M06 Materials and Hardware PDF

TRAINING MATERIAL
MATERIALS AND HARDWARE

APB-M-06
TABLE OF CONTENT
Table content ........................................................................................................... 1

6.1. Aircraft Materials – Ferrous ………….............................................................. 6
6.1.1 Material Testing
Properties of Material
Tensile Testing
Compression Test
Hardness Test
Impact Testing
Creep
Fatigue
6.1.2 Aircraft Materials – Ferrous
Introduction
Iron Production
Steelmaking
Steel
Micro-Structure of Steel
Heat Treatment of Steel
Alloying Elements in Steel
Identification Tests
6.2. Aircraft Materials – Non Ferrous ………........................................................... 59
6.2.1. Pure Metals
6.2.2. Aluminium Alloys
6.2.3. Magnesium Alloys
6.2.4. Copper Alloys
6.2.5. Nickel and Nickel Alloys
6.2.6. Tungum
6.2.7. Lead and Lead Alloys
6.2.8. Titanium and Titanium Alloys
6.2.9. Identification Tests
6.2.10. Summary of Propertiesand Uses of Common Metals
6.2.11 Metal Forming Methods
6.3. Aircraft Materials - Composite and Non Metallic .................................................. 97
6.3.1. Plastics and Elastomers
Thermoplastic Materials
Thermosetting Materials
Resins
Advantages of Plastics
Disadvantages of Plastics
Some Common Plastics
Some Special Engineering Plastics
Elastomers
Plastic Manufacturing Processes
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Non-Metallic Components Adhesives and Sealants

Sealing Compounds
Glossary of Adhesives Terms
6.3.2. Composites
Types of Composites
Composite Structures
Composites Fibres
Composite Matrices
Fabrication Techniques for Composites
Trimming and Drilling of Composites
Composite Inspection
Repairing Composite Structures
Glossary of Composites Terms
6.3.3. Wood and Wood Structures
Wood Types
Adhesives for Wood
Inspection of Wood and Wood Structures
Repairs to Wood Structures
Finishing Wood Structures
6.3.4. Fabric Covering
Problem Areas
Fabric Types
Fabric Covering Methods
Application of Dope
Inspection and Testing
Repairs to Fabric Covering
6.4. Corrosion……………………. …............................................................................ 258
6.4.1. Introduction
6.4.2. Chemical Corrosion (Oxidation)
6.4.3. Electrochemical (Galvanic) Corrosion
6.4.4. Types of Corrosion
6.4.5. Galvanic Corrosion
6.4.6. Surface Corrosion
6.4.7. Intergranular Corrosion
6.4.8. Exfoliation Corrosion
6.4.9. Stress Corrosion
6.4.10. Fretting Corrosion
6.4.11. Crevice Corrosion
6.4.12. Filiform Corrosion
6.4.13. Pitting Corrosion
6.4.14. Corrosion Fatigue
6.4.15. Microbiological Contamination
6.4.16. Hydrogen Embrittlement of Steels
6.4.17. Factors Affecting Corrosion
6.4.18. Common Metals and Corrosion Products
6.4.19. Corrosion Removal
6.4.20. Alkali Spillage
6.4.21. Mercury Spillage
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6.4.22. Permanent Anti-Corrosion Treatments

6.4.23. Locations of Corrosion in Aircraft
6.5. Fasteners .....................……...................................................................................... 293
6.5.1. Screw Threads
Standards.
The Inclined Plane and the Helix
Screw Thread Terminology
Screw Thread Forms
Classes of Fit
Measuring Screw Threads
6.5.2. Bolts, Studs and Screws
British Bolts
American Bolts
Special Bolts
Metric Bolts
Nuts
Screws
Washers
Studs
Thread Inserts
Dowels and Pins
6.5.3. Locking Devices
Spring Washers
Shake-Proof Washers
Lock Plates
Split (Cotter)
Pins
Locking Wire
Quick-Release Fasteners
Circlips and Locking Rings
Keys and Keyways
Peening
Glue/Adhesive Bonded Joints
Welding
Soft Soldering
Hard Soldering
6.5.4. Aircraft Rivets
British Solid Rivets.
American Solid Rivets
Heat-Treatment and Refrigeration of Solid Rivets
Solid Rivet Head Types
Blind and Hollow Rivets
Special Fasteners
6.6. Pipes and Union…………....................................................................................... 392
6.6.1. Introduction
6.6.2. Rigid Pipes
6.6.3. Semi-Rigid Fluid Lines (Tubes)
6.6.4. Flexible Pipes (Hoses)
6.6.5. Unions and Connectors
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6.6.6. Banjo Coupling

6.7. Springs....................................................................................................................... 405
6.7.1. Types of Springs
6.7.2. Spring Dimension
6.7.3. Spring Forces
6.7.4. Spring Characteristic
6.7.5 Spring Materials
6.8. Bearings..................................................................................................................... 422
6.8.1. Types of Bearings
6.8.2. Ball Bearings
6.8.3. Roller Bearings
6.8.4. Other Bearing Types and Features
6.8.5. Limit System
6.9. Transmission.............................................................................................................. 433

6.9.1. Belts and Pulleys
6.9.2. Gear Types
6.9.3. Gear Trains and Gear Ratios
6.9.4. Reduction Gears
6.9.5. Accessory Unit Drives
6.9.6. Gear Terms
6.9.7. Gear Lash and Pattern
6.9.8. Chains and Sprockets
6.10. Control Cables........................................................................................................... 452

6.10.1. Control Cables
6.10.2. Cable System Components
6.10.3. Bowden Cables
6.10.4. Teleflex Control Systems
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6.1. AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS
6.1.1. MATERIAL TESTING
Properties of Materials
The various properties of materials can be assessed, by accurate laboratory tests on sample
pieces or test specimen. The terminology, associated with these properties, is outlined in the
following paragraphs.
This is the ability of a material to withstand tensile loads

