) to an expense or loss account, not carried forward as an
asset.
write-up In dollar terms a write-up is an intentional increase in the carrying value of
an asset. In narrative terms a write-up is a description of something or some event.

Advantages and Limitations of Audit

Advantages of Auditing
Assurance of true and fair accounts
An audit provides an assurance to the investors, government, lenders, creditors,
owners, management etc. That the final account presented shows the true and fair
picture of the profit and losses and financial position of the concern

True and fair balance sheet

The user of final accounts can be sure that the assets and liabilities disclose true and
fair view of financial position of the concern, it’s neither more nor less, and it’s free from
window dressing or secret reserve.

True and fair profit and loss account

The user of final accounts should be sure that the profit and loss account show true
amount of profit or less as it is.
Tally with books of accounts
The audited final accounts should tally with the books of accounts of the concern. So it
can be easy to calculate the taxable income without going through all the transactions.
As per law
The audited final accounts should be prepared as per the rules and guidelines laid down
by law.
Disclose all material facts
The audited final accounts should disclose all material facts, thus users can rely on
them for making useful decisions of lending, investing etc.
Detection of errors and frauds
It is assumed that the audited final accounts are free from errors and frauds, the auditor
with his expertise knowledge would detect the errors and fraud so as to show the true
figure of final accounts.
Moral check on employees
Auditing techniques such as verification, vouching of cash, assets, stock etc. act as a
moral check on the employees, this forces them to keep the accounts up-to-date and
free from errors and frauds.
Advice to concern
Auditor can also advise the client about internal control, taxation, finance, accounting
system etc.
LIMITATIONS OF AUDITING
All transactions cannot be checked
It is not possible for an auditor to check each and every transaction; he has to check
them on sample basis
Evidence is not conclusive
Audit evidence is not conclusive in nature the confirmation of debtors is not conclusive
evidence that all amount will be collected, the conclusions are persuasive rather than
conclusive.
Not easy to detect some frauds
It’s not easy for an auditor to detect the deeply laid frauds which involves acts designed
to conceal them such as forgery, false explanation, and not recording transaction and
so on.
Audit cannot assure about profitability or efficiency of management
Even though the accounts are audited it doesn’t mean that the user can take granted
the future profitability or prospects of concern as audit don’t comment on efficiency of
the management.
Rely on experts
The auditor has to rely on experts like lawyers, engineers, valuers etc. for estimation of
contingent liability and valuation of fixed assets.