Ing.

Enrico Tarantino
enrico.tarantino@unibo.it

Location-
Location-Based Services (LBS)
Services that take advantage of the user's location information

Location Services (LCS)
Set of network elements needed to determine the
location, functionality of the elements, interfaces
and communication messages
Method (or technique) localization
- Algorithm which is based on the estimated
position
- Is typically system-independent
Location technology
- Defines the realization’ s algorithm chosen

Government application
◦ Emergency calls
◦ Electronic surveillance

Commercial applicationd
◦ Applicazioni consumer (per il consumatore/utente generico)

Traffic information & navigation

Enhanced Roadside Assistance (vehicle breakdown recovery)

Directory/information services (pagine gialle)

Family & lone worker safety

Asset tracking (rintracciare beni, mezzi mobili, ecc.)
◦ Applicazioni business (per l’azienda)

Workforce, asset & fleet management

Emergency service for field employees

Telecommunication operators’
operators’ applications
◦ Location based billing (tariffazione differenziata)
◦ Network/RF optimization
◦ Fraud detection (supporto alla gestione frodi)
Classification
Cla of radiolocation systems
The localization methods are usually divided into 3 main
categories:

Dead-
Dead -reckoning Systems: from a known starting position,
the mobile, by means of suitable sensors. periodically
calculates speed and direction of movement, allowing
them to calculate his position;
Systems: periodically determine what is the
2. Proximity Systems
Reference Station (RS) closest to the mobile, and this
information is sufficient to estimate the location (for
example, we consider the position of the RS or the
same small area around it), it is necessary that the RS
are suitably "dense" to limit the location error
3. Radiolocation Systems:
Systems are based on the measurement of radio
signals between the MS and a number of RS (terrestrial or
satellite) : from the values ​measured, properly processed, it
is estimated the position of the mobile terminal
- Radiolocation systems require the measurement of one
(or more) variables (location parameters) whose value is
tied to the position of the cabinet, so that the measured
value is possible to estimate the position of the
terminal.
- Each measured value allows you to find a curve in the
plane (line of position) on which the cabinet may be
considered with respect to the RS. The intersection of
the various lines of position for different pairs MS-RS
allows you to pinpoint the location of the cabinet.
- Any tracking algorithm can be divided into two phases:
1. Estimation of location parameters
2. Localization algorithm, which estimates the position
of the terminal from the measured values ​of the location
parameters

Description 2D (position 2 identified by coordinates - for example,
xM, yM);
- Location theory assumes conditions LOS (Line Of Sight) to be
located between the terminal and the reference station (RS);
- Reference points at known positions
- Satellites of the GPS system
- Base Stations (BS) of a cellular network
- Adequate visibility radio (at least) a certain minimum number of
reference points (hearability)
- Types of measures for the positioning:
-- Cell Identification (Cell ID)
-- Power Measurements
-- timing measurements
-- Measurements of the direction of arrival
-- Measurements of the characteristics of the received multipath
- Inaccuracies and malfunction detection systems due to:
-- NLOS situations
-- multiple paths
- Hearability reduction due to:
- Geometric Diluition of Precision (GDOP)
 METODI DI
LOCALIZZAZIONE

RS ID
Cell ID Signal Strenght AOA TOA TDOA Multipath Hybrid
Based Analysis Analysys Techniques

RS ID Based : Reference Station IDentity Based

AOA(/DOA/DF) :
AngleOfArrival(/DirectionOfArrival/DirectionFinding)

TOA : Time Of Arrival Time based methods

TDOA : Time Difference Of Arrival
The position of the mobile terminal is linked to that of the nearest
reference station (this is clearly a method of Proximity);

The network of RSs in practice is never dense enough to ensure that

the terminal to identify you always find in the immediate vicinity of
an RS system => imprecise.

. In the case of terrestrial

(RSs = fixed base
stations of a cellular
network) accuracy
(however poor) increases
with decreasing radius of
the cells (to the limit, it
might make sense in the
case of microcellular
coverage) and using
antennas to the sectoral

Location parameters: received power

(minimum) number of RS: 3
 Generally:

PRX(rr) = Xfast(rr) + Xslow(rr) + P(rr);

xs
To obtain a reliable estimate of the distance should be
considered only P (r), we need to mediate on a length L
r0 + L
PRX = ∫ PRX (r ) dr
r0 − L
- L can not be too large because otherwise the average can not
be regarded as representing a single point;
- L can not even be too small to avoid to mediate, filter only the
fast fading;
=> need compromise on the value of L =>error in estimating
- when PRx has been measured, to evaluate the position you
need to know the law of propagation => spatial filtering

Location parameters: direction of arrival

(minimum) number of RS: 2
Adaptive arrays are used,
that "look" the direction
from which the signal
emitted from the terminal

