OPTOMETRIC CLINICAL

PRACTICE GUIDELINE OPTOMETRY:

THE PRIMARY EYE CARE PROFESSION

Doctors of optometry are independent primary health care providers who

examine, diagnose, treat, and manage diseases and disorders of the visual
system, the eye, and associated structures as well as diagnose related
systemic conditions.

Optometrists provide more than two-thirds of the primary eye care

services in the United States. They are more widely distributed
geographically than other eye care providers and are readily accessible
for the delivery of eye and vision care services. There are approximately
32,000 full -time equivalent doctors of optometry currently in practice in
the United States. Optometrists practice in more than 7,000 communities
Care of the Patient with across the United States, serving as the sole primary eye care provider in

Primary Angle more than 4,300 communities.

The mission of the profession of optometry is to fulfill the vision and eye

Closure Glaucoma care needs of the public through clinical care, research, and education,
all of which enhance the quality of life.
OPTOMETRIC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE David K. Talley, O.D.

CARE OF THE PATIENT WITH

PRIMARY ANGLE CLOSURE GLAUCOMA
Reviewed by the AOA
Clinical Guidelines
Reference Guide for Clinicians Coordinating
Committee:

John F. Amos, O.D., M.S., Chair

Prepared by the American Optometric Association Consensus Panel on Barry Barresi, O.D., Ph.D.
Care of the Patient with Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma: Kerry L. Beebe, O.D.
Jerry Cavallerano, O.D., Ph.D.
John Lahr, O.D.
Jimmy Jackson, O.D., M.S., Principal Author David Mills, O.D.
Leland W. Carr, III, O.D.
Barry M. Fisch, O.D.
Victor E. Malinovsky, O.D.
Approved by the AOA Board of Trustees June 23, 1994;
Revised October, 1998; Reviewed 2001

© American Optometric Association, 1994

243 N. Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63141-7881
Printed in U.S.A.

NOTE: Clinicians should not rely on the Clinical

Guideline alone for patient care and management.
Refer to the listed references and other sources for
a more detailed analysis and discussion of research
and patient care information. The information in
the Guideline is current as of the date of
publication. It will be reviewed periodically and
revised as needed.
 Primary Angle Closure
Glaucoma iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................1

I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.......................................................3

A. Description and Classification of Primary Angle
Closure

B.

C.

II. CARE PROCESS

A.

B.
 iv Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma Introduction 1

6. Management of Patients with Severe, Irreversible Vision INTRODUCTION

Loss...................................................................................26
Optometrists, through their clinical education, training, experience,
CONCLUSION..................................................................................................29 and broad geographic distribution, have the means to provide
III. REFERENCES.......................................................................................30
effective primary eye and vision care for a significant portion of
the American public and are often the first health care practitioners
IV. APPENDIX.............................................................................................43 to examine a patient with, or at risk for developing, primary angle
Figure 1: Optometric Management of the Patient with Acute Primary closure glaucoma (ACG).
ACG: A Brief Flowchart...................................................43
Figure 2: Frequency and Composition of Evaluation and This Optometric Clinical Practice Guideline for the Care of the
Management Visits for Primary ACG...............................44 Patient with Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma describes
Figure 3: ICD-9-CM Classification of Angle Closure Glaucoma....46 appropriate examination and treatment procedures to reduce the
Abbreviations of Commonly Used Terms...............................................47 risk of visual disability from primary ACG. It contains
Glossary...................................................................................................48 recommendations for timely diagnosis, treatment, and when
necessary, referral for consultation with or treatment by another
health care provider. This Guideline will assist optometrists in
achieving the following goals:

• Identify patients in whom primary ACG is present or who

are at risk of developing primary ACG
• Accurately diagnose primary ACG
• Manage a patient who has an acute attack of primary ACG
• Monitor and manage, as indicated, patients with
intermittent or chronic forms of primary ACG
• Develop criteria for referral to the patient's primary care
physician or other health care practitioner when management
options dictate
• Improve the quality of care rendered to patients with primary
ACG
• Minimize the adverse effects of primary ACG and its
management
• Inform and educate patients and other health care
practitioners about the visual complications of primary ACG
and the availability of treatment.
 Statement of the Problem 3

I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Primary angle closure glaucoma is a relatively uncommon condition in

the United States, accounting for less than 10 percent of all diagnosed
cases of glaucoma.1-3 However, its importance as a health care issue is
far greater than the relatively small number of cases would suggest. In
contrast to open angle glaucoma, in which vision loss is slow and
gradual, an acute attack of angle closure glaucoma can lead to blindness
within hours or days. Prompt diagnosis and correct treatment are,
therefore, critical. Accurate and timely diagnosis of the intermittent and
chronic forms of primary ACG is also important because prophylactic
treatment (peripheral iridotomy) can protect the eye against acute
episodes and prevent damage from repeated intermittent attacks or
chronic angle closure.

A. Description and Classification of Primary

Angle Closure Glaucoma

Glaucoma represents not one single clinical entity but a group of ocular
diseases with various causes that ultimately are associated with
progressive optic neuropathy leading to loss of vision. The glaucomas
can be separated by etiology: those not related to another underlying
condition, which are classified as primary, and those that are secondary
to ocular or systemic disease.

