FACULTY OF INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

MARA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN INFORMATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT

IM245

INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT

MGT400

Title:

Assignment 1

Prepared by:
Mohammad Suhairi Bin Shaari
2017421188
Raja Mohd Muzzamil Bin Raja Chik
2017478016

Prepare For:

Sobariah Bt Awang Mukhtar

Submission Date:

15th April 2018

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to gratefully acknowledge the contribution of several people who have helped
us to complete the assignment. We would like to convey our grateful thanks to our groups’
member for their valuable contribution in the preparation of this assignment. Second, we
would like to thank to all our colleagues in Introduction to Management courses for their
encouragement, support and valuable inputs. We would like to express our grateful thanks to
Madam Sobariah Bt Awang Mukhtar Lecturer of Introduction to Management for giving us
the freedom to complete the task, give good explanation, encourage and support that we need.
Her dynamic leadership is very much appreciated. Last but not least, we would like to thank
the one who is above all for giving us the strength, motivation and guidance to successfully
complete this assignment.

INTRODUCTION

Successful businesses understand the importance of managing critical resources. From

employees to materials it is widely known that managing these resources correctly can lead to
success. One resource that is often overlooked is information. "Decision makers are beginning
to understand that information is not just a by-product of conducting business; rather, it fuels
business and can be the critical factor in determining the success or failure of a business.

Managing information saves valuable time. Managers who do not effectively manage
information must endure the grueling process of sifting through reports, mail, memos, files etc
to compile necessary information. If information is managed correctly it can be channeled in a
timely and appropriate manner. When this type of management is implemented it provides a
firm wide, systematic approach to the compiling, storage, and use of information C Michaelis,
public presentation.
1) Discuss several factors that influenced the evolution of management thought .

This is an important question and there are many factors that influence the evolution of
management thought. But i will list five factors that influenced the evolution of management
thought.

Firstly is economic influences is the availability, production , and distribution of resources

within a society. Secondly is Social influences aspects of a culture that influences
interpersonal relationships. Also the aspects of culture that influences norms and values.

Thirdly is Political influences impact of political institutions on individuals and

organizations. Because the politic control by goverment and need to follow the policy. Such
an election or be around for the next 20 years can either make or lose profit. meaning that
stock market reflects these too.

Fourth is Technological influences advances and refinements in any of the devices that are
used in conjuction with conducting business. As you know , we live in a very volatile world.
Things can change in an instant. A good management team knows this and even sees it
coming. For example , Apple computer changed their model quite a bit. They started with
computers and now they are in the TV world, music world, and phone world.

Fifth is Global influences is the pressures to improve quality,productivity and costs as

organizations attempt to compete in the worldwide marketplace. A good management team
also knows that the market is now global. So they will evolve as they broaden thier horizons
to an international market.

readerofbooks. "List and describe the major factors that influenced the evolution of
management thought." eNotes, (27 Oct. 2011) Retreived from
https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/list-describe-major-factors-that-influenced-289736.
https://www.slideshare.net/amdshah/mgt420-ch02
2) Discuss the skills needed by manager according to their level.

Business owners are entrepreneurs until they become managers. When they become
managers, they will start to feel frustrated because then they will need to deal with totally new
type of problems, managerial problems.

Management is not a simple task. It needs knowledge and experience. Because of that, there is
existence of hierarchy, organizational structure, and possibilities for each organizational
member with adequate knowledge, experience and skills to move from the bottom to the
middle and top level of managerial pyramid.

Simply, managerial skills are the knowledge and ability of the individuals in a managerial
position to fulfill some specific managerial activities or tasks. This knowledge and ability can
be learned and practiced. However, they also can be acquired through practical
implementation of required activities and tasks. Therefore, each skill can be developed
through learning and practical experience of the individuals.

Three Types of Managerial Skills

Robert Katz identifies three types of skills that are essential for a successful management
process:
● Technical,
● Conceptual
● Human or interpersonal management skills.

Technical Skills
As the name of these skills tells us, they give the manager’s knowledge and ability to use
different techniques to achieve what they want to achieve. Technical skills are not related only
for machines, production tools or other equipment, but also they are skills that will be
required to increase sales, design different types of products and services, market the products
and services.
For example, let’s take an individual who works in the sales department and have high
developed sales skills obtained through education and experience in his department or the
same departments in different organizations. Because of these skills that he possesses, this
person can be a perfect solution to become sales manager. This is the best solution because he
has great technical skills related to the sales department.