Tensile Strength
without rupture when the material is in tension
This is the ability of a material to withstand Compressive
Compressive Strength (squeezing) loads without being crushed when the material
is in compression .
This is the ability of a material to withstand offset or
Shear Strength
traverse loads without rupture occurring .
This is the ability of a material to withstand shatter. A
Toughness material which easily shatters is brittle. Toughness indicates
the ability of a material to absorb energy
This is the ability of a material to deform under load and
Elasticity return to its original size and shape when the load is
removed. The property is required for springs
This is the property of a material to deform permanently
Plasticity under the application of a load. Plastacine is plastic. This is
the exact opposite to elasticity.
This is ability of a material to stretch under the application
of tensile load and retain the deformed shape on the
Ductility removal of the load. A ductile material combines the
properties of plasticiy and tensile strength. All materials
which are formed by drawing are required to be ductile
This is the property of a material to deform permanently
Malleability under the application of a compressive load. A material
which is forged to its final shape is required to be malleable
This is the property of a material to withstand continuously
Fatigue Strength
varying and alternating loads
This is the property of a material to withstand indentation
and surface abrasion by another hard object. It is an
Hardness
indication of the wear resistance of a material.e.g Diamonds
are very hard.
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Tensile Testing
Tensile testing is a standard basic test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension
load until failure. The test results are commonly used to obtain material properties, to select a
material for an application, for quality control. Properties that are directly measured via a
tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. To
ensure uniformity of test results, the test specimens used must conform to standard
dimensions and finish as laid down by the appropriate Standards Authority (ASTM, BSI,
DIN, ISO etc).
The cross-section of the specimen may be round or rectangular, but the relationship between
the cross-sectional area and a specified "gauge length", of each specimen, is constant. The
following (figure 1.1) is the typical test specimen
Figure 1.1: Test Specimen
Tensile Stress (Strength) - Tensile strength in a material is obtained by measuring the

maximum load, which the test piece is able to sustain, and dividing by the original cross-
sectional area (Ao) of the specimen. The value derived from this simple calculation is called
Stress denoted by σ
Note: The unit maybe in British unit lbf/in2, or SI units such as kN/m2, MN/m2 and kPa or
MPa.
Stress-Strain Diagrams
If a gradually increasing tensile load is applied to a test piece while the load and extension are
continuously measured, the results can be used to produce a Stress – Strain ( figure 1.2).
Obviously a number of different forms of graph may be obtained, depending on the material
type
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An examination of a Stress/Strain graph, obtained from the results of a tensile test on mild
steel (figure 1.2b). This is a characteristic of mild steel and a few other, relatively ductile,
materials.
Figure 1.2: Stress-Strain Diagram for Mild Steel
If, after passing the yield point, the load is further increased, it may be seen that mild steel is
capable of withstanding this increase until the Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) is reached
(point ‘B’). Severe necking then occurs and the material will fracture at a reduced load. The
unexpected ability of mild steel to accept more load after yielding is due to strain-hardening
of the material. Work-hardening of many materials is often carried out to increase their
strength.
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Figure 1.3: Typical stress-strain graph
Figure 1.4: Stress/Strain graph for Duralumin, showing the Yield point, Ultimate Tensile
Strength (UTS, Elastic and Plastic regions).
As previously stated, various forms of load/extension curves may be constructed for other
materials ( figure 1.5), and their slopes will depend on whether the materials are brittle,
elastic or plastic.
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Figure 1.5: Load/Extension Graphs for Brittle, Elastic and Plastic Materials
(a) represents a brittle material (e.g. glass)
(b) represents a material with some elasticity and limited plasticity (e.g. high-carbon
steel).
(c) represents a material with some elasticity and good plasticity (e.g. soft aluminium).
Figure 1.6: Stress-strain graphs for a brittle and a ductile material
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Ductility
The two indicators of ductility are: Elongation and Reduction in area (at the neck)
Proof Stress
Many materials do not exhibit a yield point, so a substitute value must be employed. The
value chosen is the ‘Proof Stress’, which is defined as:
The tensile stress, which is just sufficient to produce a non-proportional

elongation, equal to a specified percentage of the original gauge length.
Usually a value of 0.1% or 0.2% is used for Proof Stress, and the Proof Stress is then referred
to as the 0.1% Proof Stress or the 0.2% Proof Stress respectively.
The Proof Stress may be acquired from the relevant Load/Extension graph (refer to figure
1.7) as follows:
If the 0.2% Proof Stress is required, then 0.2% of the gauge length is marked on the extension
axis. A line, parallel to the straight-line portion of the graph, is drawn until it intersects the
non-linear portion of the curve. The corresponding load is then read from the graph. Proof
Stress is calculated by dividing this load by the original cross-sectional area.
0.1% Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one thousandth of the specimen's
original length.
0.2% Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one five hundredth of the original
length.
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Figure 1.7: Acquiring the Proof Stress from a Load/Extension Graph
Stiffness
Ratio stress and strain in the elastic range of a material
Measure of stiffness/rigidity or flexibility is Modulus of Elasticity, or Young’s Modulus
Figure 1.8: Young’s Modulus is the gradient of the stress-strain graph before the yield point
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The Tensile Test Machine

Tensile testing machines vary both in design and capacity. Large machines capable of
applying forces up to 1 MN are in use.
Figure 1.9: Tensile test machine
Summary of the Information Derived from the Tensile Test

The following is the results from a tensile test of a steel specimen.
Load – extension curves for steel
Symbol used :
W= Load
We= elastic limit
Wy= yield load
Wf= fracture load
Wm= maximum load
Wp= proof load
e = strain
x = exension
σ = stress
E= Young’s modulus
Figure 1.10: Load extension curve
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Compression Test
Machines for compression testing are often the same as those used for tensile testing, but the
test specimen is in the form of a short cylinder.
The Load/Deflection graph in the elastic phase for ductile materials is similar to that in the
tensile test. The value of 'E' is the same in compression as it is in tension. Compression
testing is seldom used as an acceptance test for metallic or plastic materials (except for cast
iron).
Hardness Tests
Hardness is the resistance of a material to indentation, and by pressing a suitably shaped
indenter into the surface of the material being tested, a comparison of hardness values can be
made. Hardness values are normally required by the material specification, and tests are also
carried out to check case hardening and hardening and tempering at the various stages of
manufacture.
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The Brinell Test

In this test a hardened steel ball is forced into the surface of a test piece by means of a
suitable standard load. The diameter of the impression is then measured using a calibrated
microscope an the Brinell Hardness Number (H) is found from:
Figure 1.11: Brinell stell Ball

The Brinell test was devised by a Swedish researcher at the beginning of the 20th century.
The test comprises forcing a hardened steel ball indentor into the surface of r the sample
using a standard load as shown in figure 1.8 The diameter/load ratio is selected to provide an
impression of an acceptable diameter. The ball may be
10,5 or 1mm in diameter, the load may be 3000, 750 or 30 kgf, The load, P, is related to the
diameter, D by the relationship P/D and this ratio has been standardised for different metals
in order that test results are accurate and reproducible. For steel the ratio is 30:1 - for example
a 10mm ball can be used with a 3000kgf load or a 1 mm ball with a 30kgf load. For
aluminium alloys the ratio is 5:1.
The Vickers Pyramid Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test is similar to the Brinell in that an impression is made by applying a
load to an indenter. The hardness number is then obtained from measurement of the
impression. The indenter is a diamond in the shape of a square based pyramid and the
measurement is made across the diagonal of the impression.
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Figure 1.12: The Vickers Pyramid tester
An advantage of the Vickers hardness test is that hardness values for very hard materials are
more accurate than the corresponding Brinell numbers. This is because a diamond does not
deform under high pressure, as does a steel ball, and so the result will be more accurate.
Figure 1.13: The Vickers Pyramid Indenter
The diagonal length of the square impression is measured by means of a microscope which
has a variable slit built into the eyepiece.
As illustrated in figure 1.13 (bj two diagonals, di and d2 , are measured, averaged and the
surface area calculated then divided into the load applied. As with the Brinell test the
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diagonal measurement is converted to a hardness figure by referring to a set of tables. The

