Wave interference

In physics, interference is a phenomenon in which two

waves superpose to form a resultant wave of greater,
lower, or the same amplitude. Constructive and
destructive interference result from the interaction of
waves that are correlated or coherent with each other,
either because they come from the same source or
because they have the same or nearly the same
The interference of two waves. Whenin phase, the two lower
frequency. Interference effects can be observed with all
waves create constructive interference(left), resulting in a
types of waves, for example, light, radio, acoustic, wave of greater amplitude. When 180°out of phase, they
surface water waves, gravity waves, or matter waves. create destructive interference(right).
The resulting images or graphs are called
interferograms.

Contents
Mechanisms
Derivation
Between two plane waves
Between two spherical waves
Multiple beams
Optical interference
Light source requirements
Optical arrangements
Applications
Optical interferometry
Radio interferometry
Acoustic interferometry
Quantum interference
See also
References
External links

Mechanisms
The principle of superposition of waves states that when two or more propagating
waves of same type are incident on the same point, the resultant amplitude at that
point is equal to the vector sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves.[1] If a
crest of a wave meets a crest of another wave of the same frequency at the same
point, then the amplitude is the sum of the individual amplitudes—this is
constructive interference. If a crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave, Interference of left traveling (green)
then the amplitude is equal to the difference in the individual amplitudes—this is and right traveling (blue) waves in
known as destructive interference. one dimension, resulting in final (red)
wave
Constructive interference occurs when the phase difference between the waves is an
even multiple of π (180°) , whereas destructive interference occurs when the difference
is an odd multiple of π. If the difference between the phases is intermediate between
these two extremes, then the magnitude of the displacement of the summed waves lies
between the minimum and maximum values.

Consider, for example, what happens when two identical stones are dropped into a still
pool of water at different locations. Each stone generates a circular wave propagating
outwards from the point where the stone was dropped. When the two waves overlap, the
net displacement at a particular point is the sum of the displacements of the individual
waves. At some points, these will be in phase, and will produce a maximum
Interference of waves from two
displacement. In other places, the waves will be in anti-phase, and there will be no net
point sources.
displacement at these points. Thus, parts of the surface will be stationary—these are
seen in the figure above and to the right as stationary blue-green lines radiating from
the centre.

Interference of light is a common phenomenon that can be explained classically by

the superposition of waves, however a deeper understanding of light interference
requires knowledge of wave-particle duality of light which is due to quantum
mechanics. Prime examples of light interference are the famous double-slit
experiment, laser speckle, anti-reflective coatings and interferometers. Traditionally
Play media
the classical wave model is taught as a basis for understanding optical interference,
Cropped tomography scan animation
based on the Huygens–Fresnel principle. of laser light interference passing
through two pinholes (side edges).

Derivation
The above can be demonstrated in one dimension by deriving the formula for the
sum of two waves. The equation for the amplitude of a sinusoidal wave traveling to
the right along the x-axis is

where is the peak amplitude, is the wavenumber and is the

angular frequency of the wave. Suppose a second wave of the same frequency and
A magnified image of a coloured
amplitude but with a different phase is also traveling to the right
interference pattern in a soap film.
The "black holes" are areas of almost
total destructive interference
(antiphase).
where is the phase difference between the waves in radians. The two waves will
superpose and add: the sum of the two waves is

Using the trigonometric identity for the sum of two cosines: , this can be written

This represents a wave at the original frequency, traveling to the right like the components, whose amplitude is proportional to the
cosine of .
 Constructive interference: If the phase difference is an even multiple of pi: then
, so the sum of the two waves is a wave with twice the amplitude

Destructive interference: If the phase difference is an odd multiple ofπ: then

, so the sum of the two waves is zero

Between two plane waves

A simple form of interference pattern is obtained if two plane waves of the
same frequency intersect at an angle. Interference is essentially an energy
redistribution process. The energy which is lost at the destructive interference
is regained at the constructive interference. One wave is travelling
horizontally, and the other is travelling downwards at an angle θ to the first
wave. Assuming that the two waves are in phase at the point B, then the
relative phase changes along the x-axis. The phase difference at the point A is
given by

Geometrical arrangement for two plane

wave interference

It can be seen that the two waves are in phase when

and are half a cycle out of phase when

Constructive interference occurs when the waves are in phase, and destructive
interference when they are half a cycle out of phase. Thus, an interference fringe
Interference fringes in overlapping
pattern is produced, where the separation of the maxima is plane waves

and df is known as the fringe spacing.The fringe spacing increases with increase inwavelength, and with decreasing angleθ.