NB: error increases with

distance
φi angle of arrival of the trasmitted signal from mobile
equipment to the RS-i (e.g. with respect to the x axis,
0 ≤ φi ≤ π)
− yM
−1  y i 
φi = tan x −x  φi
 i M 

the line on which lies the terminal has the RS

equation
i

y M = x M ⋅ tan φ i + ( y i − x i ⋅ tan φ i ) i = 1,2

Solving the system equations for i = 1,2 we have:

y 2 − y1 − x 2 ⋅ tan φ 2 + x1 ⋅ tan φ1
xM =
tan φ1 − tan φ 2
y M = x M ⋅ tan φ1 + ( y1 − x1 ⋅ tan φ1 )

Location parameters: propagation delay ⇒ distance
between terminal and RS

(minimum) number of RS: 3

synchronizetion between the terminals and the knowledge
of the instant transmission
Known the propagation delay ti with respect to BSi, terminal could
stay on CFR of equation:

ti ⋅ c = (x i − x M )2 + (y i − y M )2 i = 1,2,3

Solving the system of this 3 equation così, we can calculate the

cordinate of the intersection point of 3 CFR, that is the terminal’s
position
(y 2 − y1)⋅ C3 − (y 2 − y 3 )⋅ C1
xM =
[ ]
2⋅ (x 2 − x 3 )⋅ (y 2 − y1 ) − (x 2 − x1 )⋅ (y 2 − y 3 )

(x 2 − x1)⋅ C3 − (x 2 − x 3 )⋅ C1
yM =
[ ]
2⋅ (y 2 − y 3 )⋅ (x 2 − x1 ) − (y 2 − y1 )⋅ (x 2 − x 3 )

Where
C1 = x 2 2 + y 2 2 − x12 − y12 + R 12 − R 2 2
C3 = x 2 2 + y 2 2 − x 3 2 − y 32 + R 32 − R 2 2
The delay times are typically calculated using correlations (see spread-
spectrum, CDMA).What we need is to solve the segment. massimizzation

M ⋅Tc 
max  ∫ p ' (t − τ ) ⋅ p (t )dt 
τ  
 0
a(t) s(t)=a(t) p(t) s(t)=a(t) p(t) a(t)
Filtro
Despread.
p(t) p’(t-τ)
Synchroniz.

Or roughly by delays in sending packets of bits

(GSM: Timing Advance; DVB-T: Null symbols)

TOA need a time reference


Location parameters: difference between propagation delays
⇒ between distance of terminal and several RSs

(minimum) number of RS: 3

Need synchronizations beetween system’s component; may
not be necessary to know the times of transmission ("filtered"
by difference)
 ti and tj are the delays refers to RS i and j,: we look at the
temporal difference between thi two delay. ρij difference of
the distances "associated" with these delays, the coordinates
(xM,yM) of the terminal must satisfy the following equation

( )
ρij = c ⋅ t i − t j = (x i − x M )2 + (y i − y M )2 − (x j − x M )2 + (y j − y M )2
That is the equation of a hyperbola with the fires in RS i and j

Solving the system of two equations obtained for example from

(i, j) = (1,2), (1.3) we obtain:

Ax 2M + Bx M + C = 0
 ⇒ (x M , y M )
y M = mx M + b 

(A, B, m, b function of the measured delays and the positions of

the SB)
The easiest way to calculate the difference between
two delay times is to separately calculate the 2 delays,
and then make a difference.

 Another possibility is to maximize the cross-

correlation of the received signals, that is calculate
T
1
max C1, 2 (τ ) = max ∫ r1 (t ) ⋅ r2 (t + τ ) dt
τ τ T 0
where ri(t) represents the signal received by base station i.

r1 ( t ) = s( t )
r2 ( t ) = As( t − τ)
The multipath’s 'signature‘ is given
by amplitude, and / or delays and / or
angles of arrival of different path
 Azimuth
4
(gradi) Each scenario has a position
Delay(us) within the "spectrum"
characteristic delays and
2
arrival directions => these
wide band features can be
associated with the position
0 and then used for
-180 0 180 localization
Many systems are time-based radiolocation (TOA or TDOA) => is important
to characterize each system in terms of resolution power that is the
minimum change detectable time perceptible;

The temporal resolution is of course the accuracy of the measure, and

thus determines the minimum error introduced by the measurement
procedure

Can be identified 4 categories of systems

1.narrowband
2.wideband
3.Ultra wideband
4.Super-resolution

narrowband system:a first approximation, estimate the
propagation delay from the phase shift between the signal
transmitted and received

2π r
∆φ = β ⋅ r = ⋅ r = 2πf ⋅ = ω ⋅ τ
λ c
∆φ
τ=
st(t) = A⋅cos(2πf)st(t) = A⋅cos(2πf-∆φ) ω

time resolution (precision of measure of τ) depends

essentially on the precision of measurement of the phase
shift

Wideband system: using signals Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