hardness may be reported as Vickers Hardness number (VHN), Diamond Pyramid Number
(DPN) or, most commonly, Hvxx where 'xx‘ represents the load used during the test.
The width of the slip is adjusted so that its edges line up with the corners of the impression.
The diagonal length of the impression is then obtained from a digital counter geared to the
movement of the slip. The reading is converted to Vickers Pyramid Hardness Number (VPN)
by reference to tables. The higher the number the harder the material.
The specified time of contact between the indenter and the test piece in both Vickers and
Brinell hardness tests is 15 seconds.
The Rockwell Test

The Rockwell Test was developed in the U.S.A. It is used mainly for the rapid routine testing
of finished materials, the hardness number being indicated directly on a dial, no measurement
of the diameter of the impression is required.
Figure 1.14: The Rockwell test machine and its

Indenter
There are two types of Rockwell tests

Rockwell: the minor load is 10 kgf, the major load is 60,100, or 150 kgf.
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Superficial Rockwell: the minor load is 3 kgf and major loads are 15, 30, or 45 kgf.
In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or steel ball, depending upon the
characteristics of the material being tested.
Principal of the Rockwell Test:
1. The indenter moves down into position on the part surface

2. A minor load is applied and a zero reference position is established
3. The major load is applied for a specified time period (dwell time) beyond zero
4. The major load is released leaving the minor load applied
The resulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from the zero reference
position as a result of the application of the major load.
Rockwell Scales
There are several scales associated with the Rockwell test. The ‘B’ and ‘C’ scales are most
common. The ‘C’ scale is used for harder materials and uses a 150 kg load. The ‘B’ scale is
used on softer materials and uses a 100 kg load. Scale units are identical but the ‘C’ scale
zero coincides with the ‘B’ scale 30.
Hardness Comparisons
Material BHN HV Rockwell
Aluminium Alloy 100 100 B 57
Mild steel 130 130 B 73
Cutting Tools 650 697 C 60
Table 1.1: Comparative hardness values
Hardness Testing on Aircraft