On the other hand, the person who becomes sales manager will start to build his next type of
required skills. It is because if his task until now was only to work with the customers as sales
representative, now he will need to work with employees in the sales department as addition
to the work with customers.

Technical skills are most important for the first-level managers. Whet it comes to the top
managers, these skills are not something with high significance level. As we go through a
hierarchy from the bottom to higher levels, the technical skills lose their importance.

Conceptual Skills
Conceptual skills present knowledge or ability of a manager for more abstract thinking. That
means he can easily see the whole through analysis and diagnosis of different states. In such a
way they can predict the future of the business or department as a whole.

As a first, a company contain more business elements or functions as selling, marketing,

finance, production. All these business elements have different goals even completely
opposed goals. Think about marketing and production as a business function and their specific
goals. You’ll see the essential difference. The conceptual skills will help managers to look
outside their department’s goals. So, they will make decisions that will satisfy overall
business goals.

Conceptual skills are vital for top managers, less important for mid-level managers, and not
required for first-level managers. As we go from a bottom of the managerial hierarchy to the
top, the importance of these skills will rise.
Human or Interpersonal Managerial Skills
Human or interpersonal managerial skills present a manager’s knowledge and ability to work
with people. One of the most important management tasks is to work with people. Without
people, there will not be a need for existence of management and managers.

These skills will enable managers to become leaders and motivate employees for better
accomplishments. Also, they will help them to make more effective use of human potential in
the company. Simply, they are the most important skills for managers.Interpersonal
management skills are important for all hierarchical levels in the company.Are There More
Management Skills

These are the basic skills required for a successful management as a process. Some authors
also mention other skills related to management skills. But, when I think about, they are
simply part of these three types of primary skills.

Let’s take an example with controlling skills. The controlling can’t be a skill, but rather a
process, or one of the managerial functions. Managers are controlling their employees
through their interpersonal managerial skills that we already described. Other additional skills
that I find in the theory are decision making skills. Again, decision making is a process and
not the skill. When we have conceptual skills, we will make a better decision. Furthermore,
when we have technical skills, we will make a better technical decision. I think that the basic
skills all managers will need are skills explained as technical, conceptual, and interpersonal
managerial skills.

Dragan Sutevski.(2012) MANAGERIAL SKILLS – 3 TYPES OF SKILLS EACH

MANAGER WILL NEED. Retrieved from
http://www.entrepreneurshipinabox.com/202/managerial-skills/
3) Explain on the following :
a) Two types of span of management

Span of Control means the number of subordinates that can be managed efficiently and
effectively by a superior in an organization. It suggests how the relations are designed
between a superior and a subordinate in an organization. Span of control is of two types:

Narrow span of control: Narrow Span of control means a single manager or supervisor
oversees few subordinates. This gives rise to a tall organizational structure.
Wide span of control: Wide span of control means a single manager or supervisor oversees a
large number of subordinates. This gives rise to a flat organizational structure.

There is an inverse relation between the span of control and the number of levels in hierarchy
in an organization, i.e. , narrower the span, the greater is the number of levels in an
organization.

Narrow span of control is more expensive as compared to wide span of control as there are
more number of superiors and therefore there are greater communication problems between
various levels of management. Wide span of control is best suited when the employees are not
widely scattered geographically, as it is easy for managers to be in touch with the
subordinates and to supervise them.
In case of narrow span of control, there are comparatively more opportunities for growth as
the number of levels are more. The more efficient and organized the superiors are in
performing their tasks, the better it is to have wide span of management. The less motivated
and confident the employees are, the better it is to have a narrow span of management so that
the supervisors can spend time with them and supervise them well. The more standardized is
the nature of work ,like - if same task can be performed using same types of inputs, the better
it is to have a wide span of management as more number of employees can be supervised by a
single supervisor. There is more flexibility, prompt decision making, effective communication
between higher level and lower level management, and improved customer interaction in case
of wide span of management. Technological advancement such as internet, emails, mobile
phones, etc. makes it easy for superiors to widen their span of control as there is more
effective communication.