The glaucomas are generally classified as angle closure, open angle,

mixed or combined mechanism, and developmental. In primary angle
closure glaucoma intraocular pressure becomes elevated because the
peripheral iris prevents aqueous from reaching the anterior chamber
drainage tissue, the trabecular meshwork. The meshwork itself is
presumed to function normally. In open angle glaucoma (OAG) aqueous
has ready access to the trabecular meshwork, but drainage is impaired
due to other mechanisms. Mixed mechanism glaucoma exists when both
forms of glaucoma are present, a combination of ACG and OAG.
Developmental glaucoma is caused by some anomaly of the anterior
chamber that is present at birth and is associated with other ocular or
4,5
systemic anomalies.
4 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma 1. Angle Closure Glaucoma with Pupillary Block
The classification of angle closure glaucoma is based upon the Statement of
presence or absence of pupillary block and whether the angle closure the Problem 5
mechanism is primary or secondary (Table 1). With pupillary block,
the normal flow of aqueous through the pupil from the posterior The scope of this Guideline includes the diagnosis, treatment, and
chamber to the anterior chamber is restricted. This block leads to management of primary angle closure glaucoma. See Appendix
increased pressure in the posterior chamber which pushes the Figure 3 for ICD-9-CM classification of primary angle closure
peripheral iris forward (iris bombe) until it blocks the trabecular glaucoma.
meshwork. _______________________________________________________
__
Primary ACG with pupillary block exists when there is a
predisposing anatomical basis, such as a narrow angle. Primary Table 1
ACG may be further classified as suspect, subacute (intermittent
angle closure with spontaneous resolution), acute (sudden blockage Classification of Angle Closure Glaucomas *
of the outflow of aqueous by the iris), or chronic (occlusion of the
angle caused by the development of peripheral anterior synechiae I. Angle closure glaucoma with pupillary block
or apposition of the iris). Secondary ACG with pupillary block is A. Primary angle closure with pupillary block
associated with some other primary disease process, such as 1. Suspect
anterior chamber inflammation. 2. Subacute (intermittent)
3. Acute
2. Angle Closure Glaucoma without Pupillary Block 4. Chronic (creeping angle closure)
B. Secondary angle closure with pupillary block
Primary ACG without pupillary block, or plateau iris, occurs in two 1. Posterior synechiae to lens, vitreous, or IOL
distinct forms. Plateau iris configuration is a clinical entity in 2. Ectopia lentis
which the central anterior chamber depth is normal, the iris plane is 3. Miotic induced
flat, and the anterior chamber angle is extremely narrow. 4. Spherophakia
Gonioscopy, which is required to make the diagnosis, reveals that 5. Phacomorphic
the peripheral iris takes a sharp turn posteriorly before inserting 6. Nanophthalmos
into the ciliary body. Plateau iris syndrome occurs when the
anterior chamber remains capable of closure in the presence of a II. Angle closure glaucoma without pupillary block
6,7
patent iridotomy. A. Primary angle closure without pupillary block
1. Plateau iris
Secondary ACG without pupillary block can be classified as either
• Plateau iris configuration
an anterior pulling mechanism or a posterior pushing mechanism. In
the anterior form (e.g., neovascular glaucoma) the peripheral iris is • Plateau iris syndrome
"pulled" against the meshwork by the contraction of fibrovascular B. Secondary angle closure without pupillary block
membranes on the iris and in the angle. Posterior pushing 1. Anterior pulling mechanism
mechanisms (e.g., malignant glaucoma and related conditions such • Neovascular glaucoma
as choroidal detachment) "push" the peripheral iris against the • ICE syndrome
5,8
meshwork. These conditions are invariably unilateral with little • Epithelial downgrowth
risk to the fellow eye. • Inflammatory induced (PAS)
2. Posterior pushing mechanism
 4
(Malignant glaucomas and related causes) * Modified from Hoskins and Kass.

6 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma In addition, African Americans tend to have fewer
symptoms than Caucasians during acute primary ACG
14,19
• Choroidal detachment attacks, which may lead to under reporting of cases.
• Ciliary body detachment
• Intraocular tumors
• Following scleral buckling procedure
• Intravitreal air injection
• Inflammatory induced
• Retinopathy of prematurity
• Following panretinal photocoagulation
• Central retinal vein occlusion
• Lens induced
_________________________________________________________

B. Epidemiology of Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma

1. Prevalence and Incidence

Primary ACG accounts for less than 10 percent of all diagnosed

cases of glaucoma in the United States. 1-3 An estimated 2-8 percent
of the U.S. population have anterior chamber angles narrow enough
to close. Of those cases, 5 percent will actually progress to primary
1-3
ACG. In other populations, primary ACG occurs more frequently
and may exceed the incidence of primary OAG. The prevalence of 26,45-49
primary ACG within a particular population depends on a number
of variables, including race, family history, age, gender, and
refractive error.

2. Risk Factors

a. Race

In Caucasian populations, the prevalence of primary ACG is one-

5,9-13
twelfth to one-sixth that of primary OAG. Primary ACG is
thought to be
14-18
exceedingly rare among African Americans and when it does occur
in these individuals, it is usually as the chronic form of the
14,18-20
disease.
 Statement of the primary ACG. Other factors associated with the high prevalence of
32
Problem 7 primary ACG in Asia are intumescent cataract in India and
44
trachoma in Burma.
21-25
Some Mongoloid populations, such as Eskimos, East and Southeast
Asians,
26-29
and Southern Asians,
30-32
have a very high rate of primary b. Family History
ACG. On the other hand, Pacific Islanders, while of similar ancestry, have a
very low rate of primary ACG,33,34 and Australian aborigines, A positive family history of primary ACG is an additional risk factor.
The frequency of occludable angles is 3.5-6 times higher in first-
whose ancestry is Southeast Asian, have no reported primary ACG. 35
degree
South American Amazon Indians have a higher prevalence of primary
ACG than American Indians (in whom it is virtually nonexistent), relatives of patients with primary ACG.

50-53
The inheritance pattern of

primary ACG is believed to be polygenic, although pedigrees

although they have similar Asian ancestry.36,37 with a
high prevalence of primary ACG have been reported with both
The dissimilar rates of primary ACG among groups of similar ancestry 26,45,54
make it apparent that no clear genetic pattern exists. Nevertheless, autosomal dominant and recessive inheritance patterns.
The
numerous studies have shown that certain racial groups are at increased
configuration of the anterior chamber may be inherited under
risk for primary ACG, as are those with small, crowded anterior segments.
polygenic influence. This, rather than a specific gene linked to the
The tendency toward shallower anterior chamber depths in individuals
with primary ACG has been reported consistently among disease, may explain the familial occurrence of primary ACG. 39,55
Caucasians,
38-40 21
Eskimos, and Asians.
41,42
Asians also have a greater However, most cases of primary ACG occur in patients with no
26,43 known family history of the disease.
tendency toward plateau iris, which would increase the rate of
8 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma African American population, however, some studies have
14
found the rates of primary ACG to be equal, although this
c. Age finding is disputed.19
An explanation for gender-based differences is that women
The prevalence of primary ACG increases with age, with a peak generally have shallower anterior chamber depths and
frequency in the sixth and seventh decades of life.11,13,23,25,56,57 ACG is
narrower angles.26,64,65
considered rare below age 40,26,39 although cases involving children
have e. Refractive Error
been reported.58 Age-related factors that contribute to primary
ACG include increasing lens thickness, increasing anterior lens Numerous studies have reported that narrow angles and primary
surface curvature, slight anterior displacement of the lens, and ACG
pupillary occur more frequently in hyperopic eyes than in emmetropic
miosis.3,39,41,59-63 or myopic eyes.1,61,64,66 Hyperopic eyes are generally smaller
in globe volume,
d. Gender which results in a crowding of the anterior chamber when
the lens size is normal.
Women are considered more susceptible than men to primary
ACG; reported female:male ratios vary from 2:1 to C. Clinical Background of Primary Angle Closure
4:1.13,19,21,26,64,65 In the Glaucoma