The fringes are observed wherever the two waves overlap and the fringe spacing is uniform throughout.

Between two spherical waves

A point source produces a spherical wave. If the light from two point sources overlaps, the interference pattern maps out the way in
which the phase difference between the two waves varies in space. This depends on the wavelength and on the separation of the point
sources. The figure to the right shows interference between two spherical waves. The wavelength increases from top to bottom, and
the distance between the sources increases from left to right.

When the plane of observation is far enough away

, the fringe pattern will be a series of almost straight lines, since the waves will then
be almost planar.
Multiple beams
Interference occurs when several waves are added together provided that the phase
differences between them remain constant over the observation time.

It is sometimes desirable for several waves of the same frequency and amplitude to
sum to zero (that is, interfere destructively, cancel). This is the principle behind, for
example, 3-phase power and the diffraction grating. In both of these cases, the result is
achieved by uniform spacing of the phases.

It is easy to see that a set of waves will cancel if they have the same amplitude and
their phases are spaced equally in angle. Using phasors, each wave can be represented
as for waves from to , where Optical interference between two
point sources that have different
wavelengths and separations of
. sources.

To show that

one merely assumes the converse, then multiplies both sides by

The Fabry–Pérot interferometeruses interference between multiple reflections.

A diffraction grating can be considered to be a multiple-beam interferometer; since the peaks which it produces are generated by
interference between the light transmitted by each of the elements in the grating; see interference vs. diffraction for further
discussion.

Optical interference
Because the frequency of light waves (~1014 Hz) is too high to be detected by currently available detectors, it is possible to observe
only the intensity of an optical interference pattern. The intensity of the light at a given point is proportional to the square of the
r is:
average amplitude of the wave.This can be expressed mathematically as follows. The displacement of the two waves at a point

where A represents the magnitude of the displacement,φ represents the phase andω represents the angular frequency.

The displacement of the summed waves is

The intensity of the light atr is given by

This can be expressed in terms of the intensities of the individual waves as

Thus, the interference pattern maps out the difference in phase
between the two waves, with maxima occurring when the phase
difference is a multiple of 2π. If the two beams are of equal
intensity, the maxima are four times as bright as the individual
beams, and the minima have zero intensity.

The two waves must have the same polarization to give rise to
interference fringes since it is not possible for waves of
different polarizations to cancel one another out or add
together. Instead, when waves of different polarization are
added together, they give rise to a wave of a different
polarization state.

Light source requirements

Creation of interference fringes by anoptical flat on a
The discussion above assumes that the waves which interfere reflective surface. Light rays from a monochromatic
with one another are monochromatic, i.e. have a single source pass through the glass and reflect off both the
frequency—this requires that they are infinite in time. This is bottom surface of the flat and the supporting surface.
not, however, either practical or necessary. Two identical waves The tiny gap between the surfaces means the two
reflected rays have different path lengths. In addition the
of finite duration whose frequency is fixed over that period will
ray reflected from the bottom plate undergoes a 180°
give rise to an interference pattern while they overlap. Two
phase reversal. As a result, at locations(a) where the
identical waves which consist of a narrow spectrum of path difference is an odd multiple of λ/2, the waves
frequency waves of finite duration, will give a series of fringe reinforce. At locations (b) where the path difference is
patterns of slightly differing spacings, and provided the spread an even multiple of λ/2 the waves cancel.Since the gap
of spacings is significantly less than the average fringe spacing, between the surfaces varies slightly in width at different
points, a series of alternating bright and dark bands,
a fringe pattern will again be observed during the time when
interference fringes, are seen.
the two waves overlap.

Conventional light sources emit waves of differing frequencies

and at different times from different points in the source. If the light is split into two waves and then re-combined, each individual
light wave may generate an interference pattern with its other half, but the individual fringe patterns generated will have different
phases and spacings, and normally no overall fringe pattern will be observable. However, single-element light sources, such as
sodium- or mercury-vapor lamps have emission lines with quite narrow frequency spectra. When these are spatially and colour
filtered, and then split into two waves, they can be superimposed to generate interference fringes.[2] All interferometry prior to the
invention of the laser was done using such sources and had a wide range of successful applications.

