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Portion of the San Andreas fault.

Image generated using data from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)
Courtesy NASA/JPL/NIMA

In this chapter you'll travel back to a distant time when the geography of the Earth's crust was
much different than it is today. The search for answers to Earth's dynamic nature will set the
context for explaining modern day tectonic activity. By the conclusion of the chapter you
should be able to explain how plate movement has created many of the surface features of our
present day Earth.

 

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2? Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift

? Introduction
r? Exotic Terrane Video
? Looking for the Evidence
? The Mobile Crust
? Modern Theory
2? Plate Boundaries
? Plate Boundaries and Earthquakes
? Plate Boundaries and Volcanoes
2? Crustal Deformation
? ·olding
? ·aulting
2? Review

 

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The surface of the lithosphere is fractured into a number of Ê
Ê
Ê (also known as
lithospheric or crustal plates) which are in constant motion. As these plates move and collide,
the lithosphere buckles, warps, and is torn apart. When this occurs, the Earth's surface shakes
with great force, like that which accompanies earthquakes. Volcanoes are common along
many plate boundaries as well.

·
Major
Tectonic plates of the
world
Diagram Courtesy of
USGS



 

OÊ Ê
Ê
refers to the process of plate formation, movement, and destruction. It finds
its foundations in two theories, continental drift and sea-floor spreading.
Ê Ê
 Ê describes the movements of continents over the Earth's surface.x
 

 refers to the creation new oceanic plate material and movement away from the
midocean ridge. It was Alfred Wegener? in the early 1900's who brought forth the concept
that the "shell" of the Earth's surface was fractured, and these "pieces" drifted about.
Blasphemy in the minds of scientists of Wegener's day, some 50 years later his ideas were
finally accepted. Wegener was able to piece together (pardon the pun) several bits of
information which led to his conclusion that the present configuration of the continents is not
the same as it was in the past. In fact, the continents were one "super-continent"
called O .

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·
 The supercontinent of
Pangea
Diagram Courtesy of USGS

Look at a map of the Earth like that in ·igure TL.3. Carefully examine the east coast of South
America and then let your eyes drift to the west coast of Africa. It looks like you could "fit"
South America up against Africa like a puzzle. The same can be said for the fit between
North America, Africa, and Europe (·igure TL.4)

·
!Present location of
world land masses

·
·it of continental land
masses

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When we slide the continents together, some over lap between the land masses occurs. This is
possibly due to the creation of Ê
Ê , new land that has been formed somewhere else
and moved to its present location. This remarkable correspondence provides circumstantial
evidence for the theory of continental drift. Watch "Exotic Terrane" then return here.

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If the continents were in one piece at some time in the past, we should find similar fossils and
rocks on both continents which is precisely what Wegener discovered. By studying the
geologic record, the fossil record, and climatic record, he found remarkable similarities
between Africa and South America.

·
%·ossil Glossopteris leaf,
Ellsworth Land, Antarctica
(Photo Credit USGS DDS21)

·ossils of the same species of plants and animals were found in similar geologic formations
in different parts of the world, most notably South America, Africa, and India. ·or example,
fossils of the Glossopteris, an ancient fern, are found in South America, Africa, Antarctica,
India, and Australia. It was hypothesized that such a distribution could only come about if the
continents were all part of the one super-continent.

Examining the stratigraphy (vertical sequences) of the rock record, Wegener could point to
further evidence for Pangea and continental drift. Wegener noted that the rock sequences in
South America, Africa, India, and Australia are very similar. Wegener showed that the same
three bottoms layers occurred on each of the continents. The bottom layer, called tillite, was
thought to be of glacial origin. The middle layer composed of coal beds, shale and sandstone
contained Glossopteris fossils, as did the bottom tillite layer. The top most and youngest layer
is lava flows. Such a strong similarity in the rock record of these localities, now separated by
great geographic distance, lent credence to Wegener's notion of continental drift.

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·
&
Simplified
stratigraphic profile
for portions of South
America, Antarctica,
Australia, Africa and
India.Courtesy of
USGS

The occurrence of glacial features (·igure TL.7) in the geologic record of South America,
Africa, India ,and Australia provides further evidence for the notion of continental drift.
Glaciers affected all or part of these continents at the same time in Earth history.