1. Natural History
 Statement of
Most cases of primary ACG involve some form of pupillary block the Problem 9
and occur primarily in eyes with narrow angles.1,59,60,67-69 There is
always a leading to an increase in intraocular pressure (IOP) within the
small amount of relative pupillary block in phakic individuals posterior chamber. Eventually, if sufficient force is generated on the
because the iris rests against the anterior surface of the lens. This posterior surface of the iris, it is displaced forward. Especially when
relative pupillary block is usually of little importance; however, the peripheral iris is lax and distensible as a result of pupillary
some circumstances can increase the force of contact between the dilation, it may balloon forward (iris bombe) and occlude the
iris and the lens. This contact increases resistance to aqueous flow trabecular meshwork. Aqueous production continues, resulting in
through the pupil, rapid, marked elevation in IOP.

Only certain eyes have small enough anterior chambers and narrow
enough angles for primary angle closure. Such susceptible eyes
may undergo spontaneous pupillary block. More commonly,
pupillary block is precipitated by a triggering mechanism such as
pupillary dilation. In at-risk individuals dilation, with resultant
pupillary block, may occur naturally following emotional upset or
in dim illumination as in a restaurant or theater. It may also be
induced pharmacologically by a variety of systemic and topical
medications.

During dilation the greatest iris- to-lens contact occurs when the pupil
67,70
is in the mid-dilated state (3.5-4.0 mm). In contrast, when the
pupil is
widely dilated, there is little or no contact between the lens and the
59
iris, therefore minimum pupillary block. The "high-risk" mid-
dilation state occurs after the pupil has reached maximal dilation and
is returning to its normal size. With pharmacologic dilation this
typically occurs from one to several hours after administration of the
dilating agent depending upon the agent used.

2. Common Signs, Symptoms, and Complications

The signs and symptoms of primary ACG vary with the nature of
the condition. Persons at risk for primary ACG are generally free
of symptoms. A narrow anterior chamber angle is evident when
viewed with a gonioscopic lens in patients at risk for a future
primary ACG attack.

a. Subacute ACG
In the subacute stage of primary ACG patients undergo incomplete angle
closure that resolves spontaneously. Symptoms vary widely on the basis
10 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma chronic ACG may therefore be made only on the basis of
optic nerve and visual field changes and gonioscopic
of IOP, the patient's pain threshold and level of awareness, and evidence of a narrow angle.
perhaps race. Subacute attacks tend to increase over time and the
patient may progress to chronic primary ACG or have an acute angle
closure attack.

b. Acute ACG

An acute angle closure attack is a true ophthalmic emergency and

appropriate therapy must be instituted immediately to prevent vision
loss. The diagnosis of acute angle closure glaucoma is not difficult;
the signs and symptoms are fairly classic. An acute attack is almost
always unilateral with the population most at risk consisting of
elderly, hyperopic individuals.12,26 Typical signs and symptoms are:

• Redness
• Pain (mild to severe)
• Blurred vision
• Halos around lights
• Tearing
• Photophobia
• Nausea and vomiting
• Headache.

In acute ACG, the development and progression of symptoms are

typically rapid. The level of pain seems to be related more to the
rapid rise in pressure than to the absolute level of the IOP increase.
Because African Americans seem to experience less pain during an
acute primary ACG attack, a relative lack of pain should not deter
the clinician from a thorough evaluation.

c. Chronic ACG

Chronic primary ACG is defined as permanent closure of parts of

the anterior chamber angle by peripheral anterior synechiae (PAS).
Closure of the entire angle may progress slowly. Symptoms may be
mild or absent until very late in the disease. The diagnosis of
 Statement of the Problem 11 properly diagnosed and managed can produce PAS and
permanent elevation of IOP.72
d. Plateau Iris Configuration
3. Early Detection and Prevention
Patients with plateau iris configuration typically have no symptoms until
they develop an acute or subacute attack of primary ACG. The diagnosis of Evaluation of the anterior chamber angle depth performed as part of
plateau iris requires biomicroscopic evaluation and gonioscopy which a comprehensive eye and vision examination serves to prevent
reveals a flat central iris and that the peripheral iris takes a sharp turn inadvertent pupillary dilation in a patient at risk for angle closure and
posteriorly before inserting into the ciliary body. In most cases peripheral identifies those patients in need of further management. There are
iridotomy can cure the patient with plateau iris syndrome by preventing three main methods for determining anterior chamber depth:
future attacks of primary ACG, suggesting that pupillary block plays a
considerable role in the development of acute glaucoma in these patients. 56,71 • The penlight shadow test is a screening method for assessing
However, others maintain that pupillary block contributes little to IOP rise anterior chamber depth and iris convexity.73,74 The result is an
7
and that peripheral iridotomy is of no benefit. Despite a patent iridotomy, estimation of the anterior chamber depth.
plateau iris syndrome patients remain at risk for primary ACG. Treatment of
this condition includes the use of miotic agents and peripheral gonioplasty. 71 • The van Herick angle estimation technique is an excellent
screening procedure for assessing anterior chamber depth prior
Failure to diagnose and appropriately manage an attack of acute angle to dilation. This technique may be a part of the biomicroscopic
closure can result in permanent optic nerve damage and vision loss. evaluation.
75
Repeated episodes of subacute or chronic primary ACG that are not
12 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma The Care Process 13

• Gonioscopy is the definitive test for determining anterior II. CARE PROCESS
chamber depth. It allows the clinician actual visualization of
angle structures and permits the detection of anomalies such as This Guideline describes the optometric care provided a patient
angle recession, plateau iris, PAS, and neovascularization. with primary angle closure glaucoma. The components of patient
care described are not intended to be all inclusive. Professional
judgement and individual patient symptoms and findings may have
significant impact on the nature, extent, and course of the services
provided. Some components of care may be delegated.

A. Diagnosis of Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma

Evaluation of a patient for ACG should begin with the assumption

that any of the four types of primary ACG could be present.
Although the identification of acute primary ACG rarely
constitutes a diagnostic dilemma, other types of ACG may escape
detection if a thorough evaluation is not done.