(DS-SS) and thus the propagation delay is estimated by means of
cross-correlation between the received code and its locally
generated replica.
The time resolution is then given approximately by the time chips
Tc ≈ 1/B
Ultra wideband: systems based on the transmission of pulse
nonmodulated and very short (with a band so very high -
typically at least 500 MHz).
The time resolution is then given approximately by the pulse
duration is ≈ 1/B

Super-resolution system: by an appropriate survey of the channel and its
post-process, the information obtained, allow a time resolution much
boosted (on the order of nsec)

So far we have spoken of the resolution due to the characteristics of the

system and the measurement procedure, that is assuming ideal conditions
of propagation.
In real conditions (multipath) the precision degrades in general, to an
extent which depends on the capacity of the system of supporting and
manage the multiple paths.
AoA systems also can be characterized in terms of resolving
power (spatial or angular), which is the minimum detectable
angular distance, perceptible;

The angular resolution is of course the accuracy of the

measure, and thus determines the minimum error introduced
by the measurement procedure

The search for the arrival directions through the proper

orientation of the radiation pattern of adaptive antennas
requires a resolution proportional to the amplitude of the
main lobe of the antenna

There are super-spatial resolution techniques, which allow to

obtain a fairly high angular resolution
 Example: direction finding
2 paths with angular distance = 5o

adaptive antenna (4 elements)

The two paths can not be clearly resolved

MUSIC

The two paths can be clearly resolved

 The goodness of a positioning system depends primarily on the
accuracy of localization, and therefore the probability that is
ep ≤ emax (emax: maximum acceptable error)

However, there are other important parameters and indicative of the

reliability of the system:
Blocking Rate: probability that a request for positioning is lost or is
satisfied with an accuracy less than the threshold required

Coverage: Service Area within which the localization is done with

reasonable accuracy (NOTE: may be different from the area covered by
the network for the "usual")

Capacity: number of simultaneous requests that the tracking system

is able to dispose

Delay end-to-end speed of system response to a request for location

(too high delays are unnecessary service)
 Errors due to inaccuracies of the system

 Errors due to multipath Depend on

the
propagation
 Errors due to NLOS propagation environment

4-Errors due to the reduction of hearability:

- Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP)
- For tracking systems based on cellular network:
- Multiple Access Interference (MAI) effect
  System’s inaccuracies
- Each measurement is intrinsically affected by errors, lack
of precision measuring instruments and / or the
measurement procedure
examples:
-- Errors in the position of BSS;
-- Location of errors in the measured parameters
-- timing measurements: the accuracy depends on the
temporal resolution of the system;
-- angular measurements: the accuracy depends on the
spatial resolution of the system;
-Each measurement errors obviously has an impact on the
accuracy of the position estimate
Differential measurements can delete, filter type systematic
errors
  Multipath (1/2)

Interference between different paths
causes significant fluctuations in
received power received;

The fading makes it practically
unreliable methods based on the
estimation of power;

The fading also affects the algorithms
time/ direction based because:
the measure can not be made if the
signal from a given RS is too low
(hearability reduction);
  Multipath (2/2)
Each radiolocation system itself is more or less capable of
multipath rejection, or to "fix", to distinguish and separately
manage the paths received.

In particular, for time-based systems

- narrowband systems: particularly susceptible to performance
degradation due to multipath;
- wideband systems: potentially able to resolve paths with
different propagation delays for at least one time chip are
therefore less plagued by multipath, which is still a serious
problem
- ultra wideband systems, super-resolution: particularly
suitable to ensure good immunity to multipath

In any case, the ability to separate and distinguish the different

contributions received is translated into actual ability to make a
reliable estimate of position only under conditions LOS
  NLOS Propagation

The absence of geometric visibility between the terminals always
introduces an error on the estimation of the position;
position;

Direction based methods can be extremely inefficient because in NLOS

conditions can occur that no contribution has a direction of arrival close to
the direction of the link geometric

Time-based methods can be extremely inefficient because in NLOS

conditions can happen that all the paths have lengths significantly greater
than the geometric distance between the terminals.

The distance between the terminals is always overestimated (we talk of
NLoS bias ⇒ error of ≈ 500 – 700 m).
The error is systematic, then a type, and therefore can be partially
corrected by adopting differential methods (TDOA)
 NLoS Error and

µ-cellular coverage coverage
All received
contributions have a
propagation delays
significantly higher of
LOS delay => big
localization error

Cover small cell / macro cell is most suitable to limit location errors due
to NLOS conditions
Contribution Over Roof Tops:
• "Reasonably" the strongest
• propagation delay
approximately equal to LoS
• direction of arrival
approximately equal to LoS
 Impact of errors on
Location Algorithms

System error+ multipath error+ NLoS error determinane:

1. inevitable errors in estimating the location parameters => error in

the estimation of the position;
2. Need to revise, reformulate the localization algorithm, since it can
happen that the line of position not only doesn’t pass more to the
point coinciding with the position of the terminal to be located, but
that no longer intersect at a single point
-Heuristic methods;
-Analytical methods;
Heuristic methods for positioning -
case ToA
- The 3 circles no longer pass
through the point that identifies the
location of the cabinet;