An ideal span of control according to modern authors is around 15 to 20 subordinates per

manager, while according to the traditional authors the ideal number is around 6 subordinates
per manager. In reality, the ideal span of control depends upon various factors, such as:

 Nature of an organization
 Nature of job
 Skills and competencies of manager
 Employees skills and abilities
 The kind of interaction that takes happens between superiors and subordinates, etc

Himanshu Juneja.(2008,26 Dec) Span of Control in an Organization. Retrieved from

http://www.selfgrowth.com/articles/Span_of_Control_in_an_Organization.html
b) Interpersonal roles of managers as introduce by Mintzberg

The role of 'manager' sound simple enough, but anyone who has ever served as a manager
knows that it is far more complex than it might sound at first. Being a leader in any
organization is a complicated and challenging task that can take on a variety of forms
depending on the needs of the organization and the people that are being led. Any given
manager may be asked to complete a variety of tasks during a given day depending on what
comes up and what problems need to be solved.

This is the general idea behind Mintzberg's Management Roles. These ten management roles
were published as part of Mintzberg's book in 1990, and they cover the spectrum of tasks and
responsibilities that a manager must take on at one point or another.
Mintzberg’s Management Roles
In order to better organize a long list of ten roles, they have been divided up into three
categories - interpersonal, informational, and decisional. Below we will look at each of the ten
roles, what they mean for the manager, and which of the three categories they fit into.

Mintzberg’s Management Roles - Interpersonal Roles

Figurehead
One of the important roles of a leader is simply to be a figurehead for the rest of the group.
This is one of the interpersonal roles, because so much of it is about being someone that
people can turn to when they need help, support, etc. A good leader will project confidence so
that everyone involved feels a sense of security and reassurance that the job will be done
right.

Leader
Another interpersonal role, this one should be obvious. A manager needs to lead the people
that he or she is in charge of guiding toward a specific goal. This can include telling them
what to do and when to do it, organizing the structure of the team members to highlight
specific skills that each possesses, and even offering rewards for a job well done.

Liaison
The final role within the interpersonal category, acting as a liaison means that the manager
must successfully interface with a variety of people - both within the organization and on the
outside - to keep things running smoothly. This point is all about communication, and it is one
of the main things that determines the ultimate success or failure of a manager. Being able to
properly communicate with a range of people in such a way that the project remains on track
is a crucial skill to develop.
Mintzberg’s Management Roles - Informational Roles

Monitor
Acting as a monitor is the first managerial role within the informational category. Just as the
word would indicate, being a monitor involves tracking changes in the field that your
organization works in, as well as changes on your team that might be signs of trouble down
the road. Things are never static in business, so the successful manager is one who will
constantly monitor the situation around them and make quick changes as necessary.

Disseminator
It does no good as a manager to collect information from a variety of internal and external
sources if you are only going to keep it for yourself. The point of gathering that information is
so that your team can benefit from it directly, so the next informational role is dissemination -
getting information out quickly and effectively to the rest of your team. Wasted time by the
team members on a certain part of a project often has to do with them not possessing all of the
relevant information, so make sure they have it as soon as possible.

Spokesperson
As the head of a team of any size or role within the organization, you will be the
representative of that team when it comes to meetings, announcements, etc. Being a
spokesperson is the final informational role on the list, and it is an important one because
perception is often a big part of reality. Even if your team is doing great work, it might not be
reflected as such to other decision makers in the organization if you aren't a good
spokesperson.
Mintzberg’s Management Roles - Decisional Roles

Entrepreneur
In some ways, being a manager within a larger organization is like running your own small
business. While you will have managers above you to answer to, you still need to think like an
entrepreneur in terms of quickly solving problems, thinking of new ideas that could move
your team forward, and more. This is the first role within the decisional category on the list.

Disturbance Handler
It is almost inevitable that there will be disturbances along the way during any kind of project
or task that involves more than one person. The second item in the decisional section of the
list is being a disturbance handler, because getting back on track after a problem arises is
important to short-term and long-term productivity. Whether it is a conflict among team
members or a bigger problem outside of the group, your ability to handle disturbances says a
lot about your skills as a manager.