·
'
Evidence of
glaciation to support
continental drift
Courtesy of USGS

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(Past glaciation
explained by continental drift
Courtesy of USGS

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Wegener's ideas were not readily accepted during his day because he did not offer a plausible
mechanism for the movement of the continents. Wegener suggested it was the spin of the
Earth that caused plates to "plow" their way through the mantle beneath (·igure TL9).

·
+Wegener's
proposed movement of
plates
Courtesy of USGS

Interestingly, there appeared to be a split in the scientific community in a geographical sense

at the time. Geologists in the Northern hemisphere were less accepting as those living in the
Southern hemisphere who were familiar with the rocks Wegener used to support his
hypothesis. It wasn't until 1928 that a Scottish geologist proposed a mechanism to drive
continental drift. Arthur Holmes believed a fluid mantle possessed

Ê

 Ê created by heat trapped beneath the Earth's surface. Holmes hypothesized that
convection currents welled up toward the surface and then drug continents across the surface.

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·
,Holmes'
convection current model.
Courtesy of USGS

·
Mid-ocean Ridge
(Courtesy USGS)

In the late 1950's and early 1960's oceanographic research was opening the final frontier on
Earth, the mysteries of the ocean floor. During the 1950's seismologists showed that
earthquake activity was concentrated along the longest continuous mountain system on Earth,
the ÷
 . Known for over a century, the mid-ocean ridge system in the Atlantic
Ocean rises some 6,500 feet above the surrounding ocean floor and extends for more that
37,500 miles (60,000 km) in all the world's oceans. At the crest of the ridge system lies a
trough or rift. These rifts are about 20 miles wide (30 km) and 6,500 feet (2,900 m) deep and
are a site where lava is expelled on to the ocean floor. The youngest material is found near
the ridge with rocks of increasing age further away. It appears that the mid-ocean ridge is the
site of sea floor spreading leading to plate movement. The key to sea floor spreading was
found in the magnetic properties of rock lying on the sea floor.

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·
 Sea floor
spreading and magnetic
stripes

Geoscientists found that as new material is extruded from the mid-ocean ridge onto the ocean
floor, the polarity of the rocks is frozen in time. Dragging a magnetometer across the ridge,
they noticed that the polarity recorded a series of "flips" when the polarity of the rocks
reversed. Parallel stripes of ÷ Ê
    on either side of the ridge was supporting
evidence for sea floor spreading. (See animation of magnetic stripe formation - caution large
file) ½
?
?
?
?
 ?

?

???

?
??Magnetic
Stripes and isotope clocks (USGS. These ideas set the stage for further research that has
given us a plausible explanation for the movement of the crust and the drifting of continents
first proposed by Wegener.

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The movement of lithospheric plates referred to as
Ê Ê Ê, is believed to be caused

by the radioactive decay of elements in the core and mantle that produces heat. The heat in
turn creates convection currents in the mantle which "drive" the plates along their path of
movement. When plates collide, heavier, more dense plates dive beneath lighter, less dense
crustal plates along 
Ê . As the heavier plates move downward they melt and
molten rock material makes its way to the surface, finally being extruded onto the surface
as (·igure TL.12). Some plates slip past one another, creating earthquakes, (·igure
TL.13) like what happens along the San Andreas fault in California. In many places the crust
is separating and moving away in opposite directions, or diverging as happened to create
the Great Rift Valley of Kenya.

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·
!Sea floor movement and plate tectonics 
Courtesy of USGS

·
Global
distribution of
earthquakes and
volcanoes
Courtesy of USGS

Though many earthquakes seemingly occur along plate boundaries, they can occur far away
from the edges of plates too. One of the most well-known seismic regions is the New Madrid
Seismic Zone located in the Mississippi Valley of the central United States. Investigate the
New Madrid Seismic Zone by reading The Mississippi Valley - "Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin'
On" . Then return here to continue.


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Along the boundary of the Earth's tectonic plates a fiery drama of catastrophic proportions is
played out. Movement of the Earth's crust creates earthquake activity and in some places
great outpourings of lava extrude onto the surface.