It is not normal to use Brinell, Rockwell or Vickers testing methods on aircraft in the hangar.
There are, however, portable Hardness Testers, which may be used to test for material
hardness on items such as aircraft wheels, after an over-heat condition, because the over-heat
condition may cause the wheel material to become soft or partially annealed.
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Impact Testing
Impact tests are used to indicate the toughness of a material and most importantly its ability
to resist mechanical shock, to ensure that temper brittleness has not been introduced during
heat treatments.
Toughness is, broadly, a measure of the amount of energy required to cause an item - a test
piece or a bridge or a pressure vessel - to fracture and fail. The more energy that is required
then the tougher the material.
The area beneath a stress/strain curve produced from a tensile test is a measure of the
toughness of the test piece under slow loading conditions. However, in the context of an
impact test we are looking at notch toughness, a measure of the metal's resistance to brittle or
fast fracture in the presence of a flaw or notch and fast loading conditions.
There are two types of machine used for testing aircraft materials, both of which use a
pendulum weight to fracture the specimen. The energy absorbed by the specimen is measured
from the angle through which the pendulum swings after causing the fracture. The IZOD test
is required by most of the British material specifications, but where the test piece must be
tested at high or low temperatures the CHARPY test is used. The test is carried out within
the 6 seconds of removal of the test piece from the heating or cooling bath. Machines are
available which carry out both the Izod and Charpy tests.
Figure 1.15: The Charpy and Izod Impact test machines
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Figure 1.16: Izod Impact test machine
Most materials show a drop in toughness with a reduction in temperature, though some
materials (certain steels in particular) show a rapid drop in toughness as the temperature is
progressively reduced. This / temperature range is called the Transition Zone, and
components, which are designed for use at low temperature, should be operated above the
material’s Transition Temperature.
Nickel is one of the most effective alloying elements for lowering the Transition Temperature
of steels
Creep
Creep can be defined as the continuing deformation, with the passage of time, of materials
subjected to prolonged stress. This deformation is plastic and occurs even though the acting
stress may be well below the yield stress of the material.
At temperatures below 0.4T (where T is the melting point of the material in Kelvin), the
creep rate is very low, but, at higher temperatures, it becomes more rapid. For this reason,
creep is commonly regarded as being a high-temperature phenomenon, associated with super-
heated steam plant and gas turbine technology. However, some of the soft, low-melting point
materials will creep significantly at, or a little above, ambient temperatures and some aircraft
materials may creep when subjected to over-heat conditions.
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Creep in Metals
When a metallic material is suitably stressed, it undergoes immediate elastic deformation.
This is then followed by plastic strain, which occurs in three stages (refer to Fig. 9):
Primary Creep - begins at a relatively rapid rate, but then decreases with time as strain-
hardening sets in.
Secondary Creep - the rate of strain is fairly uniform and at its lowest value.
Tertiary Creep - the rate of strain increases rapidly, finally leading to rupture. This final
stage coincides with gross necking of the component, prior to failure. The rate of creep is
at a maximum in this phase.
Figure 1.17: Stages of creep
Effect of Stress and Temperature on Creep
Both stress and temperature have an effect on creep. At low temperature or very low stress,
primary creep may occur, but this falls to a negligible value in the secondary stage, due to
strain-hardening of the material. At higher stress and/or temperature, however, the rate of
secondary creep will increase and lead to tertiary creep and inevitable failure.
It is clear, from the foregoing, that short-time tensile tests do not give reliable information for
the design of structures, which must carry static loads over long periods of time, at elevated
temperatures. Strength data, determined from long- time creep tests (up to 10,000 hours), are
therefore essential.
Although actual design data are based on the long-time tests, short-time creep tests are
sometimes used as acceptance tests.
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The Effect of Grain Size on Creep
Since the creep mechanism is partly due to microscopic flow along the grain boundaries,
creep resistance is improved by increased grain size, due to the reduced grain boundary
region per unit volume. It is mainly for this reason that some modern, high-performance
turbine blades are being made from directionally solidified (and, alternatively, improved
single-crystal) castings.
Creep in Plastics
Plastics are also affected by creep and show similar, though not identical, behaviour to that
described for metals. Since most plastics possess lower thermal properties than metals, the
choice of plastic for important applications, particularly at elevated temperature, must take
creep considerations into account.
Fatigue
The famous fatigue failure of the airplane was happened on the first commercial jet aircraft
was the de Havilland Comet ( see figure below), which entered service in 1952. On January
10th 1954, after only 1,290 pressurised flights a Comet crashed into deep water off the island
of Elba. All lives were lost. The cause of failure was fatigue initiated from window corner
and growth to the crack size beyond residual strength capability of fuselage structure.
An in-depth survey, in recent years, revealed that over 80 percent of failures of engineering
components were caused by fatigue. Consequences of modern engineering have led to
increases in operating stresses, temperatures and speeds. This is particularly so in aerospace
and, in many instances, has made the fatigue characteristics of materials more significant than
their ordinary, static strength properties.
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Engineers became aware that alternating stresses, of quite small amplitude, could cause
failure in components, which were capable of safely carrying much greater, steady loads.
This phenomenon of small, alternating loads causing failure was likened to a progressive
weakening of the material, over a period of time and hence the attribution of the term
‘fatigue’. Very few constructional members are immune from it, and especially those
operating in a dynamic environment.
Experience in the aircraft industry has shown that the stress cycles, to which aircraft are
subjected, may be very complex, with occasional high peaks, due to gust loading of aircraft
wings. For satisfactory correlation with in-service behaviour, full-size or large-scale mock-
ups must be tested in conditions as close as possible to those existing in service.
Fatigue Testing
An experiment, conducted in 1861, found that a wrought iron girder, which could safely
sustain a mass of 12 tons, broke when a mass of only 3 tons was raised and lowered on the
girder some 3x106 times.
It was also found that there was some mass, below 3 tons, which could be raised and lowered
on to the beam, a colossal number (infinite) of times, without causing any problem.
Some years later, a German engineer (Wohler), did work in this direction and eventually
developed a useful fatigue-testing machine which bears his name and continues to be used in
industry. The machine uses a test piece, which is rotated in a chuck and a force is applied at
the free end, at right angles to the axis of rotation (refer to figure 1.18). The rotation thus
produces a reversal of stress for every revolution of the test piece.
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Figure 1.18: Fatigue testing machine
Various other types of fatigue testing are also used e.g. cyclic-torsional, tension-compression
etc. Exhaustive fatigue testing, with various materials, has resulted in a better understanding
of the fatigue phenomenon and its implications from an engineering viewpoint.
S-N Curves
One of the most useful end-products, from fatigue testing, is an S-N curve, which shows,
graphically, the relationship between the amount of stress (S), applied to a material, and the
number of stress cycles (N), which can be tolerated before failure of the material.
Using a typical S-N curve, for a steel material (refer to figure 1.19), it can be seen that, if the
stress is reduced, the steel will endure a greater number of stress cycles. The graph also
shows that a point is eventually reached where the curve becomes virtually horizontal, thus
indicating that the material will endure an infinite number of cycles at a particular stress
level.
This limiting stress is called the ‘Fatigue Limit’ and, for steels, the fatigue limit is generally
in the region of 40% to 60% of the value of the static, ultimate tensile strength (U.T.S.)
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Figure 1.19: A typical S-N curve
Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different characteristic from steel. In this instance
there is no fatigue limit as such and it can be seen that these materials will fail if subjected to
an appropriate number of stress reversals, even at very small stresses. When materials have
no fatigue limit an endurance limit together with a corresponding number of cycles is quoted
instead.
It follows that components made from such materials must be designed with a specific life in
mind and removed from service at the appropriate time. The service fatigue lives of
complete airframes or airframe members are typical examples of this philosophy.
Non-metallic materials are also liable to failure by fatigue. As is the case with metals, the
number of stress cycles, required to produce a fatigue failure, will increase as the maximum
stress in the loading cycle decreases. There is, however, generally no fatigue limit for these
materials and some form of endurance limit must be applied.
The importance of fatigue strength can be illustrated by the fact that, in a high- cycle fatigue
mode, a mere 10% improvement in fatigue strength can result in a 100-times life
improvement.
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Fatigue Failure
As the fatigue characteristics of most materials are now known (or can be ascertained), it
would seem reasonable to suppose that fatigue failure, due to lack of suitable allowances in
design, should not occur.
Nevertheless, fatigue cracking occurs frequently, and even the most sophisticated engineering
product does not possess immunity from this mode of failure. Such failures are often due to
unforeseen factors in design, environmental or operating conditions, material, and
manufacturing processes.
Two essential requirements for fatigue development in a material are:

An applied stress fluctuation of sufficient magnitude (with or without an applied
steady stress).
A sufficient number of cycles of that fluctuating stress.
The stress fluctuations may be separated by considerable time intervals, as experienced in

aircraft cabin pressurisation, during each take-off (e.g. daily), or they may have a relatively
short time interval, such as encountered during the aerodynamic buffeting/vibration of a wing
panel. The former example would be considered to be low-cycle fatigue and the latter to be
high-cycle
fatigue.
In practice, the level of the fluctuating stress, and the number of cycles to cause cracking of a
given material, are affected by many other variables, such as stress concentration points
(stress raisers), residual internal stresses, corrosion, surface finish, material imperfections etc.
Vibration - Vibration has already been quoted as being a cause of high-cycle fatigue and,
because most dynamic structures are subjected to vibration, this is undoubtedly the most
common origin of fatigue. All objects have their own natural frequency at which they will
freely vibrate (the resonant frequency). Large, heavy, flexible components vibrate at a low
frequency, while small, light, stiff components vibrate at a high frequency.
Resonant frequencies are undesirable (and in some cases could be disastrous), so it is
important to ensure that, over their normal operating ranges, critical components are not
vibrated at their natural frequencies and so avoid creating resonance.
The resonant frequency, of a component, is governed by its mass and stiffness and, on certain
critical parts, it is often necessary to do full-scale fatigue tests to confirm adequate fatigue life
before putting the product into service.
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Fatigue Metallurgy
Under the action of fatigue stresses, minute, local, plastic deformation on an atomic scale,
takes place along slip planes within the material grains. If the fatigue stresses are continued,
then micro cracks are formed within the grains, in the area of the highest local stress, (usually
at or near the surface of the material). The micro cracks join together and propagate across
the grain boundaries but not along them.
A fatigue fracture generally develops in three stages (refer to figure 1.20):
 Initiation
 Propagation (crack growth)
 Ultimate (rapid) fracture.
Figure 1.20: Fatigue crack propagation
Figure 1.21: Typical fatigue failure
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The resultant fractured surface often has a characteristic appearance of:

An area, on which a series of curved, parallel, relatively smooth ridges are present and are
centred around the starting point of the crack. These ridges are sometimes called
conchoidai lines or ‘beach marks’ or ‘arrest lines’.
A rougher, typically crystalline section, which is the final rapid fracture when the cross-
section is no longer capable of carrying its normal, steady load.
The arrest lines are, normally, formed when the loading is changed, or the loading is
intermittent. However, in addition to these characteristic and informative marks, there are
similar, but much finer lines (called ‘striations’), which literally show the position of the
crack front after each cycle. These striations are obviously of great importance to
metallurgists and failure investigators when attempting to estimate the crack initiation and/or
propagation life. The striations are often so fine and indistinct that electron beam microscopes
are required to count them.
In normal circumstances, a great deal of energy is required to 'weaken1 the material

sufficiently to initiate a fatigue crack, and it is not surprising, therefore, to find that the
nucleation phase takes a relatively long time.
However, once the initial crack is formed, the extremely high stress concentration (present at
the crack front) is sufficient to cause the crack to propagate relatively quickly, and gaining in
speed as the crack front not only increases in size, but also reduces the component cross-
sectional area.
A point is eventually reached (known as the ’critical crack length1) at which the remaining
cross- section is sufficiently reduced to cause a gross overloading situation, and a sudden
fracture finally occurs.
It is not unusual for the crack initiation phase to take 90% of the time to failure, with the
propagation phase only taking the remaining 10%. This is one of the major reasons for
operators of equipment being relatively unsuccessful in detecting fatigue cracks in
components before a failure occurs.
Fatigue Promoters
As fatigue cracks initiate at locations of highest stress and lowest local strength, the
nucleation site will be:
dictated largely by geometry and the general stress distribution located at or near the
surface or centred on surface defects/imperfections, such as scratches, pits, inclusions,
dislocations and the like
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Design
Apart from general stressing, the geometry of a component has a considerable influence on
its susceptibility to fatigue. A good designer will therefore minimise stress concentrations by:
avoiding rapid changes in section and
using generous blend radii or chamfers to eliminate sharp corners
Manufacture
While the designer may specify adequate blend radii, the actual product may still be prone to
fatigue failure if the manufacturing stage fails to achieve this sometimes-seemingly
unimportant drawing requirement.
Several other manufacturing-related causes of premature fatigue failure exist, the most
common of which are:
Inherent material faults: e.g. cold shuts, pipe, porosity, slag inclusions etc.
Processing faults: e.g. bending, forging, grinding, shrinking, welding, etc.
Production faults: e.g. incorrect heat-treatment, inadequate surface protection, poor
drilling procedures, undue force used during assembly, etc
In-service damage: e.g. dents, impact marks, scratches, scores, tooling marks etc.
Environment
One of the most potent environmental promoters of fatigue occurs when the component is
operating in a corrosive medium. Steel (normally), has a well-defined fatigue limit on the S-N
curve but, if a fatigue test is conducted in a corrosive environment, not only does the general
fatigue strength drop appreciably, but the curve also resembles the aluminium alloy curve
(e.g. the fatigue failure stress continues to fall as the number of cycles increases).
Other environmental effects such as fretting and corrosion pitting, erosion or elevated
temperatures will also adversely affect fatigue strength.
Fatigue Preventers
If a component is prone to fatigue failure in service, then several methods of improvement are
available, in the form of:
Quality. Correct and eliminate any failure-related manufacturing or processing
shortcomings.
Material. Select a material with a significantly better fatigue strength, or corrosion-
resistance or corrosion-protection if relevant.
Geometry.
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a) Increase the size (c.s.a.) to reduce the general stress level or modify the local
geometry to reduce the change in section (large radius).
b) Modify the geometry to change the vibration frequency or introduce a
damping feature, to reduce the vibration amplitudes.
c) Improve the surface finish or put a compressive stress in the skin (e.g. shot
peen or cold expand).
Cold Expansion (Broaching) - Most fatigue failures occur whilst a material is subject to a
tensile, alternating stress. If the most fatigue-prone areas, such as spar fastener holes, have a
compression stress applied, they are significantly more resistant to fatigue failure.
The fastener hole is initially checked for defects (using, usually, an Eddy Current NDT
procedure) and the surface finish is further improved by reaming (and checked once again).
A tapered mandrel is then pulled through the hole, resulting in a localized area of residual
(compressive) stress which will provide a neutral or, at least, a significantly reduced level of
fatigue in the area around the fastener hole.
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Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)

Obviously it is extremely important, that the level of fatigue, imposed on an aircraft structure
(and associated components), be monitored and recorded so that the respective fatigue lives
are not exceeded. Several methods have been developed to assist in the vital tasks involved
with SHM
Do's and Don’ts - Preventing Fatigue Failures

DO
Be careful not to damage the surface finish of a component by mishandling.
Use the right tools for assembling press-fit components etc.
Maintain drawing sizes and tolerances.
Keep the correct procedures (e.g. don't overheat when welding).
Avoid contact or near contact of components that might cause fretting when touching.
DON'T
Leave off protective coverings - plastic end caps etc.
Score the surface.
Leave sharp corners or ragged holes.
Force parts unnecessarily to make them fit.
Work metal unless it is in the correct heat-treated state.
Fatigue Meters
Fatigue meters are used to check overall stress levels on aircraft and to monitor the fatigue
history of the aircraft. Fatigue meters also allow a check to be made on the moment in time
when the aircraft exceeds the design limits imposed on it.
Strain Gauges
Strain gauges may be used to monitor stress levels on specific aircraft structures. Strain
gauges are thin-foil, electrical, resistor elements, bonded to the aircraft structure. Their
resistance varies proportional to the applied stress loading.
Fatigue Fuses
Fatigue fuses are metallic fuses, which are bonded to the structure and which fail at different
fatigue stresses. The electrical current, flowing through the fuse, will vary and thus, provide
an indication of the stress level.
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Intelligent Skins Development

Modern developments in aircraft structures will allow the structures to be designed and built
with a variety of sensors and systems embedded into the structure and skin. This would
mainly be restricted to structures manufactured from composite materials. One major benefit
of this is to allow the structure to monitor it's own loads and fatigue life.
Smart Structures
The generic heading ‘Smart Structures’ actually covers three areas of development:
 Smart Structures. These are structures, which have sensors, actuators, signal-
processing and adaptive control systems built in
 Smart Skins. These have radar and communications antennae embedded in, or
beneath, the structural skin
 Intelligent Skins. Skin embedded with fibre optic sensors
Smart Structures perceived benefits include:

 Self-diagnostic in the monitoring of structural integrity
 Reduced life cycle costs Reduced inspection costs
 Potential weight saving/performance improvements derived from increased
knowledge of composite material characteristics
 From a military point of view - an improvement in ‘Stealth’ characteristics.
A fully monitored and self-diagnostic system could:

 Assess structural integrity.
 Pinpoint structural damage.
 Process flight history.
Composite laminates, containing embedded fibre optic sensors can be used for SHM,
including fatigue monitoring and flight envelope exceedance monitoring and their advantages
include:
 Cover a greater area of structure
 Not prone to electrical interference
 Less vulnerable to damage when embedded in the plies Increased knowledge of
structural loads aids designers
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6.1.2. AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS
Introduction
Iron is produced by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. Iron ore (magnetite and hematite) is
quarried or mined from the earth’s crust and converted by a series of processes into pig iron.
Any alloy containing iron as its main constituent is called a ferrous metal. Steel is the most
common ferrous metal used in aircraft, which is an alloy of iron with a controlled amount of
carbon added.
Iron Production
The iron ore is first washed and then added to the blast furnace together with high quality
coke, low in sulphur content and limestone, which combines with impurities and forms a
slag. During charging, the double bell arrangement prevents gases escaping. These gases are
later cleaned and used to heat the air entering the blast main, to about 800°C, reducing the
amount of coke required by half. The oxygen in the air causes the coke to burn fiercely,
generating heat and producing carbon monoxide gas which reduces the ore to metal.
Iron which is the heaviest product drips to the bottom of the furnace. The lighter slag floats
on top of the iron. When the iron reaches the level of the slag tapping hole, the slag is run off.
The iron is then tapped out from the bottom of the furnace.
The molten pig iron may be cast into small moulds known as pigs. If the blast furnace is
situated close to a steel works, the molten iron is conveyed direct to the steel making
furnaces.
Cast Iron
Pig iron from the blast furnace is not refined enough for making castings. In a foundry the pig
iron is re-melted together with broken pieces of pig iron, coke and some limestone (to absorb
impurities) in a small blast furnace called a cupola. The molten iron, having a melting point
of 1130°C, flows to the bottom of the furnace and is tapped directly into ladles or moulds.
Cast iron is an important material for the following reasons:
1. It is a cheap metal, since it can be produced by simple adjustments to the composition
of ordinary pig iron.
2. Rigidity and strength under compression are good.
3. It is easy to machine.
4. It casts easily due to its fluidity when molten.
5. Its composition can be altered to make it stronger and tougher if required.
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The Composition of Cast Iron

• Ordinary cast iron contains the following elements:
• Carbon 3.0 to 4%
• Silicon 1.0 to 3.0%
• Manganese 0.5 to 1.0%
• Sulphur up to 0.1 % (Induce Brittleness)
• Phosphorous up to 1.9%
• Also Chromium 0.5 - 1.00% for Stainless Steel
Wrought Iron
Probably the first form of iron used by man. It is very pure, containing 99.9% iron. It is made
from oxidizing nearly all the carbon and other elements from pig iron in a furnace.
Wrought iron is able to take large shock loads without permanent damage and was used for
making chains and lifting hooks etc. It fibrous nature giving visible warning on the surface, if
it is about to break.
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STEELMAKING
Steel is made from pig iron, but in modem steel making, large amounts of scrap steel can be
used up if required.
There are three methods of making steel. The Open Hearth Process, the Basic Oxygen
Process and the Electric Furnace Process.
Open Hearth Process
Figure 1.1 Basic steel making process
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking

A typical basic oxygen furnace consists of a steel cased converter lined with dolomite holding
up to 400 tonnes of metal. The charge consists of up to 40% of scrap steel, lime and molten
pig iron.
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Figure 1.2 Basic oxygen converter
Electrical Arc Steel Making

An electrical arc furnace is shown. The heat required to melt the charge is produced by
electric arcs struck between carbon electrodes and the steel. The impurities are oxidized from
the charge by melting it under a covering of slag which absorbs the oxidized impurities and
may then be run off by tilting the furnace. The charge consists of scrap, iron ore, blast furnace
pig iron and limestone.
The advantage of the electric furnace is that there is no gas, fumes or impurities which are
present in fuel fed furnaces and which may allow impurities into the molten metal. Electrical
furnaces are used to make high quality steels.
NOTE: When the impurities are oxidized, they combine with oxygen and form an oxide which floats on top of
the molten steel, together with the slag.
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STEEL
Plain carbon steel are alloys of iron and up to 1.7% carbon. Most ordinary steels also contain
up to 1.0% manganese, left over during the steel making process. The manganese helps
reduce the sulphur content of the steel. Both sulphur and phosphorus are harmful impurities
causing brittleness in steels. Most specifications allow no more than 0.06% of either of these
elements. High quality steels would contain no more than 0.04% of each element. The
manganese dissolves in the solid steel, slightly increasing its strength and hardness.
The relative density of steel is 7.9.
Steel is 2/3 the weight of lead, 3 times the weight of aluminum.
Annealed steel with low carbon concentration (e.g. 0.2%) can have a tensile strength of 345
MPa (50,000 lbf/in2). Annealed high-carbon steel (0.4%) may have tensile strengths of
almost 700 MPa (about 100,000 lbf/in2 ). Cold working, alloying and heat treatment can
boost strength up to around 1000 MPa.
General
Plain carbon steel owes its properties to the presence of carbon. The effects of carbon in iron
are best understood by first considering pure iron. Pure iron is very ductile, and has a tensile
strength of 18 tons/sq.in (28 Hbar). The addition of carbon to the iron increases the tensile
strength. hardness and brittleness, and at the same time decreases the ductility. The tensile
strength of 0.8% carbon steel is a approximate 55 tons/sq.in (85 Hbar). The strength of steel
will increase with carbon content but is limited to the amount of carbon which will remain
combined with the iron after any normal heat treatment. Above 1.7% carbon, the excess
carbon is in the form of free (uncombined) carbon or graphite, which has very low strength.
The carbon content of plain carbon steel does not often exceed 1.5%.
The internal structure of steel may be varied by heating and cooling. To produce certain
properties in the steel, it is heat treated. It is not always possible to produce all the desired
properties in the metal and a compromise has to be made. For ease of manufacture the metal
may require to be soft. In use, great strength and considerable hardness may be required.
Thus if a steel is required to be hard and tough, the maximum degree of hardness and
toughness cannot be obtained together. Maximum hardness makes the metal brittle and
maximum toughness generally reduces hardness.
The (American) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has classified steel alloys with a
four¬ digit numerical index system. A small extract from the SAE classification system is
shown in Table 2, where it can be seen, for example, that one common steel alloy is identified
by the designation SAE 1030. The first digit identifies it as a Carbon-Steel, while the second
digit shows that it is a Plain Carbon-Steel. The last two digits denote the percentage of carbon
in the steel (0.30%).
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It should be noted that the British Standards Institute (BS) has a different classification
system.
1xxx Carbon Steels