Resource Allocator
Every project is tackled using resources that are limited in some way or another. As a resource
allocator, it is your job to best use what you have available in order to get the job done and
meet your defined goals and objectives. Resources can include budget that has been made
available for a project, raw materials, employees, and more. This is the third item within the
decisional category, yet it is one of the most important things a manager must do.
Negotiator
Business is all about negotiation, and that is especially true for managers. The final role on the
list, being a negotiator doesn't just mean going outside of the organization to negotiate the
terms of a new deal. In fact, most of the important negotiation will take place right within
your own team itself. Getting everyone to buy in to the overall goal and vision for a project
likely will mean negotiating with individual team members to get them to adopt a role that
suits their skills and personal development goals. A good manager will be able to negotiate
their way through these challenges and keep the project on track for success.

Helen Bristoll.(2015) Mintzberg's Management Roles. Retrieved from http://www.free-

management-ebooks.com/faqld/leadmodels-01.htm.

3) Centralization and decentralization

Centralization is said to be a process where the concentration of decision making is in a few
hands. All the important decision and actions at the lower level, all subjects and actions at the
lower level are subject to the approval of top management. According to Allen,
“Centralization” is the systematic and consistent reservation of authority at central points in
the organization. The implication of centralization can be :-

● Reservation of decision making power at top level.

● Reservation of operating authority with the middle level managers.
● Reservation of operation at lower level at the directions of the top level.

Under centralization, the important and key decisions are taken by the top management and
the other levels are into implementations as per the directions of top level. For example, in a
business concern, the father & son being the owners decide about the important matters and
all the rest of functions like product, finance, marketing, personnel, are carried out by the
department heads and they have to act as per instruction and orders of the two people.
Therefore in this case, decision making power remain in the hands of father & son.
On the other hand, Decentralization is a systematic delegation of authority at all levels of
management and in all of the organization. In a decentralization concern, authority in retained
by the top management for taking major decisions and framing policies concerning the whole
concern. Rest of the authority may be delegated to the middle level and lower level of
management.

The degree of centralization and decentralization will depend upon the amount of authority
delegated to the lowest level. According to Allen, “Decentralization refers to the systematic
effort to delegate to the lowest level of authority except that which can be controlled and
exercised at central points.

Decentralization is not the same as delegation. In fact, decentralization is all extension of

delegation. Decentralization pattern is wider is scope and the authorities are diffused to the
lowest most level of management. Delegation of authority is a complete process and takes
place from one person to another. While decentralization is complete only when fullest
possible delegation has taken place. For example, the general manager of a company is
responsible for receiving the leave application for the whole of the concern. The general
manager delegates this work to the personnel manager who is now responsible for receiving
the leave applicants. In this situation delegation of authority has taken place. On the other
hand, on the request of the personnel manager, if the general manager delegates this power to
all the departmental heads at all level, in this situation decentralization has taken place. There
is a saying that “Everything that increasing the role of subordinates is decentralization and
that decreases the role is centralization”. Decentralization is wider in scope and the
subordinate’s responsibility increase in this case. On the other hand, in delegation the
managers remain answerable even for the acts of subordinates to their superiors.

Implications of Decentralization
There is less burden on the Chief Executive as in the case of centralization.
In decentralization, the subordinates get a chance to decide and act independently which
develops skills and capabilities. This way the organization is able to process reserve of talents
in it.
In decentralization, diversification and horizontal can be easily implanted.
In decentralization, concern diversification of activities can place effectively since there is
more scope for creating new departments. Therefore, diversification growth is of a degree.
In decentralization structure, operations can be coordinated at divisional level which is not
possible in the centralization set up.

In the case of decentralization structure, there is greater motivation and morale of the
employees since they get more independence to act and decide.
In a decentralization structure, co-ordination to some extent is difficult to maintain as there
are lot many department divisions and authority is delegated to maximum possible extent, i.e.,
to the bottom most level delegation reaches. Centralization and decentralization are the
categories by which the pattern of authority relationships became clear. The degree of
centralization and de-centralization can be affected by many factors like nature of operation,
volume of profits, number of departments, size of a concern, etc. The larger the size of a
concern, a decentralization set up is suitable in it.