1. Patient History
A thorough patient history is needed for diagnosis. Particular attention
should be paid to eliciting symptoms suggestive of prior angle closure The evaluation of a primary ACG suspect may include, but is not
attacks. These symptoms include blurred vision, transient loss of vision, limited to, the following procedures:
colored halos around lights, headaches, mild to severe ocular pain,
photophobia, and congestion of the eye.6 These "attacks" are often relieved • Refraction (unless the patient is in acute angle closure)
by sleep, exposure to bright light, or induced miosis. It is also important to • Biomicroscopic evaluation of the anterior segment
determine whether there is a family history of primary ACG. • Tonometry
• Gonioscopy
2. Ocular Examination • Stereoscopic evaluation of the optic nerve
14 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma multiple methods of grading the anterior chamber angle via
gonioscopy, the Becker-Shaffer system is most widely used
• Baseline photographs of the optic nerve (Table 2). The amount of pigment in the angle is an
• Baseline visual fields. important finding that is also usually graded (Table 2). To
describe the angle fully, the examiner should note other
The optometrist should look for signs of prior angle closure attacks: gonioscopic findings such as PAS, angle recession, and
peripheral anterior synechiae, posterior synechiae, glaukomflecken neovascularization.
(anterior subcapsular lens opacities), iris atrophy, pigment anterior
to Schwalbe's line, and possibly glaucomatous optic nerve and It is important to ascertain the type and amount of
visual field changes. With intermittent attacks the optic nerve may refractive error because hyperopia is a definite risk
appear more pale than cupped. Close examination of the depth of factor for primary ACG. The examination should include
the anterior chamber angle and central anterior chamber is needed. measurement of intraocular pressure and stereoscopic
evaluation of the optic nerve head. Baseline optic nerve
1
The van Herick angle estimation technique is commonly used to
screen for the depth of the anterior chamber angle prior to dilation.
The width of the black space formed by the anterior chamber angle
interval is subjectively compared to the width of the corneal optic
section. Angles are graded 1 to 4. Grades 3 and 4 are thought to be
incapable of closure,
while grades 1 or 2 should have gonioscopy performed before dilation
(Table 2).1,73,76 Estimation of the anterior chamber axial depth may
also
be helpful because central chamber depth of less than 2.5 cm is
the threshold for pupillary block primary ACG.64 When the angle
appears narrow, gonioscopy should be performed.

The two methods of gonioscopy are direct and indirect. In the more
commonly used indirect method, a mirrored goniolens and
biomicroscope enable examination of the anterior chamber angle
opposite the direction of view. Many indirect gonioscopy lenses are
available and each requires a slightly different technique. Among the
 The Care
Process 15 3

2
photos may be taken (stereophotography, if available). A detailed description
and drawing is an appropriate alternative if photography is not available or
feasible. Baseline central visual fields utilizing threshold or kinetic perimetry
may be performed. 1

Table 2
Anterior Chamber Angle Grading Systems
0

_______________________________________________________
Grade __

In chronic primary ACG, there is closure of only part of the angle.

The patient may have an IOP that is normal or just slightly elevated
4 at the time of examination. Such patients tend to develop optic nerve
head and visual field changes identical to those of patients with
primary OAG. The appropriate diagnostic procedure includes
careful gonioscopy to reveal evidence of PAS in those patients who
have primary ACG.
16 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma finding. Gonioscopy should be repeated to confirm angle
closure.
3. Provocative Testing
• Prone test. The patient is placed in the prone position
Provocative testing to mirror "physiologic" conditions that induce for 60-90 minutes and is instructed to remain awake and
dilation may help to determine which primary ACG suspects are at to avoid direct pressure on the globe or orbit. Criteria for
high risk for progression to an acute attack. These "high-risk" determining a positive test are the same as for the dark
patients may room test.
benefit from a prophylactic iridotomy. The most commonly
• Prone dark room test. The patient is placed in a dark
used provocative tests are:6,59,73,77,78
room in the prone position for 60-90 minutes.
• Dark room test. The patient is placed in a dark room for 60- Instructions to the patient and criteria for a positive test
90 minutes after measurement of baseline IOP and gonioscopy. are the same as for the previous two tests.
Though problematic, it is important not to allow the patient to
fall asleep because the miosis of sleep counteracts the mydriasis • Mydriatic test. After measurement of baseline IOP,
of dim illumination. At the end of the prescribed time, the IOP is the patient's pupils are dilated with a weak cycloplegic
remeasured. The examiner must be careful not to expose the agent such as 0.5% or 1% tropicamide. When IOP is
patient to bright light, which would constrict the pupil. A rise in remeasured 60-90 minutes later, a rise of 8 mm Hg is
IOP that equals or exceeds 8 mm mercury (Hg) is a positive considered positive.
 The Care
Unfortunately, none of these provocative tests has demonstrated Process 17
adequate specificity and sensitivity in clinical trials. There is no
consensus among glaucoma specialists regarding the use of iridotomy is recommended when the angle is narrow, the
provocative testing. Most clinicians rely on gonioscopy and 6,79
chamber is shallow, and any one of the following exists:
clinical judgement to determine which patients can benefit from
iridotomy. Prophylactic • Evidence of appositional closure
• Evidence of previous closure
• Symptoms associated with past closure
• Positive provocative test with evidence of angle closure.

4. Assessment and Diagnosis

The examination of the patient with ACG classically reveals

circumlimbal injection, a mid-dilated nonreactive pupil, corneal
edema, anterior chamber inflammation, and an IOP in the range of
40 -90 mm Hg. It is crucial to determine whether the patient has
primary acute ACG with pupillary block rather than one of the
secondary ACGs or some other cause of acute rise in IOP. Conditions
to be considered in the differential diagnosis include:

• Open angle glaucoma with unusually high IOP

• Glaucomatocyclitic crisis
• Early neovascular glaucoma
• Malignant glaucoma
• Angle mass
• Plateau iris syndrome
• Iridocorneal endothelial syndrome (ICE).