10xxx Plain Carbon Steels
2xxx Nickel Steels
3xxx Nickel-Chromium Steels
40xxx Molybdenum Steels
41xxx Chrome-Molybdenum Steels
5xxx Chromium Steels
6xxx Chrome-Vanadium Steels
Table1.1 Extract from the SAE Classification for Steel Alloys
Useful
Properties Worked by Uses Remarks
Qualities
Properties
Cast Iron Brittle weak, unaffected by
Casts easily Machine
fairly soft heat slightly
(up to 4.7% Casting and wears to good frames.
(very hard self lubricating
and cutting only surface, resists Surface tables
surface if owing to
impurities) crushing. piston rings
"chilled”) graphite
carbon
Wrought Iron Ductile, All methods
Easily Cores of Cannot be
(about 0.02% malleable,
except magnetised dynamos, hardened by
and fewer fairly strong,
easily welded lifting chains quenching
impurities) soft casting
Ductile, less Cannot be

Mild steel Bolts, tubes,
malleable, Easily forged, hardened by
rivets, plates,
(low carbon) stronger, welded, quenching: for
all parts where
(up to 0.3% harder and All methods machined or surface
great strength
and few more uniform stamped to hardening see
or hardness is
impurities) than wrought shape "Case
not required
iron Hardening”
Rather
Medium
stronger and Shafts, rods,
carbon steel Not quite so
harder but less All methods bolts, tubes.
(0.3% to 0.6% ductile and easily worked Rather
(rarely cast)
and few as mild steel
malleable than stronger parts
impurities)
mild steel
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Strong, less
High carbon ductile,
Can be made See
steel Hardness and
Forging and very hard Cutting tools "Hardening
(0.6% to 1.5% toughness cutting without undue of all kinds. and
and few depend of heat brittleness Tempering
impurities)
treatment
Table1.2 Types of Steel, their Properties and Uses
Properties and Uses of Common Steels
Metal
Properties Uses
Cast Iron Brittle, weak, casts easily, resists

Machine beds, frames and
crushing. Good anti-friction properties,
(up to 4.5% carbon) details. General castings,
self lubricating. Good vibration damping
bearings.
qualities.
Wrought Iron Ductile, malleable, fairly strong, soft, Cores of dynamos, lifting
(0.02% carbon) easily magnetized, easily welded. chains, crane hooks.
Mild Steel (Low Ductile, less malleable, stronger and Machines bolts and nuts.
carbon) harder than wrought iron. Easily forged, General workshop machined
welded, machined or stamped to shape. components, structural girders,
forgings, car body panels.
Medium Carbon Leaf springs, wire ropes,

Higher strength than mild steel and
Steel hammer heads, hacksaw frames,
responds to heat treatment to further
cold chisels, wood saws, axles,
increase its toughness and hardness
crankshaft forgings.
More costly than med. carbon steel.
High Carbon Steel Cutting tools, such as files,
Mainly used where its properties of
drills, knives, wood chisels, etc.
hardness and toughness after heat
Coil springs
treatment can be exploited.
Adding chromium gives greater
hardness for the manufacture of
ball bearings. Adding nickel
By adding other metals in sufficient
gives greater strength and
Alloy Steels quantity, the properties of carbon steel
toughness and resistance to
can be altered.
fatigue. Adding tungsten it
retains its hardness at high
temperatures.
Table 1.3 Uses of common steels
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Figure 1.4 The affect of carbon content on properties and uses of steel
MICRO-STRUCTURE OF STEEL
The constituents of carbon steel are pure iron (ferrite), and a chemical compound of carbon in
iron called iron carbide (cementite). In low carbon steel, these constituents, when viewed
through a microscope, appear as a laminated structure (pearlite), surrounded by free ferrite.
With increasing carbon content, the proportion of pearlite to ferrite increases until, with a
0.8% carbon content, the steel is entirely pearlite. Above 0.8% carbon content, a microscopic
examination shows pearlite surrounded by free cementite. Ferrite is soft, ductile and not very
strong. Pearlite is strong and tough, but soft enough to be worked. Cementite is very hard and
brittle. As the carbon content is increased up to 0.8% the steel gets tougher and stronger.
When the carbon content exceeds 0.8%, increasing cementite content, the steel becomes very
hard and more brittle.
When steel is heated, the following changes will occur to the microstructure:
The temperature at which the change starts (lower critical point) is the same for all steels and
is about 723°C. At this temperature, the pearlite disappears and the ferrite and cementite of
which it is composed, dissolves and forms a solid solution known as austenite which is non-
magnetic.
The finishing point of the transformation (the upper critical point) varies according to the
steel In steel containing 0.8% carbon (wholly pearlite) there is only one critical point. The
whole transformation takes place at about 723°C. Therefore, steel containing lower or higher
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carbon content than 0.8% must be subjected to increase in temperature (upper critical point)
to bring the free ferrite or cementite into solid solution.
When steel is allowed to cool slowly these changes occur in the reverse order.
Figure 1.5 The Iron-Carbon phase equilibrium diagram
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Figure 1.6 Microstructure of steel – magnified
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Slow-Cooled Steels
Carbon can be present in these steels in the following forms:
• When the carbon is fully dissolved and, consequently, uniformly distributed in a solid
solution, the metallurgical structure is called ferrite. At room temperature only a very
small amount of carbon (0.006%) can be contained in solid solution, therefore this
ferrite structure is almost pure iron. It is (not surprisingly) soft, weak and ductile.
• When 1 carbon atom chemically combines with 3 iron atoms the result is called
cementite or iron carbide. It is very hard and brittle.
• Cementite can be present either as free cementite or laminated with ferrite (in
alternate layers) to produce a metallurgical structure called pearlite. As pearlite is half
cementite and half ferrite, it is not surprising to find that pearlite combines the
properties of ferrite and cementite I.e. Whereas ferrite was too soft and weak - and
cementite was basically strong but too hard and brittle - pearlite is strong without
being brittle.
The amount of carbon necessary to produce a totally pearlite structure is 0.83% but this
material is a little too hard for general structural use. If the carbon content exceeds this value,
the excess carbon forms carbon-rich cementite areas along the grain boundaries, and this is
known as free cementite. Such high-carbon steels as already stated are very hard and strong
but very brittle.
Mild steel has a metallurgical structure comprising approximately one third pearlite and two
thirds ferrite.
Hesitation
If ‘straight’ carbon steel is progressively heated from cold, a steady rise in temperature
occurs. However, at approximately 700°C, there is a reduction in the rate of temperature rise
(a ‘hesitation’), even though the heating is continued (refer to figure 1.28). This hesitation
starts at 700°C and finishes at up to 200°C higher (depending on the percentage of carbon
present) and, eventually, the temperature rise speeds up and the rate of rise is similar to that
which occurred before the hesitation.
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Figure 1.6 Temperature-Time graph for steel heat-treatment
The start of the hesitation is known as the ‘lower critical point’ and the end is called the
‘upper critical point’, and the phenomenon of the temperature response is due to a change in
the crystalline structure of the steel in between the two critical points.
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HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of metals in the
solid state. Its purpose is to change a mechanical property or combination of mechanical
properties so that the metal will be more useful, serviceable, and safe for a definite purpose.
By heat treating, a metal can be made harder, stronger, and more resistant to impact. Heat
treating can also make a metal softer and more ductile. No one heat treating operation can
produce all of these characteristics. In fact, some properties are often improved at the expense
of others. In being hardened, for example, a metal may become brittle. The various heat-
treating processes are similar in that they all involve the heating and cooling of metals. They
differ, however, in the temperatures to which the metal is heated, the rate at which it is
cooled, and, of course,
in the final result. The most common forms of heat treatment for ferrous metals are
hardening, tempering, normalizing, annealing, and casehardening. Most nonferrous metals
can be annealed and many of them can be hardened by heat treatment. However, there is only
one nonferrous metal, titanium, that can be casehardened, and none can be tempered or
normalized.
Hardening
If carbon steel is heated to just above its Upper Critical Point the st ructure is called
Austenite’. This structure is a solid solution of carbon in iron (i.e. all the carbon is uniformly
distributed throughout the iron). If the steel contains above 0.3% carbon, and it is rapidly
cooled (i.e. quenched) from above the Upper Critical Point it becomes hardened.
The more carbon present, the harder the steel will be after quenching. This rapid cooling
causes a change in the metallurgical structure and is called ‘Martensite’. Martensite is
extremely hard but is not suitable for most engineering purposes due to it being very brittle.
For most applications it is necessary to carry out a further heat-treatment to reduce the
brittleness of the steel, and this is called ‘tempering’.
To temper hardened carbon steel it is necessary to heat it to a suitable temperature below its
Lower Critical Point followed by cooling (usually quenching).
The effect of this heat-treatment is to slightly reduce the hardness whilst at the same time
greatly increasing the toughness. The actual tempering temperature used depends on the
requirements of strength, hardness and toughness.
The higher the tempering temperature, the lower will be strength and hardness, but the
toughness will be greater. The maximum tensile strength of hardened carbon steel is
achievable when 0.83% carbon is present. If an even greater amount of carbon is present, the
hardness continues to increase but strength will decrease.
Steel is normally quenched in water or oil. Oil gives a slower quench which reduce the
hardness of the part but makes it tougher and reduces the risk of cracking.
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The effective hardening of carbon steels depends not only on the amount of carbon present
but also on very rapid cooling from high temperature. The cooling rate mainly depends on the
cooling medium, the size of tank, and the mass of the object to be cooled.
Agitation in the cooling bath can also speed up the cooling rate and, in terms of cooling
severity, brine is more effective than water, followed by oil and finally air.
Carbon steels require an extremely rapid cooling phase, so brine or water is normally used,
whereas oil or air-cooling is used on certain alloy steels. The rapid cooling rates, involved in
the hardening of carbon steel, cause enormous thermal stresses in the component and
distortion is commonplace. Cracking may also occur in some cases.
To achieve relatively uniform cooling it is sometimes necessary to immerse the object in a
specific way because of its shape and mass.
Refining
Prolonged heating at temperatures well above the upper critical point followed by slow
cooling (as in case hardening) causes the grain structure of steel to coarsen. This reduces the
toughness and strength of the steel. The refining process has the effect of reducing the size of
the crystalline structure it consists of reheating the steel to between 840°C and 900°C then
quenching either water or oil.
Figure 1.7 Refining of steel grain structure
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Tempering
Steel is tempered to relieve internal stresses and to reduce the brittleness which is caused by
hardening. It is however very important that sufficient hardness is retained by the steel. The
steel is reheated to a fairly low temperature, then quenched in water or allowed to cool in air.
The temperature depends on the purpose for the tool. The higher the tempering temperature,
the less the hardness but the greater the toughness. Thus the purpose of the tool or article
must be considered. A short table of articles and suitable temper temperatures is given here
Article Colour Temperature