Prachi Juneja. (2011) Centralization and Decentralization

https://www.managementstudyguide.com/centralization_decentralization.htm
4.Define planning. Discuss the limitations of planning and how to overcome it.
Planning can be defined as “thinking in advance what is to be done, when it is to be done,
how it is to be done and by whom it should be done”. In simple words we can say, planning
bridges the gap between where we are standing today and where we want to reach.
Planning involves setting objectives and deciding in advance the appropriate course of action
to achieve these objectives so we can also define planning as setting up of objectives and
targets and formulating an action plan to achieve them.
Another important ingredient of planning is time. Plans are always developed for a fixed time
period as no business can go on planning endlessly.
Planning is needed both in the business and non-business organizations. Some people think
that planning is based on the future anticipations and nothing can be said with certainty about
future. Therefore, it is a useless process.
In fact, these people point towards the difficulties in the way of planning. If planning has to be
successful and purposeful, the managers should be aware of these difficulties and limitations
of planning.

Following are the limitations of planning:

(1) Planning Creates Rigidity:
Although the quality of flexibility is inherent in planning, meaning thereby that in case of
need changes can be brought in, but it must be admitted that only small changes are possible.
Big changes are neither possible nor in the interest of the organisation.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Since it is not possible to introduce desired changes according to the changed situations, the
organisation loses many chances of earning profits. For this limited flexibility in planning,
both the internal as well as external factors are responsible. These facts are called internal and
external inflexibility.

They are the following:

(i) Internal Inflexibility:
At the time of planning the objectives of the organisation, its policies, procedures, rules,
programmes, etc. are determined. It is very difficult to bring in changes time and again. It is
known as internal inflexibility,
(ii) External Inflexibility:
External inflexibility means various external factors that cause limited flexibility in planning.
These factors are beyond the control of the planners. The chief among them are: political
climate, economic changes, technical changes, natural calamities, policies of the competitors,
etc.
For example, in political context, as a result of change, a new government brings up a new
trade policy, policy of taxation, import policy, etc. All these changes make every sort of
planning a meaningless waste. Similarly, a change in the policies of the competitors suddenly
makes all types of planning ineffective.

(2) Planning Does Not Work in a Dynamic Environment:

ADVERTISEMENTS:
Planning is based on the anticipation of future happenings. Since future is uncertain and
dynamic, therefore, the future anticipations are not always true. Therefore, to consider
planning as the basis of success is like a leap in the dark.
Generally, a longer period of planning makes it less effective. Therefore, it can be said that
planning does not work in dynamic environment.
For example, a company anticipated that the government was thinking about allowing the
export of some particular product. With this hope the same company started manufacturing
that product. But the government did not allow the export of this product. In this way, the
wrong anticipation proved all planning wrong or incorrect. It brought loss instead of profit.

(3) Planning Reduces Creativity:

Under planning all the activities connected with the attainment of objectives of the
organisation are pre-determined. Consequently, everybody works as they have been directed
to do and as it has been made clear in the plans.
Therefore, it checks their incisiveness. It means that they do not think about appropriate ways
of discovering new alternatives. According to Terry, “Planning strangulates the initiative of
the employees and compels them to work in an inflexible manner.”
(4) Planning Involves Huge Costs:
Planning is a small work but its process is really big. Planning becomes meaningful only after
traversing a long path. It takes a lot of time to cover this path.
During this entire period the managers remain busy in collecting a lot of information and
analysing it. In this way, when so many people remain busy in the same activity, the
organisation is bound to face huge costs.

(5) Planning is a Time-consuming Process:

Planning is a blessing in facing a definite situation but because of its long process it cannot
face sudden emergencies. Sudden emergencies can be in the form of some unforeseen
problem or some opportunity of profits and there has been no planning for all these situations
beforehand and which now requires immediate decision.
In such a situation, if the manager thinks of completing the planning process before taking
some decision, it may be possible that the situations may worsen or the chance of earning
profit may slip away. Thus, planning is time consuming and it delays action.

(6) Planning Does Not Guarantee Success:

Sometimes the managers think that planning solves all their problems. Such thinking makes
them neglect their real work and the adverse effect of such an attitude has to be faced by the
organisation.
In this way, planning offers the managers a false sense of security and makes them careless.
Hence, we can say that mere planning does not ensure success; rather efforts have to be made
for it.