Appropriate management of these conditions differs dramatically from

that of acute primary ACG because pupillary block plays little or no role
in their development. Gonioscopy and biomicroscopic evaluation are
crucial in diagnosing the etiology of a rise in IOP. If the cornea is
edematous, the use of topical glycerin may temporarily clear it enough
to permit an adequate view. Alternatively, gonioscopy and
biomicroscopic evaluation of the fellow eye may prove helpful in that
anterior chamber anatomy is usually similar for both eyes. A review of
the patient's medical history is needed for management. Particular
emphasis should be directed toward the patient's cardiac, renal, and
pulmonary status to rule out contraindications to the medical treatment of
primary ACG.
18 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma
*Every effort has been made to ensure the drug dosage recommendations
B. Management of Acute Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma are accurate at the time of publication of this Guideline. However, as
treatment recommendations change due to continuing research and
clinical experience, clinicians should verify drug dosage schedules with
The extent to which an optometrist can provide treatment for angle product information sheets.
closure glaucoma may vary depending on the state's scope of
practice laws and regulations and the individual optometrist's
certification. Care of the patient with primary ACG may require
referral for consultation with or treatment by the patient's primary
care physician or an ophthalmologist for services outside the
optometrist's scope of practice. The optometrist may participate in
the comanagement of the patient, including preoperative and
postoperative care when appropriate.

1. Basis for Treatment

The treatment of acute primary ACG with pupillary block is

directed toward three main goals:

• Rapid breaking of the attack using medical therapy, laser

therapy, or surgery
• Performance of laser peripheral iridotomy or surgical
iridectomy (usually after the attack has been broken
medically)
• Evaluation for treatment of the fellow eye.

2. Available Treatment Options

a. Medical (Pharmaceutical)

Pharmaceuticals* used in the management of an acute primary angle

closure attack include topical, oral, and intravenous agents. Topical
agents include miotics (pilocarpine), beta- adrenergic blockers, an
alpha-adrenergic agonist (apraclonidine), and steroids. Oral agents
that may be used are carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (CAIs) and
hyperosmotics. Hyperosmotics and CAIs may also be administered
intravenously.
 The Care Process 19 treatment which may produce a cholinergic crisis (nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, sweating, bradycardia, and hypotension), especially in
• Miotics. Pilocarpine firms the peripheral iris and pulls it away from elderly patients.57 A predisposed fellow eye should be maintained
the trabecular meshwork. Concentrations stronger than 2% are on pilocarpine, 2%, four times daily until laser peripheral iridotomy
generally not used because they may produce ciliary body thickening, (LPI) is performed.59,87
excess miosis, and vascular congestion, which can cause the anterior
• Beta blockers. If the patient has no pulmonary or cardiac
chamber to become shallow, increase pupillary block, and aggravate
contraindications, any of the nonselective beta blockers may be
rather than relieve primary ACG.59,80 used, with Timolol, 0.5% (Timoptic) probably the most
There is some controversy as to when pilocarpine should be administered. commonly utilized. Betaxolol, 0.25% (Betoptic S) should be
When the IOP is above 40-50 mm Hg, the pupillary sphincter muscle is used for patients with pulmonary contraindications. The
ischemic and unresponsive to topical miotic agents.
81-83
Once IOP has been recommended dose of any beta blocker is one drop initially,
reduced, normal blood flow returns to the iris sphincter and it becomes repeated in 1 hour if necessary, and continued as one drop every
83 69
responsive to pilocarpine. Some clinicians recommend that pilocarpine not 12 hours until LPI is performed.
be administered until the pressure has been reduced to approximately 40
73,81,84 • Alpha-adrenergic agonists. Approved for use in anterior
mm Hg. However, most experts still recommend giving pilocarpine at
segment laser procedures to prevent IOP spikes, Apraclonidine 1%
the first diagnosis of acute primary ACG to ensure its availability when
59,68,77,85,86 (Iopidine) is an adjunct therapy in angle closure.77,88,89 It is an
sphincter muscle receptors regain function. The recommended
dosage of pilocarpine is one drop of 2% solution every 15-60 minutes up to alpha-adrenergic agonist that lowers IOP by decreasing aqueous
57,86 production. The
a total of two to four doses. Care should be taken to avoid over
20 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma medically. The usual dose is one drop of 1%
prednisolone acetate four times a day until a LPI is
usual dose, one to two drops in the affected eye at the performed.69,73
time of diagnosis, may be repeated once in 1 hour if
necessary. • Oral carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. An oral CAI
should be given immediately upon diagnosis when the
Dapiprazole hydrochloride 0.5% (Rev-Eyes) is an alpha- patient is not nauseated. A 500 mg dose (two 250 mg
adrenergic blocking agent used to reverse pharmacologically tablets) of acetazolamide (Diamox) is most commonly
induced mydriasis. There is no benefit from adding used. The 500 mg Diamox Sequel should be avoided
dapiprazole to the therapeutic regimen in cases of acute angle because it is a timed-release formulation, and, therefore,
closure, but it is recommended to reverse mydriasis in ACG it has a slower onset of action. Acetazolamide should be
suspects whose pupils are dilated.90 Dapiprazole is superior to avoided in patients with kidney problems for whom 100
pilocarpine for reversal of dilation because dapiprazole does mg of methazolamide (Neptazane) becomes the CAI
not increase pupillary block or cause shallowing of the treatment of choice. CAIs are sulfa-based drugs and
90-92 should be avoided in allergic patients. When the patient
anterior chamber.
is nauseous, 500 mg of intravenous acetazolamide
• Topical Steroids. Although topical steroids are not should be administered. An antiemetic suppository may
efficacious during an acute angle closure attack, they are useful be used with oral medication to reduce nausea and avert
in managing inflammation once the attack has been broken the need for intravenous CAIs.
• Oral hyperosmotic agents. The most effective means of The Care
lowering IOP during acute angle closure attacks are oral Process 21
hyperosmotic agents. If the patient is not nauseated or vomiting,
50% glycerin (Osmoglyn) may be administered in a dose of 1.5 These agents are best tolerated if given chilled (serve over
ml/kg body weight. Because it is not metabolized, 45% isosorbide 69
crushed ice), with the entire dose consumed in 5 minutes.
(Ismotic) can be substituted in equal doses for glycerin in patients Caution should be used when administering hyperosmotic agents
with diabetes mellitus.59,68,69,77 in patients susceptible to dehydration. Older patients, who may
be particularly vulnerable, may suffer disorientation, confusion,
diarrhea, or seizures. Hyperosmotic drugs place stress upon the
cardiovascular system because of the increased load created by
higher fluid volumes within the vessels. As fluid is drawn from
the tissues, intravascular fluid volume increases. This additional
stress on an elderly individual with a decompensating heart or
kidney disease could be fatal.77 When the patient is nauseated, an
intravenous hyperosmotic agent such as urea or mannitol should
be used. Most authorities consider mannitol the drug of choice;
77
the recommended dose is 2.5-10 ml/kg of a 20% solution.
Intravenous hyperosmotics should be used with caution due to
their systemic complications. Although they are the same as
those of the oral hyperosmotics, the systemic complications have
a more rapid onset.