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·
%Earth's Lithospheric plates
(Courtesy: NASA Goddard Space ·light Center)

·our types of plate boundaries are recognized and are depicted in ·igure TL.15.i 
 occurs where plates are moving away (diverging) from one another, like along the
midocean ridge . Here, new crust is formed.
  Êboundaries are located where
subduction is active and the lithosphere is being "consumed". This occurs where two plates
collide with one another.  ÷boundaries occur where plates are grinding past one
another, like the San Andreas fault.OÊ  ?are broad belts in which
boundaries are not well defined and the effects of plate interaction are unclear. Understanding
plate motions (USGS) is important in deciphering land forming processes that occur along
plate boundaries.

·
&
Tectonic Settings 
(Courtesy of
USGS)


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i Ê is the shaking of the Earth as a result of crustal movement. Most earthquakes
occur at the boundaries where plates meet. Submarine earthquakes create

?
?

that travel long distances across the ocean. They often strike land with devastating
consequences. Earthquakes emanate from faults, or fractures in the Earth where movement
occurs. [·or an animation of how earthquakes are propagated see "The Savage Earth" - The

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Restless Planet: Earthquakes animation , NOVA, PBS].The location of earthquakes and the
ruptures associated with them are what scientists use to define plate edges. The association
between plate boundaires and earthquakes is shown in ·igure TL.17.

There are several different kinds of faults classified according to the type of movement that
occurs.Where plates move horizontally past one another, transform faults occur. Such is the
case of the San Andreas ·ault in California. Where the crust is spreading apart, like the mid-
ocean ridge, shallow earthquakes (within 30 kilometers of the surface) are common. Shallow
to deep earthquakes occur along subduction zones where one plate overrides another, like that
which occurs along the northwest coast of the United States, western Canada and southern
Alaska. [ Watch "Angry Earth" from 
 ?
 ]

·
(San Andreas ·ault, California, is where
numerous earthquakes occur due to slippage along two
plate boundaries. (Source: USGS Used with permission)


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0 


Looking at a map of lithospheric plate boundaries shows volcanic activity along the
boundaries of some lithospheric plates. Convergent plate boundaries where subduction occurs
commonly experience volcanic activity . The "  " that extends from the west
coast of the United States toward the Aleutian Islands and over to Japan is a good example of
volcano activity associated with the margins of plates. Mt. St. Helens (Washington), Mt.
Shishaldin (Alaska), and Mt. ·ujiyama (Japan) were born from the collision and associated
melting of plates beneath the surface of the Earth. These "stratovolcanoes" are built by
enormous eruptions of viscous lava and ash created from magma rich in silica.

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·
(Shishaldin Volcano, Alaska is a
volcano found on the "Ring of ·ire" (Source:
Volcano Hazards Program, USGS Used with
permission)

Volcanoes are also found along spreading plate boundaries. Here, basaltic magma is
extruded onto the floor of the ocean. In some places, the magma solidifies into great volcanic
cones rising from the ocean floor. Iceland's Heimaey volcano is a good example of volcanic
activity along the midocean ridge.

One of the most well-known locations for volcanic activity, the Hawaiian Islands, is not a
product of plate margin processes. The Hawaiian Islands have formed over a "hot spot" or
mantle plume where magma rises to the surface and flows out onto the ocean floor. The chain
of islands were created as the Pacific Plate moves over the mantle plume creating a
succession of volcanoes oriented in a northwest (oldest) to southeast direction (youngest).

î
  

Enormous stress is imposed on the crust at the boundaries of the lithospheric plates and
where convection currents in the mantle tug and tear at the crust above. When a stress is
imposed on rock material it will deform (change shape) and often volume. The change in
shape as a result of imposing a stress is called Ê.

There are three basic kinds of stress.

÷  occurs when rock masses are pushed
together like that which occurs when plates collide. Rocks tend to shorten laterally and
thicken vertically when exposed to compressional stress.   , or tensional stress, pulls
the crust apart, like that which occurs along diverging plate boundaries. Tension extends the
crust causing it to thin and lengthen. Rifting, like that which created the Great Rift Valley of
Africa, is a result of tension. When plates slide past one another in opposite directions along
transform plate boundaries, a shearing stress is created.  Ê cuts the crust into
parallel blocks displacing them horizontally relative to one another. Shearing takes place
along the San Andreas ·ault where the Pacific Plate is moving past the North American
Plate.

