Physics C

Chapter 18

Superposition and Standing Waves

Dr. khitam Y. Elwasife

 Chapter 18, Superposition and Standing Waves
 Superposition
 Interference
 Standing Waves Nodes, Anti-nodes
Waves vs. Particles

Waves are very different from particles.

Particles have zero size. Waves have a characteristic size – their

wavelength.

Multiple particles must exist at Multiple waves can combine at one point in
different locations. the same medium – they can be present at
the same location.
Introduction
Quantization
When waves are combined in systems with boundary conditions, only certain
allowed frequencies can exist.
 We say the frequencies are quantized.
 Quantization is at the heart of quantum mechanics.
The analysis of waves under boundary conditions explains many quantum
phenomena.
Quantization can be used to understand the behavior of the wide array of musical
instruments that are based on strings and air columns.
Waves can also combine when they have different frequencies.

Introduction
Superposition Principle

Waves can be combined in the same location in space.

To analyze these wave combinations, use the superposition principle:
If two or more traveling waves are moving through a medium, the resultant value
of the wave function at any point is the algebraic sum of the values of the wave
functions of the individual waves.
Waves that obey the superposition principle are linear waves.
 For mechanical waves, linear waves have amplitudes much smaller than
their wavelengths.

Section 18.1
Superposition and Interference

Two traveling waves can pass through each other without being destroyed or
altered.
 A consequence of the superposition principle.
The combination of separate waves in the same region of space to produce a
resultant wave is called interference.
 The term interference has a very specific usage in physics.
 It means waves pass through each other.

Section 18.1
Superposition Example

Two pulses are traveling in opposite

directions (a).
 The wave function of the pulse
moving to the right is y1 and for the
one moving to the left is y2.
The pulses have the same speed but
different shapes.
The displacement of the elements is
positive for both.
When the waves start to overlap (b),
the resultant wave function is y1 + y2.

Section 18.1
Superposition Example, cont

When crest meets crest (c) the

resultant wave has a larger amplitude
than either of the original waves.
The two pulses separate (d).
 They continue moving in their
original directions.
 The shapes of the pulses remain
unchanged.
This type of superposition is called
constructive interference.

Section 18.1
Destructive Interference Example

Two pulses traveling in opposite

directions.
Their displacements are inverted with
respect to each other.
When these pulses overlap, the
resultant pulse is y1 + y2.
This type of superposition is called
destructive interference.

Section 18.1
Types of Interference, Summary
Constructive interference occurs when the displacements caused by the two
pulses are in the same direction.
 The amplitude of the resultant pulse is greater than either individual pulse.
Destructive interference occurs when the displacements caused by the two
pulses are in opposite directions.
 The amplitude of the resultant pulse is less than either individual pulse.

Section 18.1
Analysis Model

The superposition principle is the centerpiece of the analysis model called waves
in interference.
Applies in many situations
 They exhibit interesting phenomena with practical applications.

Section 18.1
Superposition of Sinusoidal Waves
Assume two waves are traveling in the same direction in a linear medium, with
the same frequency, wavelength and amplitude.
The waves differ only in phase:
 y1 = A sin (kx - wt)
 y2 = A sin (kx - wt + f)

 y = y1+y2 = 2A cos (f /2) sin (kx - wt + f /2)

The resultant wave function, y, is also sinusoida.l
The resultant wave has the same frequency and wavelength as the original
waves.
The amplitude of the resultant wave is 2A cos (f / 2) .
The phase of the resultant wave is f / 2.
Sinusoidal Waves with Constructive Interference

When f = 0, then cos (f/2) = 1

The amplitude of the resultant wave is 2A.
 The crests of the two waves are at the same location in space.
The waves are everywhere in phase.
The waves interfere constructively.
In general, constructive interference occurs when cos (Φ/2) = ± 1.
 That is, when Φ = 0, 2π, 4π, … rad
 When Φ is an even multiple of π

Section 18.1
Sinusoidal Waves with Destructive Interference

When f = p, then cos (f/2) = 0

 Also any odd multiple of p
The amplitude of the resultant wave is 0.
 See the straight red-brown line in the figure.
The waves interfere destructively.