b. Corneal Indentation

Corneal indentation is an adjunct procedure in which a cotton-

tipped applicator or gonioscopy lens is used to indent the central
93
cornea. Repeated indentation, each time lasting approximately 30
seconds, followed by 30 second rest, over 10-15 minutes displaces
aqueous peripherally into the angle and opens the angle
mechanically. Although this procedure may be successful, many
patients suffering acute ACG attacks are already in acute pain and
unable to tolerate corneal indentation.

c. Laser Treatment

In recent years, the use of lasers has largely replaced surgical

iridectomy as the procedure of choice in most cases of ACG. 94
• Laser peripheral iridotomy. Primary ACG, in which pupillary
95,96
block is the presumed cause, is an indication for LPI.
Prophylactic LPIs are indicated for all fellow eyes after an acute angle
closure attack.87,95-100 Intermittent and chronic pupillary blocks
22 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma reason many practitioners choose the Nd:YAG over
the argon laser for LPIs.
are also considered to be indications for LPI.96,99,100 Patients
with angle closure due to mechanisms other than pupillary • Laser peripheral gonioplasty. Laser peripheral
block (such as neovascularization, inflammatory synechiae, or gonioplasty (iridoplasty) is a procedure in which the
swelling of the ciliary body) are not candidates for LPI. 100 peripheral iris is contracted or flattened to pull it away
from the angle. Thermal lasers can
Corneal edema may preclude LPI in the patient suffering an
acute angle closure attack. It is generally preferable to manage
the patient medically until the cornea clears and then proceed
with the LPI. If an attack cannot be broken medically, the use of
topical glycerin may clear the cornea enough to permit LPI. A
flat anterior chamber is also a contraindication for LPI because it
is very difficult to avoid corneal laser burns in these patients.
Complications following LPI are not uncommon; however, they
are not usually sight-threatening.101 A rise in postoperative IOP
may occur88,98- 100, 102-111 but can be minimized by
prophylaxis.88,102 -104,111 Transient anterior uveitis is very
common,106,112 but typically
resolves with topical steroid treatment. Blurred vision occurs
frequently after LPI secondary to released pigment, cell and
flare, or microhyphema. The resolution of blurred vision is
usually rapid and spontaneous. Hemorrhaging, which can occur
when the Nd:YAG laser is used for iridotomy, can usually be
controlled by the application of slight digital pressure to the
globe. There are no
reports of serious complications related to the
98,106-109,112
hemorrhaging. Retinal damage is a rare but
potentially severe complication
of LPI. Use of an iridotomy lens, careful focusing of the laser,
and direction of the beam away from the fovea minimize this
risk.101 The most common "serious" complication is closure of
the
iridotomy. Closure rates following argon LPI's of up to 40
percent have been reported.105,108,110,113 Larger peripheral
iridotomies with
the argon laser and control of inflammation can minimize
101 108,110,113
closure. Closure is very rare with the Nd:YAG laser, a
leading
 The Care When the acute ACG attack cannot be broken within 3- 6 hours
Process 23 of initiating treatment, and laser gonioplasty (and perhaps LPI
utilizing glycerin) has been unsuccessful, the patient requires
produce significant contour changes in the iris because of their heat and surgical iridectomy. Other situations in which surgical iridectomy
coagulative effects. This technique, which can be used to "open" sections may be required are:
of the angle, may be effective in treating cases of acute angle closure that
do not respond to medical management. Such unresponsive cases are not • When the laser fails to produce a patent iridotomy
appropriate for LPI due to extreme corneal edema which renders precise • When LPIs close repeatedly
focusing impossible. • When a laser is unavailable
• When the patient is uncooperative or has severe
Gonioplasty uses a larger spot size (300-500 microns vs. 25-50 microns nystagmus.59,101
for LPI), which makes precise focusing less critical. Although this
procedure may be used to break an attack of acute angle closure Some eyes that develop acute primary ACG with pupillary block
secondary to pupillary block, it is not a cure. LPI will still be needed eventually require filtering surgery for IOP control.114-116 Consequently,
when the corneal edema resolves. Most patients are placed on a short primary filtering surgery is recommended for eyes that have had severe,
101
course of topical steroids after gonioplasty. Complications are prolonged, or recurrent attacks of angle closure glaucoma in the
117 -119
uncommon but, when they occur, are similar to those of other anterior presence of significant PAS. Several studies have demonstrated
segment laser procedures. that iridectomy combined with medical treatment provides results equal
to
d. Surgery those obtained by primary filtering surgery, but with fewer
115,116,120
complications. When only 50 percent or less of the angle
is
closed, there is a good chance of controlling IOP with iridectomy. If
24 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma
• 500 mg acetazolamide orally
PAS exceeds 70 percent, the patient may have greater success • One drop of 0.5% timolol
with a trabeculectomy, or with goniosynechialysis followed by • One drop of 2% pilocarpine
gonioplasty. • One drop of 1% apraclonidine.

In general, iridotomy is less likely to succeed when the attack is of long While attempting to break an angle closure attack, the
duration, when the eye is congested, or when there is optic nerve clinician should check IOP readings every 15-30 minutes. If
6,121 the attack is not broken 1 hour after institution of treatment,
damage and visual field loss. These findings, plus the difficulty of
predicting oral hyperosmotics may be administered along with
which eyes will ultimately require filtering surgery, have repeating all topical medications. When an attack is
made iridectomy the surgical technique of choice. unbroken after 2 hours, the patient should have argon (or
diode) laser gonioplasty. If the patient is still in angle
3. Recommended Management Protocol closure 4-6 hours after initiation of treatment, emergency
LPI or surgical iridectomy should be attempted. When the
Immediately after the diagnosis of acute primary angle IOP falls to 20 mm Hg or below, gonioscopy should be
closure, the patient should receive the following medications, performed to confirm that the angle is open.
providing no contraindications exist:
An acute attack of angle closure glaucoma should not be considered The Care
broken until the IOP has returned to normal levels, the pupil is miotic, Process 25
and the angle is open. Low pressure is not, by itself, indicative of a
broken attack. When the angle is not open, IOP will again rise to very topical beta blocker twice a day in the affected eye. Miosis helps
high levels in hours to days. When the attack can be broken guard against reclosure; topical steroids reduce the inflammation
medically, the patient should be maintained on 2% pilocarpine four associated with angle closure; and the beta blocker decreases
times a day bilaterally, and 1% prednisolone acetate four times daily aqueous production. It is customary to wait 2-7 days after breaking
in the affected eye until a LPI is performed. Most clinicians also keep the attack before performing the LPI to allow resolution of the iris
the patient on a congestion and the anterior chamber response. 59,101 Appendix
Figure 1 summarizes the recommended management of an acute
angle closure attack.