Rocks behave in a variety of ways when stress is imposed on them. The relationship between
stress and deformation is shown in stress-strain diagrams like those below. The reaction of
rock material to an imposed stress depends on the temperature and pressure conditions. As
stress is imposed on rock it starts to deform up to its  Ê. Before it gets to the yield
point, the rock will undergo  Ê
 ÷Ê (·igure TL.20). Like a rubber band, if the
stress is released before reaching the yield point, the rock material will return to its original
shape. However,
?
?
??

?


, once the rock reaches its
yield point it will break, called ÊÊ   (·igure TL.21). Brittle failure may occur if
stress is imposed suddenly as well.

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·
 ,Elastic Deformation

·
 Brittle ·ailure

„
?
??

?


?
?

?


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·
 Brittle ·ailure
?

„
?
??

?


?
?

?


Upon reaching the yield point

?  ?

??
?


, the rock may
undergo  
?

?(·igure TL.22). In this case, once the rock changes shape and if
stress is released, it will not return to its original form. During plastic deformation mineral
bonds adjust to the stress by breaking, moving about, and then reforming. Once it reaches
its 

?
, the material will break.

· 

When rocks deform by plastic deformation they can bend and fold. The process
of foldingoccurs when rock is compressed, as it is along colliding plate boundaries. Upturned
folds are called anticlines and down turned folds are called synclines . Anticlines and
synclines are geologic structures, that is, they are folds in rock material. They give expression
to the surface as linear ridges (anticlines) and troughs (synclines). The sides of the fold are
called the limbs. Each fold has an axial plane, an imaginary plane that runs down its length
and divides the fold in half.

·
 ! Components of a ·old

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Symmetrical or open folds with their near-vertical axial planes and gently dipping limbs of
about the same angle are a product of gentle compression. Symmetrical folds are found near
the margins of mountain systems where tectonic activity is relatively quiet. If the
compression is more pronounced from one direction, an overturned fold may occur. Extreme
directed pressure may lay the fold over with its axial plane nearly horizontal with the surface
producing a recumbent fold. Sometimes the length of the folds are tilted creating plunging
folds. One of the best examples of folded topography is the Appalachian mountains found in
the Ridge and Valley physiographic province of North America.

·
  Teton Anticline, Utah
Photo credit: USGS Digital Data Series
DDS-21

·
 % Syncline in Lockhart Basin, Utah
Photo credit: USGS Digital Data Series DDS-21

·

When enormous stresses build and push large intact rock masses beyond their yield limit,
faulting of the surface is likely to occur. A Ê is a fracture along which movement occurs.
The plane that extends into the earth and along which slippage occurs is called the Ê
 . The Ê is the angle from horizontal that the fault plane makes. The map
direction that the fault takes is called the Ê , measured east or west of true north.
Generally, two walls are distinguished, the footwall and hanging wall. The 
moves horizontally, vertically, or in both directions relative to the Ê. We identify
the hanging and foot walls relative to the fault plane. The hanging wall is above the fault

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plane while the foot wall is below. The steep face of an exposed block is called the Ê

. The Ê is the trace of the fault along the surface

·
 &Red Canyon fault scarp
near Red Canyon Creek,
Montana(Courtesy USGS)

·aults can be traced for thousands of kilometers across the surface at tens of kilometers in
depth. The sudden slippage of rock masses past one another results in shock waves that we
feel as an Ê . ·or information about earthquakes see "How Earthquakes Occur" by
the USGS.