- Up to 6 distinct points of
intersection;

- Heuristic method (example):

assumed the position of the mobile
is at the intersection of 3 lines
passing through the 3 pairs of points
of intersection (see figure)
 Heuristic methods for positioning - case
ToA

The 3 hyperbole no longer pass
Mobile
through the point that identifies the
location of the cabinet;

up to a maximum of 12 distinct
points of intersection;

Euristic Method (example):

o Looking at the sign of ρij, is possible to select for each hyperbole only
one branch (if ρij > 0 mobile is near RSi, otherwise is near RSj) ⇒
maximum number of intersection point is reduced to 6
o It identifies the pair of points at minimum distance and assumes the
position of furniture in the mid-point between them
 Least Squares Method

The position of the terminal can be estimated using the method of least
squares, ie by finding the point of coordinates (x, y) that minimize the sum
of the distances from the points of intersection of 3 lines of position
associated with the 3 parameters measured

Example (TOA): limited to just 3 points from their closest

I4

I6 (xˆ, yˆ ) thatMINIMIZE d = d1 + d 2 + d 3
I3 I1
I2

I5

the use of a number of redundant lines of position (> 3) may in some cases
increase the accuracy
 Gradient Descent Method (1/5)

Definition:
(x, y) : mobile effective position (unknown);
D i = dist (x i , y i , x , y ) : effective geometric distance between (x̂, ŷ )
and RS ima;
D̂ i = dist (x i , y i , x̂ , ŷ ) : stimated mobile position (to be calculated and
optimizated);
D̂ i
T̂i = : propagation delay between estimated position and RS
c
i-esima;
 Gradient Descent Method (2/5)
r  t1 − T̂1 
Error function: r r  
E = t − T̂ =  t 2 − T̂2 
 t − T̂ 
 3 3

Cost function: 2
( )2 2
( )
2 2
(
Σ = α1 ⋅ t1 − T̂1 + α2 ⋅ t 2 − T̂2 + α3 ⋅ t 3 − T̂3
ˆ ˆ ˆ )2

(usually we have α1=α2=α3 and so Σ = | E | )

 Gradient Descent Method (3/5)
actual position of the terminal (unknown). The
values ​t1, t2 and t3 are measured at that point

ti = Di/c Estimated position by

T̂i = D̂ i / c algorithm

In ideal measurment and propagation condition we have (x̂, ŷ ) = (x, y )

and so Σ = 0 ⇒ the vanishing of the function Σ guarantee the accuracy of
the estimate, and viceversa.
Note the under ideal conditions ti = Di/c

So just look for the position corresponding to values ​that cancel the
function Σ to be sure that the position estimated as the same as that
actually occupied

Σ = 0 ⇒ T̂i = t i ⇒ D i = D̂ i i = 1,2,3 ⇒ (x̂ , ŷ ) = (x , y )

 Gradient Descent Method (4/5)

In real propagation and measurement
condition, we have that ti ≠ Di/c (due to
system error, multipath, error, etc..)

And so (x̂, ŷ ) = (x, y ) ⇔ Σ=0

ti ≠ Di/c

T̂i = D̂i / c

However, generalizing the ideal case, it is reasonable to assume that the

best estimate of the position coincides with the values

that correspond to the minimum of the function Σ

To calculate the minimum of the function Σ can be used known

minimization algorithms (example: Gradient Descent Method)
 Gradient Descent Method (4/4)
Fixed RSs ‘s postition and measured times t1, t2 e t3, the cost
function Σ depend only by estimated position (x̂, ŷ)
(x̂, ŷ )⇒ (D̂1 , D̂ 2 , D̂3 )⇒ (T̂1 , T̂2 , T̂3 )⇒ Σ Initial estimate
rnew = (x̂ 0 , ŷ 0 )
r

So we can write:
Σ = Σ(x̂ , ŷ ) Updated estimate Current estimate
rnew = (x̂ new , ŷ new ) = rc + ∇Σ c rc = (x̂ c , ŷ c ) = rnew
r r r r

Gradient calculation Cost calculation

∇Σ c = ∇Σ (x̂ c , ŷ c ) Σ c = Σ(x̂ c , ŷ c )

NO
Σc≤ ε ?
(x̂ 0 , ŷ0 )
YES
(x̂ 2 , ŷ2 ) (x̂1, ŷ1 )
(x̂, ŷ ) = (x̂ c , ŷ c )
Example (1/4)
- urban circolar scenario (R = 5km)
“Manhattan like”

- Building average height= 15 m

- Building average size= 80 m / average

width of roads = 30 m ⇒ number of
building= 6517

- 12 fixed external Stations far 6 km from

the city center and with a height of 25 m

- Numeber of simulated receiver= 3524

 Example (2/4)