4. Patient Education

The optometrist should review signs and symptoms of an acute angle

closure in detail with patients suspected of having ACG and those
who have undergone an iridotomy. Patients should be instructed to
seek care immediately if any of these signs or symptoms are noted.
Because of the increased risk associated with a positive family
history, all first-degree relatives of the patient should be encouraged
to have a comprehensive eye and vision examination.

5. Prognosis and Followup

Patients with primary ACG should not be considered cured even

after successful LPI. Such patients should be considered glaucoma
suspects for life and receive appropriate followup care. Elevated
pressure in the immediate postiridotomy period can occur secondary
to incomplete or closed iridotomy, inflammation or extensive PAS,
or in response to steroid therapy. Late-stage IOP rise may be due to
trabecular meshwork damage that occurred during the period of
appositional closure, or to nonpupillary block components of angle
closure, such as plateau iris and malignant glaucoma. The
development of open angle glaucoma is also possible in these
patients.

Patients who have undergone LPI should be evaluated in the

immediate postprocedure period (1-7 days). The examination should
be directed toward establishing patency of the iridotomy, IOP
measurement and control, and gonioscopy to reaffirm that the anterior
chamber angle remains open. These patients should also be examined
at 1, 2, and 6 months following LPI. Most iridotomy closures occur within the
105
first 2 months, almost never past 6 months; therefore, evaluating patency of
26 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma • Low vision refraction
• Binocular function assessment
the iridotomy is critical in these examinations. The 1-month visit • Supplemental testing, including visual fields,
should include dilation with stereoscopic evaluation of the optic contrast sensitivity, and color vision
nerve head. Baseline photos of the optic nerve head and baseline • Response to optical and electro-optical magnification
threshold visual fields may be conducted, if not previously obtained.
Long -term followup of patients who have undergone LPI should be
every 6-12 months.

Primary ACG suspects should undergo baseline gonioscopy with

standard classification and drawing, careful biomicroscopic
evaluation, stereoscopic evaluation of the optic nerve head with
baseline photos, and baseline threshold visual fields. Clinicians
should educate these patients regarding the signs and symptoms of
an acute angle closure attack and instruct them to seek care
immediately under those circumstances. Long-term monitoring of
these patients should be every 3- 4 months for the first year and
every 6-12 months thereafter. Appendix Figure 2 provides a
summary of the frequency and composition of evaluations for
patients with primary ACG.

6. Management of Patients with Severe, Irreversible Vision

Loss

Patients with primary ACG may suffer permanent vision loss.

Consultation with an optometrist who has advanced training or
clinical experience in low vision is advisable because patients may
benefit from low vision rehabilitation including the use of
specialized optical devices and training.

Patients should be evaluated to determine the potential benefits

from comprehensive low vision rehabilitation which reduces the
debilitating effects of vision loss from primary ACG. This task-
oriented evaluation may include, but is not limited to:

• Expanded patient history and needs assessment

• Evaluation of ocular health
• Low vision assessment of visual acuity (including eccentric viewing)
 The Care Process 27
When indicated, the optometrist should recommend blind
• Response to selective absorption filters. rehabilitation, occupational, vocational and independent living
counseling services and psychosocial consultation. Patients should
Once appropriate optical requirements have been determined, the clinician be informed of other resources including agencies that register and
should educate and train the patient in methods of improving visual function provide services and advocacy to individuals with legal blindness or
with and without optical devices. The patient should be encouraged to use visual impairment. These agencies can provide information
prescription optical devices for work, home, and social activities. regarding large- print and talking books, independent travel aids, and
other devices geared to improve quality of life and functional ability
The goal of low vision rehabilitation is to reduce ocular morbidity and within the patient's household. The optometrist should provide the
enhance the quality of life. In addition to optical intervention, the patient written documentation of his or her status relating to legal
evaluation should include the need for nonoptical devices, special lighting, blindness for state and federal (Internal Revenue Service) tax
posture aids, contrast enhancement, enlarged print, and nonvisual methods requirements. Local and national support groups for the visually
or devices when appropriate. These devices, which significantly enhance impaired assist many patients in coping with the anxiety and
the rehabilitative process, are necessary to complement the use of optical concerns of vision loss. Such groups also provide information
devices. regarding resources to help patients function safely and productively
in their environment.
 Conclusion 29

CONCLUSION

The presentation of primary ACG varies greatly; therefore, the

optometrist needs a broad understanding of the epidemiology,
pathophysiology, and clinical manifestations of this challenging group of
conditions. Prompt, appropriate diagnosis and aggressive treatment and
management are necessary to prevent, or minimize, significant ocular
morbidity in patients with primary angle closure glaucoma.
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105. Assaf AA. Argon laser iridectomies. Glaucoma 1985; 7:75- incision argon laser iridotomy. A prospective
83. clinical investigation. Ophthalmology 1987;
94:1531-7.
 References 41
108. Del Prioro LV, Robin AL, Pollack IP.
Neodymium:YAG and argon laser iridotomy. Long-term 114. Bobrow JC, Drews RC. Long-term results
follow-up in a prospective, randomized clinical trial. of peripheral iridectomy. Glaucoma 1981; 3:319-
Ophthalmology 1988; 95:1207-11. 22.
109. Gray RH, Honre Nairn J, Ayliffe WHR. Efficacy 115. Hyams SW, Friedman Z, Keroub C. Mixed
of Nd:YAG laser iridotomies in acute angle-closure glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol 1977; 61:105-6.
glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol 1989; 73:182-5.
116. Krupin T, Mitchell KB, Johnson MF, Becker B.
110. Moster MR, Schwartz LW, Spaeth GL, et al. Laser The long-term effects of iridectomy for primary acute
iridectomy: a controlled study comparing argon and angle-closure glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol 1978; 86:506-9.
neodymium:YAG. Ophthalmology 1986; 93:20-4.
117. Forbes M. Indentation gonioscopy and efficacy of
111. King MH, Richards DW. Near syncope and chest iridectomy in angle-closure glaucoma. Trans Am
tightness after administration of apraclonidine before argon Ophthalmol Soc 1974; 72:488-92.
laser iridotomy. Letter. Am J Ophthalmol 1990; 110:308-9.
118. Gelber EC, Anderson DR. Surgical decision in
112. Schwartz LW, Moster MR, Spaeth GL, et al.
chronic angle-closure glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 1976;
Neodymium: YAG laser iridectomies in glaucoma
94:1481-4.
associated with closed or occludable angles. Am J
Ophthalmol 1986; 102:41-4. 119. Playfair TJ, Watson PG. Management of acute
primary angle-closure glaucoma: a long-term follow-up of
113. Prum BE, Shields SR, Shields MB, et al. In vitro
the results of peripheral iridectomy used as an initial
videographic comparison of argon and Nd:YAG. Am J
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120. Murphy MB, Spaeth GL. Iridectomy in primary
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121. Tanihara H, Makoto N. Argon-laser gonioplasty