Six Steps of Overcoming Goal Setting Barriers

Guidelines for making goal setting and planning effect by overcoming the barriers are;
1. Understand the Purposes and Limitations of Goals and Planning
Managers must understand the purpose of goal-setting and planning processes. The purpose of
goals and plans is; set a target and recognize the possible ways to reach the target. But setting
goal and making plans are not going to bring success to company.
Managers must understand they have limitations. And effective goals and planning do not
automatically safeguard success; modifications and exceptions are probable as time passes.
2. Communication and Participation
Although goals and plans may be initiated at high levels in the organization, they must also be
communicated to others in the lower level of the organization.
People responsible for achieving goals and implementing plans must have a voice in
developing them from the outset.
There are other reasons for this; the lower level managers always have valuable information
to contribute, and also they are the one who will be implementing the plans.
So involvement of them is critical. This equal participation and communication helps to set
proper goals and make appropriate plans and also works as a motivational tool.
Even when an organization; where the authority is centralized or they uses a planning staff,
managers must alert allow somewhat participation in planning to create a proper plan and set
right goals.

3. Consistency, Revision, and Updating

Goals should be consistent both horizontally and vertically.
Horizontal consistency means that goal’s should be consistent across the organization, from
one department to the next and vertical consistency means that goals should be consistent up
and down the organization-strategic, tactical, and operational goals must agree with one
another.
Unequal or inconsistence goals create bureaucratic problems in the organization. Goal setting
and planning are dynamic processes. So to get the best for them they must be revised and
updated frequently.

4. Effective Reward Systems

There should be a proper and fair reward and punishment system in the organization.
Before punishing, a manager must look at the reason for it which could be external and
beyond the employee’s control. Reasons for rewarding should be consistent and equal.

5. Encouraging Change and Motivating Employees

Frequent change is required to be competitive in this most competitive business world.
So employees must be motivated. Managers must show their employees that they trust their
ability and skills to bring success in the company.
Change is important but not always pleasant and welcome and there is fear that the change
may be good for them. So managers must encourage the employees to change.
6. Being Ready for Future Contingency
Business environment is unpredictable and full of risks.
So, managers must be good at understanding current situation both external and internal
factors; use them to predict and take precautions for confronting any future event that might
have a negative effect on the company.
Managers must be skilled and know how to approach any particular situation for overcoming
the barriers of goal setting and planning process.

iEduNote. (2017) Overcome Goal Setting Barriers in Organization. Retrieved from

https://iedunote.com/overcoming-goal-setting-barriers

Samiksha S. (2012) Importance of Planning: It’s Features, Limitations, Process and Types.
Retrieved from
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/organization/importance-of-planning-its-features-
limitations-process-and-types/8652

Samiksha S. (2018) 6 Main Limitations of Planning in Any Organizations. Retrieved from

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/organization/6-main-limitations-of-planning-in-any-
organizations/905
5.Discuss several types of organization structure.
This is going to be a five part post that explores various types of organizational structures
that either already exist in today's business landscape or are starting to emerge as viable
options for the future of work. Each post will explore one of these structures and then I'll
provide a final summary post on all five. These concepts and ideas are taken from my
book, The Future of Work: Attract New Talent, Build Better Leaders, and Create a
Competitive Organization. The five types of organizational structures that I will explore are:
The traditional hierarchy (part 1 is already available)
Flatter organizations (part 2 is already available)
Flat organizations (part 3 is already available)
Flatarchies (part 4 is already available)
Holacratic organizations (part 5 is already available)
Let's start with the structure we have all come to know and love...the hierarchy.

I've talked about several workplace practices and approaches that are quite out-dated and the
hierarchy is one of them. According to Wikipedia, "possibly the first use of the English word
"hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1880, when it was used in
reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the
Areopagite (5th–6th centuries)." This model was quickly adopted by the military as a way to
show a chain of command and of course we have all seen and experienced this within our
organizations (and most still do).

This type of a model makes sense for linear work where no brain power is required and where
the people who work there are treated like expendable cogs. However, as the war for talent
continues to become more fierce, organizations around the world are quickly trying to figure
out alternatives to the hierarchy. In fact, every single organization I speak with, work with,
and research, is looking to flatten out their structure. Nobody ever tells me they want more
bureaucracy and more layers.