Section 18.1
Sinusoidal Waves, General Interference

When f is other than 0 or an even multiple of p, the amplitude of the resultant is

between 0 and 2A.
The wave functions still add
The interference is neither constructive nor destructive.

Section 18.1
Sinusoidal Waves, Summary of Interference

Constructive interference occurs when f = np where n is an even integer

(including 0).
 Amplitude of the resultant is 2A
Destructive interference occurs when f = np where n is an odd integer.
 Amplitude is 0
General interference occurs when 0 < f < np
 Amplitude is 0 < Aresultant < 2A

Section 18.1
Sinusoidal Waves, Interference with Difference Amplitudes

Constructive interference occurs when f = n p where n is an even integer

(including 0).
 Amplitude of the resultant is the sum of the amplitudes of the waves
Destructive interference occurs when f = n p where n is an odd integer.
 Amplitude is less, but the amplitudes do not completely cancel

Section 18.1
Radiation from a monopole source

A monopole is a source which radiates

sound equally well in all directions. The
simplest example of a monopole
source would be a sphere whose
radius alternately expands and
contracts sinusoidally. The monopole
source creates a sound wave by
alternately introducing and removing
fluid into the surrounding area.
A boxed loudspeaker at low
frequencies acts as a monopole. The
directivity pattern for a monopole
source is shown in the figure at right.
The animated GIF at left shows the
pressure field produced by a monopole
source. Individual points on the grid
simply move back and forth about
some equilibrium position while the
spherical wave expands outwards.
Radiation from a dipole source
A dipole source consists of two monopole
sources of equal strength but opposite
phase and separated by a small distance
compared with the wavelength of sound.
While one source expands the other source
contracts. The result is that the fluid (air)
near the two sources sloshes back and
forth to produce the sound. A sphere which
oscillates back and forth acts like a dipole
source, as does an unboxed loudspeaker .
A dipole source does not radiate sound in
all directions equally. The directivity pattern
shown at right looks like a figure-8; there
are two regions where sound is radiated
very well, and two regions where sound
cancels. the wavefronts expanding to the
right and left are 180o out of phase with
each other.
.
Radiation from a lateral quadrupole source
Radiation from a linear quadrupole source

The superposition principle is the

centerpiece of the analysis model
called waves in interference.
Applies in many situations
 They exhibit interesting
phenomena with practical
applications.
Interference in Sound Waves

Sound from S can reach R by two

different paths.
The distance along any path from
speaker to receiver is called the path
length, r.
The lower path length, r1, is fixed.
The upper path length, r2, can be
varied.
Whenever Dr = |r2 – r1| = n l,
constructive interference occurs.
 n = 0, 1, …
A maximum in sound intensity is
detected at the receiver.

Section 18.1
Interference in Sound Waves, 2

Whenever Dr = |r2 – r1| = (nl)/2 (n is odd), destructive interference occurs.

No sound is detected at the receiver.
A phase difference may arise between two waves generated by the same source
when they travel along paths of unequal lengths.

Section 18.1
Standing Waves
Assume two waves with the same
amplitude, frequency and wavelength,
traveling in opposite directions in a
medium.
The waves combine in accordance with
the waves in interference model.
y1 = A sin (kx – wt) and
y2 = A sin (kx + wt)
They interfere according to the
superposition principle.

Section 18.2
Standing Waves, cont
The resultant wave will be y = (2A sin kx) cos wt.
This is the wave function of a standing wave.
 There is no kx – wt term, and therefore it is not a traveling wave.
In observing a standing wave, there is no sense of motion in the direction of
propagation of either of the original waves.

Section 18.2
Standing Wave Example

Note the stationary outline that results from the superposition of two identical
waves traveling in opposite directions.
The amplitude of the simple harmonic motion of a given element is 2A sin kx.
 This depends on the location x of the element in the medium.
Each individual element vibrates at w
Section 18.2
Note on Amplitudes

There are three types of amplitudes used in describing waves.