Probability density of the

position estimation error:
-TDoA:
<e> ≈ 11 m, σe ≈ 39 m
-ToA
<e> ≈ 15 m, σe ≈ 50 m

At the same built-up area, the estimation error increases with the number
of buildings

Equal the number of buildings, the estimation error increases as the

average height of buildings
 Example (3/4)
• Network of 12 Fixed stations ouotside the village (<hFS> = 25 m)
•Network of 12 Fixed stations interneinside the village (<hFS> = <hbuild> = 15 m)

ToA

<e> ≈ 15 m, σe ≈ 50 m

<e> ≈ 50 m, σe ≈ 65 m

The position estimation error increases very significantly with decreasing

height of the RSs, confirming the fact that the macro cell coverage is the
most appropriate location for the radio
 Example (4/4)

The results shown in the example refer to the estimated position obtained
by heuristic methods

Using the statistical approach, the results are slightly (10%) best (which
shows the meaningfulness of the proposed heuristic methods), but at a
price of more computation time (2-3 orders of magnitude)
 Hearability Reduction: GDOP (1/2)

Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDoP)
GDoP)
 The estimate of the position requires that the mobile is visible (at least)
a certain minimum number of RSs.
 In practice, not only the number but also the actual arrangement of RSs
has seen a significant impact on accuracy.

 Each configuration can be associated with a parameter (GDoP, always ≥

1) which quantifies the "goodness" of the configuration for the same
determination. The value of GDoP appears as a multiplicative factor in
calculating the total estimation error.
 If we call σm the position error due to the measurment of the location
parameters and σtot the final total error, we have,

σtot = GDoP ⋅ σm
 Hearability reduction: GDOP (2/2)
 RSs distributed in a very large volume (large solid angle) =>low
GDoP => favorable situation
RSs distributed in a small volume (small solid angle) =>GDoP high
=>not favorable situation

 It is used to distinguish between Vertical and Horizontal GDoP GDoP,

indicating the impact of the provision of RSs on the estimation of the
vertical position (height) and horizontal (latitude, longitude)
 EXAMPLE
 a) in the GPS system, typical values ​are in the range GDoP between 3 and 4;
 b) with respect to the previous example, the choice of equidistant RSs (ie
the vertices of an equilateral triangle) is more favorable than other
  Hearability reduction: MAI (1/3)

Multiple Access Interference (MAI)
- in a cellular system, the power transmitted by each mobile is calibrated
to be properly received by the serving BS, similarly, the power transmitted
by a BS are calibrated to be properly received by the furniture inside the
cell respectively (this is particularly true in CDMA systems implement
power control mechanisms);

- Location-based mobile network necessarily includes a mobile "listen"

even other than serving BSS, BS, or that a "listen" even outdoor furniture
belonging to the cell, in which case, however, the power levels may be
inadequate and too caught signals, thus leading to a poor estimate of the
parameter measured and then an error on the measurement of position.
  Hearability reduction: MAI (2/3)
cell 2

BS2
cell 0

BS0

cell 1

BS1

The power transmitted by the mobile is properly calibrated to be received

by bs0 (and vice versa), which may not be suitable for being received in a
satisfactory manner by the BSS 1 and 2 for the excessive interference
produced by other links in place (Multiple Access Interference)
  hearability reduction: MAI (3/3)
How to limit the effect of MAI?

The soft handover (CDMA) in itself helps because the mobile is

connected simultaneously with multiple BSS;

Have defined specific location technologies to limit the problem of MAI

(CDMA systems):

Idle Period Down Link (IPDL): The signals transmitted by the BSS (other than
those necessary for positioning) are interrupted for short intervals of
time, thus reducing the level of interference thus allowing more accurate
measurements to mobile

Time Aligned IPDL: the idle periods are introduced in the transmission line
of BSS (BSS transmit all the idle periods in only the pilot signals for
positioning) =>increase hearibility and then precision
There are several possibilities to implement the chosen method:
- Solutions or self-positioning-based handsets: measures of
estimated parameters and locations of position made ​by the
mobile (higher cost of the terminal, more accurately)
- Solutions Remote-or network-based positioning: measures of
the estimated parameters and locations of position made ​by the
network (lower cost of the terminal, but less accurately)
- Hybrid (hybrid solutions):
-Handset-based solutions, network-assisted: the mobile
network can help in the localization process, sending signals
auxiliary coordinates of reference points, timing information, ...
- Network-based solutions, handset-assisted: the mobile
performs measurements and sends them to the network that will
calculate the position

 In the case of time-based methods and asynchronous

networks, it is necessary to use Location Measurement
Unit (LMU) in a known position to calculate the offset
transmission

Cellular System
(GSM, UMTS)

Ultra Wideband System

Cellular systems can be considered Proximity / radiolocation Systems, where base
stations are of course used as fixed reference stations
Create a system of radio-network phone is not a trivial task:

- hardware modifications and / or software to the network and / or mobile terminals

- the need for new services and lower costs for operators to consider solutions based
on leading mobile networks in addition to GPS-Based Solutions
- location-based services require highly variable accuracy
U.S.: E911 Directive of the FCC (Federal Communications Commission)

r r
Location error:
error: e p = Pstimata − Preale

FCC (2001): Prob{

Prob{ep < 125 m} = 0.67

In the future: Prob{

Prob{ep < 13 m} = 0.90 ep
real

predicted
 Tecnologie
per il GSM

Cell ID+TA Uplink-TOA E-OTD GPS Based

Hyperbolic version Circular version Stand-alone GPS Assisted-GPS

(vedi fig.TDOA) (vedi fig.TOA)

E-OTD: Enhanced-
Enhanced-Observed Time Difference
 The position of the cabinet is
essentially derived from
knowledge of the identifier of the
BS / serving area and the extent
of the propagation time between
mobile and BS / sector.

System of low accuracy

•It 'probably the most advantageous technology for GSM;

The location parameter is the MS-BS propagation delay, measured

from the cabinet (The arrival time is calculated over multiple
bursts transmitted on the channel BCCH SCH)

Because the system is asynchronous is necessary to adopt a

number of Location Measurement Unit (LMU) in a known position.
Each LMU therefore knows a list of BSS by "listening" in order to
evaluate the transmit offset

You can have a hyperbolic version (TDOA) and a circular version

(ToA)

SCH: signalling channel burst

BCCH: broadcast control channel
LMU
TL1 tx1

TL3 TL2
tx2

tx3
1) MOT (Observed Time at the MS) → {MOT1, MOT2}.
2) LOT (Observed Time at the LMU) → {LOT1, LOT2}.
3) OTD (Observed Time Difference): difference between the times
of arrival measured:
OTD12MS = MOT
OTD12 MOT1– MOT
MOT2;
OTD12
OTD12LMU = LOT1
LOT1– LOT2
LOT2.
NOTE: The OTD is not the actual propagation time difference,
because the transmission times of TX1 and TX2 2 BSS are in
general different
4) RTD (Real Time Difference): difference between the instants of
transmission of the BSS 2 (transmit offset):RTD
RTD = tx1 – tx2.
5) GTD (Geometric Time Difference): difference between the actual
propagation time (and 'the parameter is then calculated as a
function of the estimated position).
 Generally

GTD = OTD – RTD es: GTDMS=(T1-tx1)-(T2-tx2)= OTD12MS-RTD

Or for the geometric time difference referring to MS and LMU

a) GTDMS = OTDMS - RTD

b) GTDLMU = OTDLMU – RTD
Because BSs and LMUs are in a known position, GTDLMU is
known ⇒ the measure of OTDLMU allow us to have RTD from
b) ⇒ we can derive GTDMS from a), that is the hyperbole on
the considered pair of BSS
 Two possible solutions:
 - Network-based, handset-assisted: OTDs sends the mobile network, which
calculates the position and then GTDs, RTDs calculated by using the LMUs
 - Handset-based, Network assisted: the network calculates the RTDs and sends
them to the cabinet, along with the coordinates of the BSS and the mobile proceed
with the calculation of the position.
ToA-based technology approach, the downlink version.
MS and LMU measure the times of arrival of signals transmitted by
the BSS, without making a difference. We define:

MOT (see def. Above): measured value (then known);

LOT (see def. Above): measured value (then known)
DMB (geometrical Distance from MS to BS): unknown distance;
DLB (geometrical Distance from LMU to BS): known distance;

ε= tMS – tLMU, temporal offset between MS’s clock and LMU’s

clock.
These quantities are mutually related by
:
DMB(xMS,yMS) – DLB = c * (MOT-LOT-ε)
(MOT-LOT-
Because there are 3 unknown quantities (xMS, yMS, ε), are required at
least measures from 3 BSS

In practice the only difference between the two versions (hyperolic
and circular) and is the relations that exists between the
measurement errors and the uncertainty region, due to the
different technique used.
 Technology is based on the TDOA method, version uplink: Position
is the estimate of the network (network based) using the
measurements of the differences of the moments of arrival of the
signal transmitted from the well known MS and received at least 3
LMUs.

 The estimated ToA LMUs are sent by SMC, which calculates the
differences in pairs to eliminate the dependence on the unknown clock
MS.

 It is clear that in order for the measures to be meaningful, it is'

necessary that the network of LMUs is synchronized (using order
expensive atomic clocks or GPS, to be included in almost every cell
site).
It is based on the NAVSTAR-GPS satellite system:
- Constellation of 24 satellites arranged in 6 orbits at an
altitude of 20,200 km on the Earth's surface
- The satellites transmit signals to the land of DS-SS (DS-
Spread Spectrum) to the chip rate of 1,023 Mchip / s and the
carrier frequency 'of 1575.42 MHz, the transmitted signal
contains a "navigation message" that includes the' accurate
timing and description of the position of the satellite
broadcaster.