There are many challenges with this model but to name a few. Communication typically flows
from the top to the bottom which means innovation stagnates, engagement suffers, and
collaboration is virtually non-existent. This type of environment is riddled with bureaucracy
and is extremely sluggish. This is why the hierarchy is perhaps the biggest vulnerability for
any organization still employing it. It opens up the doors for competitors and new incumbents
to quickly take over. There is also no focus on the employee experience in this type of a
structure and as organizations around the world are exploring alternative organizational
models, those still stuck with the hierarchy are going to have one heck of a time trying to
attract and retain top talent.

The hierarchy has permeated virtually every company around the world regardless of size,
industry, or location. The greatest strength of the hierarchy used to be that it was so reliable at
maintain the status quo, which was exactly what companies wanted decades ago. However
what was once it's strength is now it's greatest weakness. The hierarchy is a very resilient
management structure that has been so embedded in how we work that most organizations
around the world are having a tedious time getting rid of it.
Today one thing is certain, the hierarchy belongs in a management museum locked up for
people to see, but not touch.
Jacob Morgan. (2015) The 5 Types Of Organizational Structures. Retrived from
https://www.forbes.com/sites/jacobmorgan/2015/07/06/the-5-types-of-organizational-
structures-part-1-the-hierarchy/#4405bcf65252

6.Explain two types of decision making and situation involve in decision making process.
It’s not often realised that there are different types of decision making.
Although this may seem obvious it’s not always understood. And even when it is,
decision types may not be fully considered when decisions are being made.

Decision levels – An Initial Decision Making Technique

One useful initial, decision making technique is to assess a decision based on its level. In
particular, think about the decision both in terms of its level of complexity, and the potential
level of impact on your organization.
This technique may sound simplistic but it can be very helpful in determining which type of
decision making process is the most suitable for any specific situation.
You may well have already questioned whether a decision is actually called for. If you
haven’t, read our decision making lesson to help you think about whether or not there is even
a decision to made. If there is, use this and our other articles on decison making to help you
make the best decisions.

This decision making technique expands the concept of decision level, introduced in our
article: types of decision making.

Decision styles – Decision Making Styles

Firstly, how can we categorize some different decision making styles? In the 1970’s, Yale
University’s Victor Vroom and Philip Yettonsuggested a model which summarized three basic styles
moving from a directive or autocratic approach through informing and involving by consulting or
thirdly an emphasis on participation and engagement.
The choice of which style to adopt for any one decision, and thus the degree of participation,
will depend on various factors. Vroom and Yetton’s work was aimed at helping managers to
improve the way they made decisions.

Therefore, a manager’s choice of approach would depend on a combination of factors. For

example, time pressure might necessitate a more directive approach.
If the quality of the decision was most important, then ensuring a more consultative style
might be needed. One that ensured people with appropriate knowledge and experience were
involved in the decision.

If a high acceptance was the most crucial factor in any decision made, then a participative
style would be most appropriate.
A related model, developed in the late 1950’s by Tannenbaum and Schmidt, introduces
another dimension to our understanding of decision making styles. Their model considers the
importance of other human variables in the decision making process. It’s important to
remember factors such as personality, motives and values, in all participants, when choosing a
decision making style.

Tannenbaum and Schmidt developed a wider range of possible ways a leader might work with
a group or team, broadly moving from a directive approach to one that delegates to the group.
According to this model, the type of decision making style selected has a direct bearing on
participant commitment, as their involvement in making the decision increases. The clear
inference to be drawn from this is that the higher the degree of participation in the decision,
the higher the level of commitment, and probably the greater the likelihood of successful
implementation of the decision.

Both approaches suggest that decision making styles should be adapted dependent on the
context. It therefore suggests that leaders need to be able to assess the situation and then apply
an appropriate approach. There are of course many different situations that may impact how a
decision is made and factors like the maturity of the team to be involved in decision making
and the culture of the organisation will also need to be borne in mind.
Think about these two models in relation to your own situation. Do any of your decisions
warrant a team involvement? Is the team equipped and prepared to contribute to the decision
making process? What are the risks of involving or not involving the team? What about other
environmental factors which may have a bearing on your decision making styles?