 The amplitude of the individual waves, A
 The amplitude of the simple harmonic motion of the elements in the medium,
 2A sin kx
 A given element in the standing wave vibrates within the constraints of the
envelope function 2 A sin k x.
 The amplitude of the standing wave, 2A

Section 18.2
Standing Waves, Definitions
A node occurs at a point of zero amplitude.
 These correspond to positions of x where

nl
x n  0, 1, 2, 3,
2
An antinode occurs at a point of maximum displacement, 2A.
 These correspond to positions of x where
nl
x n  1, 3, 5,
4

Section 18.2
Features of Nodes and Antinodes

The distance between adjacent antinodes is l/2.

The distance between adjacent nodes is l/2.
The distance between a node and an adjacent antinode is l/4.

Section 18.2
Nodes and Antinodes, cont

The diagrams above show standing-wave patterns produced at various times

by two waves of equal amplitude traveling in opposite directions.
In a standing wave, the elements of the medium alternate between the
extremes shown in (a) and (c).
Section 18.2
18.3 Standing Waves in a String

Consider a string fixed at both ends

The string has length L.
Waves can travel both ways on the
string.
Standing waves are set up by a
continuous superposition of waves
incident on and reflected from the ends.
There is a boundary condition on the
waves.
The ends of the strings must
necessarily be nodes.
 They are fixed and therefore must have
zero displacement.

Section 18.3
The boundary condition results in the string having a set of natural
patterns of oscillation, called normal modes.
 Each mode has a characteristic frequency.
 This situation in which only certain frequencies of oscillations are allowed
is called quantization.
 The normal modes of oscillation for the string can be described by
imposing the requirements that the ends be nodes and that the
nodes and antinodes are separated by λ/4.
We identify an analysis model called waves under boundary
conditions.

Section 18.3
This is the first normal mode that is
consistent with the boundary
conditions.
There are nodes at both ends.
There is one antinode in the middle.
This is the longest wavelength
mode:
 ½l1 = L so l1 = 2L
The section of the standing wave
between nodes is called a loop.
In the first normal mode, the string
vibrates in one loop.

Section 18.3
Consecutive normal modes add a loop at each step.
 The section of the standing wave from one node to the next is called a
loop.
The second mode (c) corresponds to to l = L.
The third mode (d) corresponds to l = 2L/3.
Section 18.3
Standing Waves on a String, Summary
The wavelengths of the normal modes for a string of length L fixed at both ends
are ln = 2L / n n = 1, 2, 3, …
 n is the nth normal mode of oscillation
 These are the possible modes for the string:
The natural frequencies are
v n T
ƒn  n 
2L 2L 
 Also called quantized frequencies

Section 18.3
Waves on a String, Harmonic Series
The fundamental frequency corresponds to n = 1.
 It is the lowest frequency, ƒ1
The frequencies of the remaining natural modes are integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency.
 ƒn = nƒ1
Frequencies of normal modes that exhibit this relationship form a harmonic
series.
The normal modes are called harmonics.

Section 18.3
Musical Note of a String

The musical note is defined by its fundamental frequency.

The frequency of the string can be changed by changing either its length or its
tension.

Section 18.3
Resonance

A system is capable of oscillating in one

or more normal modes.
Assume we drive a string with a
vibrating blade.
If a periodic force is applied to such a
system, the amplitude of the resulting
motion of the string is greatest when
the frequency of the applied force is
equal to one of the natural frequencies
of the system.
This phenomena is called resonance.