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 Appendix
43

IV. APPENDIX

Figure 1
Optometric Management of the Patient with
Acute Primary ACG: A Brief Flowchart

Immediate treatment
Timolol 0.5%, a

Pilocarpine 2%,b
Apraclonidine 1%,
And Acetazolamide
500 mgc

a.
se b
 b. Use every 15-60
minutes up to a total of 2-4 If IOP <20mmHg and
doses angle open continue
c. Use two 250 mg Pilocarpine 2% q.i.d.,
tablets; avoid if patient Timolol 0.5% b.i.d. and
allergic to sulfa; use 100 mg prednisolone acetate 1%
methazolamide, if patient has q.i.d.
kidney condition; if
nauseated, consider
intravenous acetazolamide
d. Dosage is 1.5 ml/kg
body wt (serve over ice) if
nauseated, consider Schedule LPI usually < 72
intravenous mannitol hrs after breaking attack.
e. Topical glycerin
may aid in clearing
cornea

44 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma

Figure 2
Frequency and Composition of Evaluation and Management Visits
*
for Primary ACG

* Figure 2 extends horizontally through page 45.

 Appen
dix 45

Figure 2 (Continued)
 Slit Lamp

Evaluate for

signs of prior

angle closure

attacks

Evaluate for

signs of prior

angle closure

attacks

Evaluate for

signs of angle

closure

Evaluate for
patency of

iridotomy
46 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma

Figure 3
ICD-9-CM Classification of Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma

Primary angle closure glaucoma

Primary angle closure glaucoma, unspecified

Intermittent angle closure glaucoma

Angle-closure glaucoma:
interval
subacute

Acute angle closure glaucoma

Chronic angle closure glaucoma

Residual stage of angle closure glaucoma

Appendix 47
 Abbreviations of Commonly U

ACG - Angle closure glaucoma

CAI - Carbonic anhydrase inhibi

ICE - Iridocorneal endothelial sy

IOP - Intraocular pressure

LPI - Laser peripheral iridotomy

Nd:YAG - Neodymium-yttrium alum

OAG - Open angle glaucoma

PAS - Peripheral anterior synech

 48 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma Plateau iris configuration A condition in which the central
anterior chamber depth is normal, the iris plane is flat, and
Glossary the anterior chamber angle is extremely narrow or closed.

Anterior chamber The space in the eye, filled with aqueous humor,
that is bordered anteriorly by the cornea and a small portion of the
sclera and posteriorly by a small portion of the ciliary body, the iris,
and that portion of the lens which presents through the pupil.

Anterior uveitis (iritis, cyclitis, iridocyclitis) Inflammation of the

iris, ciliary body, or both.

Biomicroscopy Examination of ocular tissue using a bright focal

source of light with a slit of variable width and height and a binocular
microscope with variable magnification.

Glaukomflecken Irregular white opacities in the subcapsular region

of the anterior portion of the lens which are considered a diagnostic
sign prior to angle closure glaucoma.

Gonioscopy A technique for examining the anterior chamber

angle, utilizing a corneal contact lens, magnifying device, and
light source.

Iridocorneal endothelial (ICE) syndrome Progressive atrophy of

the iris tissue in which the formation of synechiae scars in areas
around the trabecular meshwork creates glaucoma.

Laser peripheral iridotomy (LPI) A hole created in the iris by

different types of lasers (e.g., argon, Nd:YAG, diode) to relieve
pupillary block.

Peripheral anterior synechia (PAS) An adhesion between the

peripheral iris and the anterior chamber angle or peripheral cornea.

Peripheral iridectomy The surgical removal of a section of

the peripheral iris.
 Appendix 49
Visual acuity The clearness of vision that depends upon the
sharpness of focus of the retinal image and the integrity of the retina
Plateau iris syndrome A condition in which both plateau iris configuration and visual pathway.
and a peripheral iridotomy or iridectomy are present and the anterior
Sources:
chamber still remains capable of closure.
Cline D, Hofstetter HW, Griffin JR. Dictionary of visual science, 4th ed.
Posterior synechia An adhesion between the iris and the anterior lens Radnor, PA: Chilton, 1989.
capsule, most commonly at the pupillary border.
Coles WH. Ophthalmology: a diagnostic text. Baltimore: Williams &
Pupillary block Blockage of the normal flow of aqueous humor from the Wilkins, 1989.
posterior chamber into the anterior chamber through the pupil.
Cullom RD, Chang B, eds. The Wills eye manual: office and emergency room
Refraction Determination of refractive errors of the eye. diagnosis and treatment of eye diseases, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott,
1994:469-72.
Tonometry A procedure for measurement of the pressure within the eye.

Trabecular meshwork The meshwork of connective tissue located Grosvenor TP. Primary care optometry. Anomalies of refraction and binocular
vision, 2nd ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1996:575-91
between the Canal of Schlemm and the anterior chamber which is
involved in drainage of aqueous humor from the eye.
50 Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma

Stedman’s medical dictionary, 26th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins,

1995.

Vaughan D, Asbury T, Riordan-Eva P. General ophthalmology, 14th ed.

Norwalk, CT: Appleton and Lange, 1995:419-22.