A laser beam generally approximates much more closely to a monochromatic source, and it is much more straightforward to generate
interference fringes using a laser. The ease with which interference fringes can be observed with a laser beam can sometimes cause
problems in that stray reflections may give spurious interference fringes which can result in errors.

Normally, a single laser beam is used in interferometry, though interference has been observed using two independent lasers whose
frequencies were sufficiently matched to satisfy the phase requirements.[3] This has also been observed for widefield interference
between two incoherent laser sources[4].

It is also possible to observe interference fringes using white light. A white light fringe pattern can be considered to be made up of a
'spectrum' of fringe patterns each of slightly different spacing. If all the fringe patterns are in phase in the centre, then the fringes will
increase in size as the wavelength decreases and the summed intensity will show three to four fringes of varying colour. Young
describes this very elegantly in his discussion of two slit interference. Since white light fringes are obtained only when the two waves
have travelled equal distances from the light source, they can be very useful in interferometry, as they allow the zero path difference
fringe to be identified.[5]
Optical arrangements
To generate interference fringes, light from the source has to be divided into two
waves which have then to be re-combined. Traditionally, interferometers have been
classified as either amplitude-division or wavefront-division systems.

In an amplitude-division system, a beam splitter is used to divide the light into two
beams travelling in different directions, which are then superimposed to produce the
interference pattern. The Michelson interferometer and the Mach–Zehnder
interferometer are examples of amplitude-division systems.
White light interference in asoap
bubble. The iridescence is due to
In wavefront-division systems, the wave is divided in space—examples are Young's
thin-film interference.
double slit interferometerand Lloyd's mirror.

Interference can also be seen in everyday phenomena such as iridescence and

structural coloration. For example, the colours seen in a soap bubble arise from interference of light reflecting off the front and back
surfaces of the thin soap film.Depending on the thickness of the film, different colours interfere constructively and destructively
.

Applications

Optical interferometry
Interferometry has played an important role in the advancement of physics, and also has a wide range of applications in physical and
engineering measurement.

Thomas Young's double slit interferometer in 1803 demonstrated interference fringes when two small holes were illuminated by light
from another small hole which was illuminated by sunlight. Young was able to estimate the wavelength of different colours in the
spectrum from the spacing of the fringes.The experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light.[5]
In quantum mechanics, this experiment is considered to demonstrate the inseparability of the wave and particle natures of light and
other quantum particles (wave–particle duality). Richard Feynman was fond of saying that all of quantum mechanics can be gleaned
[6]
from carefully thinking through the implications of this single experiment.

The results of the Michelson–Morley experiment are generally considered to be the first strong evidence against the theory of a
luminiferous aether and in favor of special relativity.

Interferometry has been used in defining and calibrating length standards. When the metre was defined as the distance between two
marks on a platinum-iridium bar, Michelson and Benoît used interferometry to measure the wavelength of the red cadmium line in
the new standard, and also showed that it could be used as a length standard. Sixty years later, in 1960, the metre in the new SI
system was defined to be equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red emission line in the electromagnetic spectrum of the
krypton-86 atom in a vacuum.This definition was replaced in 1983 by defining the metre as the distance travelled by light in vacuum
during a specific time interval. Interferometry is still fundamental in establishing the
calibration chain in length measurement.

Interferometry is used in the calibration of slip gauges (called gauge blocks in the US) and in coordinate-measuring machines. It is
also used in the testing of optical components.[7]

Radio interferometry
In 1946, a technique called astronomical interferometrywas developed. Astronomical radio interferometers usually consist either of
arrays of parabolic dishes or two-dimensional arrays of omni-directional antennas. All of the telescopes in the array are widely
separated and are usually connected together using coaxial cable, waveguide, optical fiber, or other type of transmission line.
Interferometry increases the total signal collected, but its primary purpose is to vastly increase the resolution through a process called
Aperture synthesis. This technique works by superposing (interfering) the signal waves from the different telescopes on the principle
that waves that coincide with the same phase will add to each other while two
waves that have opposite phases will cancel each other out. This creates a
combined telescope that is equivalent in resolution (though not in sensitivity)
to a single antenna whose diameter is equal to the spacing of the antennas
furthest apart in the array.