Generally, the quality of decisions, and the support of others in successfully implementing
those decisions, increases with well managed participation. However, as the decision making
process becomes more complex, you may need to discuss with your team what group decision
making methods you may want to employ.
When making decisions, there are many steps that can be taken; but when making good
decisions there are really only five steps that need to be considered. These steps are as
follows:

1. State The Problem or Stating Your Goal

Identify the problem. Until you have a clear understanding of the problem, goal, or decision to
be made, it is meaningless to proceed. If the problem is stated incorrectly or unclearly then
your decisions will be wrong. Be as specific as you can.

2. Gather Information for Weighing Your Options

When making good decisions it is best to gather necessary information that is directly related
to the problem. Doing this will help you to better understand what needs to be done in solving
the problem, and will also help to generate ideas for a possible solution.
Think about all of the information that you'll need. Make a list of every possible alternative,
even ones that may initially sound silly. Always seek the opinions of people that you trust or
speak to experts and professionals, because it will help you to come up with a variety of
solutions when weighing all your options for a final decision. You will want to gather as
many resources and as much information as possible.

3. Consider the Consequences

This step can be just as important as step one because it will help you determine how your
final decision will impact yourself, and/or others involved. In this step, you will be asking
yourself what is likely to be the results of your decision. How will it affect you now? And
how will it affect your future? How will it affect others around you, always keeping in mind
that this is for you.

This is an essential step because it allows you to review the pros and cons of the different
options that you listed in the previous step. It is also important because you want to feel
comfortable with all your options and the possible outcome of whichever one you choose.
Take a piece of paper and in one column write Pros and in the second column write Cons. In
the left hand margin, write down all of the possibilities. Weigh each and every one. Do some
more writing about it if need be. Use all of your resources when doing this.

4. Make the Decision

Here comes the fun or maybe the scary part. You have identified your problem or your goal.
You've gathered all of the possible information, gotten information from the experts, and
weighed the consequences. Now it's time to make the choice. You've gotten rid of all the
alternatives that are silly or not practical or simply do not fit.

This is the step that can create a lot of anxiety for people. This is the step where you learn to
trust your instincts or "trust you gut."
Although you may still be slightly indecisive about your final decision, you have to take into
account how this makes you feel. Ask yourself, does it feel right? And does this decision
work best for you now, and in the future? When you answer those questions back, you should
feel good about the result.

This is where I ask people to go into a darkened room, closed their eyes, and go deep inside to
think about the decision. How do you feel? Do you feel comfortable? Do you feel good? Let
your subconscious work!
Walk away from this work for a few days, then go back. How does it feel now? Do you need
to tweak anything? Again trust your instincts. They will not fail you!
5. Evaluate Your Decision
A decision has no value unless you put it into action. If you are not good with taking action
steps, then find someone that is to help you. Part of the implementation phase is the follow up.
The follow up ensures that you're following up!
Make a list of the necessary steps to put your decision into play. Then prepare to proceed
step-by-step. This may take perseverance on your part. It may take some time to see the final
outcome. You can tweak the decision along the way or you might just go ahead and go back
to step two and choose another option.

Remember, this step requires some patience, and it can also encourage perseverance. Why?
Because it may take some time to see the final outcome. Always looking for and anticipating
unexpected problems will help alleviate undue stress, if and when a problem occurs.
You can use these five steps for any goal setting or for making any kind of decision. Write a
couple of practice scenarios. See how they feel. Before long, you'll be adept at this process.
You'll have added another essential skill to living life successfully.

Phil and Anthony. (2007) Decision Making Styles. Retrived from

http://the-happy-manager.com/tips/decision-making-styles/

Phil and Anthony. (2007) An initial Decision Making Technique. Retrived from
http://the-happy-manager.com/tips/an-initial-decision-making-technique/

Phil and Anthony. (2007) Types of Decision Making. Retrived from

(http://the-happy-manager.com/articles/types-of-decision-making/

Jeanne Rust. (2012) A Simple 5-Step Decision-Making Process. Retrived from

https://www.mirasol.net/blog/five-step-decision-making.php

Conclusion

What we can conclude on this assignment is is we know several factors that influenced the
evolution of management thougt is social,politic,economic, technology. All manager must
have skill according thier level. An organization also create two of span of management.
Interpesonal roles of managers as introduce by Mintzberg and centralization and
decentralization.What is important in one organization is planning and must know limitation
of planning and how to overcomes it. Every Organization must have structure to succed. And
the lastly is decision making and where situation involve in decision making process.