When 4 or more satellites are in line of sight, the receiver can calculate its
position by applying the technique ToA (It requires at least 4 measurements
because the variables are xMS, yMS, zMS and the offset of the internal clock of
the mobile than the absolute time reference to the GPS).
 2 versions available:
 Stand-alone GPS receiver is integrated in the MS full GPS. The
position calculation is carried out completely from the mobile
terminal (handset based).
 Assisted GPS: the estimate made ​by the MS position is aided and
accelerated by a 'proper GPS reference network that transmits to
the mobile data service that can improve the performance of the
GPS receiver (not fully) integrated (handset-based, network
assisted ).
 Advantages / disadvantages of choosing GPS
☺ LOS usual conditions
☺ contains rare multipath situations.
 the integration of a GPS receiver on MSs present significant
problems of cost, size and Power Consumption
 drastically reduced accuracy in rare situations even NLOS /
multipath.
 Comparison of various technologies GSM
Precisione del Disponibilità Controllo Velocità Costo dell’ Costo dell’
sistema commerciale della di upgrade di upgrade del
Privacy risposta rete terminale
Medio Basso
(LMU per RTD (modifiche
E-OTD 15 - 75m 2000 Possibile 2-5 s SW)
[1:2/4siti] e nuovi
elementi di rete)
150 m – 30km Minimo
Non
Cell ID (Raggio 1999 3s (Interfaccia MSC) Nullo
possibile
cellulare)
Cell ID Non
150 m– 1km 1999 5s Minimo Nullo
+ TA possibile
<50m in zona Medio Elevato (anche
Assisted - non urbana 5s- (nuovi elementi di +40%; impatto
Fine 2001 Possibile
GPS densa 1min rete) su dimensioni e
batterie)
Difficilmente Non Alto
TOA
<125m Non definite possibile <10 s (LMU per TOA e Nullo
based
RTD [~1:1siti])
AOA Difficilmente Non Alto
Non definite <10 s Nullo
based <125m possibile (Smart antennas)
 Tecnologie
per 3G

Cell ID+RTT OTDOA GPS Based

IPDL RNBP PE Stand-alone GPS Assisted-GPS

Standard IPDL TA-IPDL

 Cell ID + Round Trip Time: technology similar to Cell ID +

TA proposed for GSM

 GPS-based: similar to the proposed GSM based GPS

OTDOA: Observed Time Difference Of Arrival
extension to UMTS technology E-OTD-Hyperbolic version: TDOA
method is based on the version of the downlink.

Measurements taken from the cabinet by means of correlations on

the pilot channels broadcast CPIC (Common Pilot Channel),
transmitted by base stations and therefore present in the normal
operation of the network.

In the version of the UMTS FDD, the BSS are synchronized => such
In
as GSM is necessary to create a network of LMUs in the territory in
order to evaluate the RTDs.
 OTDOA: Observed TDOA
– IPDL: Idle Period DownLink
• TA-
TA-IPDL: Time Aligned-
Aligned-IPDL
– RNBP: Reference Node-Based Positioning
– PE: Positioning Elements
Ultra Wideband Radio location
 Ultra Wideband Systems

Definition: is defined as Ultra Wideband (UWB) radio
communication system that has an absolute bandwidth
(-10 dB) at least 500 MHz, a relative bandwidth> to
0.25

Principle of operation: it is a Pulse Radio (IR), ie based

on the transmission of very short duration pulses (100
ps -1 nsec) and not on the modulation of an RF Carrier
=> System carrier free, base-band or pulse

The transmission of extremely short duration pulses

clearly justifies the high-bandwidth
Transmit power and spectral characteristics (1 / 2)

To limit the risk of interference to other systems (high risk,
given the bandwidth of its UWB systems), have set precise
constraints at maximum power output of a UWB system

Maschera EIRP FCC - Indoor Maschera EIRP FCC - Outdoor

In fact, UWB systems are usually allocated in the band [3.1 - 10.6]
GHz, where, however, the value becomes the maximum allowed
EIRP (-41.3 dBm, is still quite low)
Transmit power and spectral characteristics (2/ 2)

reduced bandwidth and possibility of emission => power spectral density

(PSD) are extremely low and roughly constant
Waveforms for the Elementary pulse (2/ 2)

Base-band transmission of impulses + operating band

assigned to> 3.1 GHz => must use pulses whose spectrum
falls within the assigned band, and thus having insignificant
component continues; 1
s( t ) = [u(t) − u(t − Tp )]
Tp
1.Rectangular
1.Rectangular pulse
Tp : pulse duration;
u(t) : unit step function; component
continues not
s(t)
negligible =>
need to find the
most appropriate
waveforms