Acoustic interferometry
An acoustic interferometer is an instrument for measuring the physical
characteristics of sound wave in a gas or liquid. It may be used to measure
velocity, wavelength, absorption, or impedance. A vibrating crystal creates the The Very Large Array, an interferometric
array formed from many smaller
ultrasonic waves that are radiated into the medium. The waves strike a
telescopes, like many larger radio
reflector placed parallel to the crystal. The waves are then reflected back to the telescopes.
source and measured.

Quantum interference
If a system is in state , its wavefunction is described in Dirac orbra–ket notation as:

where the s specify the different quantum "alternatives" available (technically, they form an eigenvector basis) and the are the
probability amplitude coefficients, which are complex numbers.

The probability of observing the system making a transition or quantum leap from state to a new state is the square of the
modulus of the scalar or inner product of the two states:

where (as defined above) and similarly are the coefficients of the final state of the system. * is the complex
conjugate so that , etc.

Now let's consider the situation classically and imagine that the system transited from to via an intermediate state . Then
we would classically expect the probability of the two-step transition to be the sum of all the possible intermediate steps. So we
would have

The classical and quantum derivations for the transition probability differ by the presence, in the quantum case, of the extra terms
; these extra quantum terms represent interference between the different intermediate "alternatives". These are

consequently known as the quantum interference terms, or cross terms. This is a purely quantum effect and is a consequence of the
non-additivity of the probabilities of quantum alternatives.

The interference terms vanish, via the mechanism of quantum decoherence, if the intermediate state is measured or coupled with
its environment. [8][9]
See also
Active noise control
Beat (acoustics)
Coherence (physics)
Diffraction
Haidinger fringes
Interference lithography
Interference visibility
Interferometer
Lloyd's Mirror
Moiré pattern
Newton's rings
Optical path length
Thin-film interference
Upfade
Multipath interference

References
1. Ockenga, Wymke. Phase contrast (http://www.leica-microsystems.com/science-lab/phase-contrast/). Leika Science
Lab, 09 June 2011. "If two waves interfere, the amplitude of the resulting light wave will be equal to the vector sum of
the amplitudes of the two interfering waves."
2. WH Steel, Interferometry, 1986, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
3. Pfleegor, R. L.; Mandel, L. (1967). "Interference of independent photon beams".Phys. Rev. 159 (5): 1084–1088.
Bibcode:1967PhRv..159.1084P (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967PhRv ..159.1084P).
doi:10.1103/physrev.159.1084 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrev.159.1084).
4. Patel, R.; Achamfuo-Yeboah, S.; Light R.; Clark M. (2014). "Widefield two laser interferometry"(https://www.osapubli
shing.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri=oe-22-22-27094) . Optics Express. 22 (22): 27094–27101.
Bibcode:2014OExpr..2227094P (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014OExpr ..2227094P). doi:10.1364/OE.22.027094
(https://doi.org/10.1364%2FOE.22.027094). PMID 25401860 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25401860).
5. Max Born and Emil Wolf, 1999, Principles of Optics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
6. Greene, Brian (1999). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate
Theory. New York: W.W. Norton. pp. 97–109. ISBN 978-0-393-04688-5.
7. RS Longhurst, Geometrical and Physical Optics, 1968, Longmans, London.
8. Wojciech H. Zurek, "Decoherence and the transition from quantum to classical",Physics Today, 44, pp 36–44 (1991)
9. Wojciech H. Zurek (2003). "Decoherence, einselection, and the quantum origins of the classical".
Reviews of Modern
Physics. 75 (3): 715. arXiv:quant-ph/0105127 (https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0105127).
Bibcode:2003RvMP...75..715Z (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003RvMP ...75..715Z).
doi:10.1103/revmodphys.75.715(https://doi.org/10.1103%2Frevmodphys.75.715) .

External links
Easy JavaScript Simulation Model of One Dimensional W
ave Interference
Expressions of position and fringe spacing
Java simulation of interference of water waves 1
Java simulation of interference of water waves 2
Flash animations demonstrating interference

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