·
 '·eatures of ·aults (normal fault
depicted)

-
 ·

·aults are distinguished on the basis of the movement of the footwall relative to the hanging
wall (·igures TL.23a-d). -  Ê are those in which vertical displacement primarily
occurs. A ÷ Ê is one in which the hanging wall 
?
 relative to the foot wall
due to tensional stress . The Teton Mountains in North America are a result of normal
faulting. A   forms when a block of rock falls between two faults. Huge, relatively flat
bottomed valleys, like Death Valley in California , are created in this way. A    
Ê is one in which the hanging wall 

?
 relative to the foot wall due to
compression . If the hanging wall is pushed
?? ?
?the foot wall at a low angle it
is called a Ê Ê Ê. A  Ê is formed when a block of rock is pushed up between two

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faults. Large plateau surfaces form in this fashion. The Basin and Range Province of North
America is noted for its faulted mountains and flat-bottomed valleys.

·
 (*Reverse ·ault

·
 +The Great Basin located in
the upper center of this shaded relief map
is composed of parallel mountain ranges
with intervening basins caused by
faulting (Courtesy USGS)

Ê  Ê ÷ Ê are those that primarily exhibit horizontal movement . Such
activity can be discerned from surface features like  Ê Ê ÷ . The San Andreas fault
is a well-known strike slip fault caused by the Pacific Plate sliding past the North American
Plate. (View a segment of the San Andreas fault in Google Earth)  Ê exhibit both
horizontal and vertical movement.

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#
 ·#/"


The fracturing and movement of the Earth's surface have been linked to stresses created by
movements of molten rock within the asthenosphere. Convection currents within this
subsurface region tug at crustal plates, driving them into or past one another, or pulling them
apart. Thus, the patterns of earthquakes and faults are closely associated with the boundaries
of plates. These patterns can be seen in the daily occurrence of earthquakes shown in the
Google Earth overlay below.

·
!New Madrid Seismic Zone
Courtesy USGS (Source)

Though faulting and earthquakes are common along plate boundaries, they also occur in
zones of weakness within the interior of a plate. The New Madrid Seismic Zone is the site of
one of the largest earthquakes to strike North America (1811-1812). Though it had relatively
little effect on human populations due to its location in a sparsely populated area at the time,
it had a significant impact on the natural environment. The largest earthquakes caused the
Mississippi River to flow backwards and low water falls were formed from the fracturing of
the earth. 150,000 acres of forest ere destroyed and Reelfoot Lake, KY was formed. Now,
several large population centers could be affected by the seismic zone. The seismic zone can
be seen in ·igure TL.31.

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1

Use the links below to review and assess your learning. Start with the "Important Terms and
Concepts" to ensure you know the terminology related to the topic of the module and
concepts discussed. Move on to the "Review Questions" to answer critical thinking questions
about concepts and processes discussed in the module. ·inally, test your overall
understanding by taking the "Self-assessment quiz".

2? Important Terms and Concepts

2? Review Questions
2? Self-assessment quiz
2? iQuiz Pack for iPod - iQuiz required - Purchase from iTunes Store

 
 


Use these resources to further explore the world of geography

)


San ·rancisco 1906 Earthquake ?  (NPR) April 21, 2006 hour one. "One
hundred years ago ..., San ·rancisco's ground began to shake. After the massive quake came
the fire -- and when it was all over, the city lay in ruins, with thousands dead."

"Living with the Earth I" The Earth Revealed (Annenberg/CPB)

(30:00) Go to the Earth Revealed site and scroll to ""Living with the Earth I" ". One-time,
free registration may be required to view film.

"Exotic Terrane" from the Open Video Project. "A geologic history of the Pacific
Northwest that explains how islands near China accreted, or welded, themselves to the North
American continent. Animations of the formation of North America explain the process. The
video also visits Hells Canyon in Idaho. On-location interviews with an expert geologist add
to the viewer's experience". ·ile must be downloaded to view - 245 megabytes

"Southern Appalachians" (USGS) Geology of the Southern Appalachians

(24:34)

"The Seattle Earthquake" c ?

?

? ??„ ?(PBS). A magnitude 6.8
earthquake shook the Pacific Northwest ·ebruary 28, 2001, rattling windows from
Vancouver to Salt Lake City. Read the transcript or watch the clip.

"Earthquakes" ?  (NPR) June 24, 2005 episode discusses a recent swarm of
earthquakes in California and new studies of the New Madrid Seismic Zone. (17:44)




"Plate Tectonics and People" (USGS)

"On the Shoulders of Giants - Alfred Wegener" (NASA)

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