Tp t f
Waveforms for the Elementary pulse
2. Gaussian pulses:
2
t
− 
s( t ) = Ke  τ 
Gaussian pulse and its
derivatives
(to reduce continued)

3. Hanning Shaped pulse:

s( t ) = 0.5[1 − cos(2πf s t )]cos(2πf c t )
fc: center frequency
fs: a value that should
influences the overall
bandwidth

Hermite pulse and Modified Hermite pulse obtained as a solution of

appropriate differential equations
 Modulation

The absence of a radio frequency carrier of course does not mean
the absence of modulation, always necessary to transmit
information;

Most common modulation techniques for UWB systems :
I. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
information is transmitted by
varying the amplitude of the
transmitted pulse;

II.Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

information is transmitted by
varying the position on the
timing axis of the transmitted
pulse;

NOTE: Instead of a single pulse is used to transmit a

"train" of consecutive pulses
 Multiple Access

All schemes to classical multiple access radio channel (TDMA, FDMA,
CDMA) can be adequately replicated in UWB;

There is also a peculiar mode of access for UWB systems, called Time
Hopping (TH) and often associated with PPM modulation (TH-PPM):

Tb the bit time is divided into frames and each frame is further divided
into chips;

each user is assigned a unique chip for each frame;

chips are placed within the assigned pulses differently depending on the
information (bits) to be transmitted;

the assignment of the chips is by means of an appropriate code (known of
course to the transmitter and receiver)

We need synchronism between the terminals
 Example TH-
TH-PPM
User 1
code [1002]

2o chip del frame 1

1o chip del frame 2
1o chip del frame 3
3o chip del frame 4

The assignment of
appropriate codes
allow us to retrieve
the relevant
information.
 UWB advantages and disvantages (1/3)
☺ Low complexity (and therefore lower costs) of the devices;
☺ Low power consumption (<100 mW) by the devices;
☺ Potential immunity to multipath (potentially "solvable" because the very
short pulse duration implies a low pulse-on-pulse probability);
☺ High capacity due to the bandwidth
 S 

C = B ⋅ log 2 1 +  teorema di Shannon

 B ⋅ N0 

C: maximum channel capacity;

B: band ( > 500 MHz)
N0: Noise spectral density ( ∼ -114 dBm/Mhz)
S: useful received power
( S ∼ EIRP – Loss ≈ -41.3 dBm - 20⋅log10[4πR/λ] )
 Capacity - example

Under optimal conditions, you can reach and exceed 100 Mb / s over
distances of less than 10 m
UWB advantages and disvantages (2/3)
☺ Potential good ability to penetrate materials

o In general terms, the EM wave tends to interact weakly with objects of

very small compared to λ
o The penetration of the wave increases and in general with decreasing
frequency;
o The penetration properties are all the best as the band UWB
approaches the "continuous" (f = 0);
o The limitation imposed on the output power has effectively limited the
spectrum of a UWB system at frequencies> 3.1 GHz (λ <10 cm) =>
reduction of the effective penetration properties;
o The penetration is thus actually good in a relative sense, that is,
compared to systems that are narrower bandwidth allocation in the
same band (eg WLAN 5 GHz)
 UWB advantages and disvantages (3/3)
(3/3)
 Short-range, because of the limitation on the power emitted:
HR-UWB: maximum range of 10 m and maximum bit rate of 500 Mbps;
LR-UWB: maximum range of 90-100 my maximum bit rate of 800 Kbps;

 Distortion of the signal, because the band is so broad as to be sure> of

the channel coherence bandwidth

 Synchronization problems in reception due to the extremely short

duration pulses (TH-PPM)

 Characterization of satellite dishes and broadband devices: it is not

immediately able to identify devices to ensure a constant behavior over a
wide bandwidth so => increases the distortion introduced by the devices
 Radiolocation via UWB
☺ Band-
Band-width => potentially very accurate
temporal resolution (uncertainty qualitatively
equal to the pulse duration)
☺ Example:
Example: B of about 1 GHz => max. max.
measurement error of about 30 cm

☺ UWB systems are envisaged as naturally "self-

"self-
immune" over multiple paths (pulse-
(pulse-on-
on-pulse
probability <<1
<<1)

☺ Good penetration (although to be understood in a

relative sense) => increases the probability of
having a clear, detectable direct contribution
(though not LoS)
LoS)
 Short-range => mostly indoor location
 Application - Example
1. Multispectral (www.multispectral.com)
Commercialization of an ultra wideband precision asset location system,
IEEE Conference on Ultra Wideband System and Technologies, November
2003
2. Timedomain (www.timedomain.com)

3. Ubisense (www.ubisense.net)
UWB (ultrawideband) technology is used because it combines a high level
of accuracy with low infrastructure investment. Once installed, Ubisense
typically can deliver up to 30cm 3D accuracy in real-time with the ability
to monitor thousands of people and assets…
2. Aether Wire and Location (www.aetherwire.com)
3. Uraxs (www.uraxs.com)
……