Section 18.4
 Resonance,

Because an oscillating system exhibits a large amplitude when driven at any of its
natural frequencies, these frequencies are referred to as resonance frequencies.
If the system is driven at a frequency that is not one of the natural frequencies, the
oscillations are of low amplitude and exhibit no stable pattern.
Resonance occurs when a system is able to store and easily transfer energy between
two or more different storage modes .However, there are some losses from cycle to
cycle, called damping. When damping is small, the resonant frequency is
approximately equal to the natural frequency of the system, which is a frequency of
unforced vibrations. Some systems have multiple, distinct, resonant frequencies.
Resonance phenomena occur with all types of vibrations or waves: there
is mechanical resonance, acoustic resonance, electromagnetic resonance, nuclear
magnetic resonance(NMR), electron spin resonance (ESR) and resonance of
quantum wave functions. Resonant systems can be used to generate vibrations of a
specific frequency (e.g., musical instruments),
Resonance

• When we apply a periodically varying force to a

system that can oscillate, the system is forced to
oscillate with a frequency equal to the frequency of
the applied force (driving frequency): forced
oscillation. When the applied frequency is close to a
characteristic frequency of the system, a
phenomenon called resonance occurs.

• Resonance also occurs when a periodically varying force

is applied to a system with normal modes.

•of the applied

force is close to one of normal modes of the system,
resonance
occurs.
 Problem
Resonance
The sound waves generated by the
fork are reinforced when the length
of the air column corresponds to one
of the resonant frequencies of the
tube. Suppose the smallest value of
L for which a peak occurs in the
sound intensity is 9.00 cm.

Lsmalles t= 9.00 cm

(a) Find the frequency of the n  1 v  345 m.s-1 L1  9.00 102 m

tuning fork.
v 345
f1   2
Hz  985 Hz
4 L1 4(9.00 10
(b) Find the wavelength and the next two water levels giving resonance.
l  4L1  4(9.00 102 ) m  0.360 m
L2  L1  l / 2  0.270 m, L3  L2  l / 2  0.450 m.
 Beats and interference

Wave interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while
traveling along the same medium. The interference of waves causes the medium
to take on a shape that results from the net effect of the two individual waves
upon the particles of the medium.

if two upward displaced pulses having the same shape meet up with one another
while traveling in opposite directions along a medium, the medium will take on
the shape of an upward displaced pulse with twice the amplitude of the two
interfering pulses. This type of interference is known as constructive
interference

If an upward displaced pulse and a downward displaced pulse having the same
shape meet up with one another while traveling in opposite directions along a
medium, the two pulses will cancel each other's effect upon the displacement of
the medium and the medium will assume the equilibrium position. This type of
interference is known as destructive interference
The diagrams below show two waves - one is blue and the other is red -
interfering in such a way to produce a resultant shape in a medium; the
resultant is shown in green. In two cases (on the left and in the middle),
constructive interference occurs and in the third case (on the far right,
destructive interference occurs.
An animation below shows two sound waves interfering constructively in
order to produce very large oscillations in pressure at a variety of anti-
nodal locations. Note that compressions are labeled with a C and
rarefactions are labeled with an R.
 1 1
cos   cos   2 cos    cos    
2 2

Beats
Two sound waves with different but close frequencies give rise
to BEATS
Consider s1 x,t   sm cosw1t
s2  x,t   sm cosw2 t
w1  w 2
s  s1  s2  2sm cos w t cos wt
1 1
w   w1  w 2  w  w 1  w 2 
Very ≈w1≈w2
small
2 2
s  2sm cos w t cosw t
On top of the almost same frequency, the amplitude takes
maximum twice in a cycle: cosw’t = 1 and -1: Beats
Beat frequency fbeat: fbeat  f1  f2
Sum and Difference Frequencies
When you superimpose two sine waves of different frequencies, you get components at
the sum and difference of the two frequencies. This can be shown by using a sum
rule from trigonometry. For equal amplitude sine waves

The first term gives the phenomenon of beats with a beat frequency equal to the
difference between the frequencies mixed. The beat frequency is given by

since the first term above drives the output to zero (or a minimum for unequal
amplitudes) at this beat frequency. Both the sum and difference frequencies are
exploited in radio communication.
1-4-6-8-13-15-19-20-26-27-32-36-37-44-47-51-60