(Degrees 0C)
Scrapers, scribers Pale Yellow 220
Punches, reamers, taps and dies Straw Yellow 240
Drills, woodworking tools Brown Yellow 260
Cold chisels, screwdrivers Dark Purple 290
Springs Blue 320
Annealing
The annealing of steel may be for one of the following purposes:
• To soften the steel for forming or to improve machinability.
• To relieve internal stresses induced by a previous process (rolling, forging, or unequal
cooling).
• To remove coarseness of grain.
Annealing is normally achieved on carbon steel by heating to just above the Upper Critical
Limit followed by very slow cooling. In practise the slow cooling rates are achieved by
cooling in the furnace or by immersing in a poor thermal conductor such as ashes. The end
result is a stress- free, fully softened material, suitable for major forming operations such as
deep pressing, drawing, extruding etc.
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Normalising
When steel is cold worked, hammered, bent, rolled, etc, its crystal structure is distorted.
Stresses and strains are set up and the metal may become brittle and weakened. Also when
steel is kept for considerable time well above the upper critical point (during forging) an
increase in the grain size takes place. When the metal is cool it may be found to have lost its
toughness.
Normalizing restores the crystalline structure to a normal condition and relieves stresses and
strains. Normalizing is carried out by heating the steel slowly to its upper critical point and
then.
allowing it to cool freely in the air. This more rapid rate of cooling, as compared with the
cooling rate in the annealing process, gives the steel a finer grain structure.
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ALLOYING ELEMENT IN STEEL

Carbon
Carbon is a constituent part of steel and therefore is not normally considered to be an alloying
element. When mixed with iron, compounds of iron carbide form and it is the carbon in steel
that allows it to be heat-treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength and toughness.
The greater the carbon content, then the more receptive the steel becomes to heat-treatment
and, while its strength and hardness increases, its malleability and weldability decreases.
• Low-Carbon Steel
Low-carbon steels contain between 0.1% and 0.3 % carbon and are classified as SAE
1010 to SAE 1030 steels. They are used in such items as locking wire and cable
bushings and, in sheet form, they are used for low-load applications. Low-carbon
steels weld easily but do not accept heat-treatment very well.
• Medium-Carbon Steel
These steels contain between 0.3% and 0.6 % carbon. The increased carbon assists in
heat-treatment while still retaining reasonable ductility. Medium-carbon steels are
used for machining or forging and where surface hardness is required.
• High-Carbon Steel
The carbon content of these steels, ranges between 0.6% and 1.5 % and this makes
them very hard. High-carbon steels are primarily used in springs, files and in most
cutting tools.
Sulphur
Sulphur causes steel to be brittle when rolled or forged and so it must be removed during the
refining process. If it proves impossible to remove all of the sulphur, then manganese, which
is harmless to the steel can be added to the metal (to form manganese sulphide),. The
manganese also improves forging by making the steel less brittle during the forming
processes.
Silicon
When silicon is alloyed with steel, it acts as a hardener and, used in small quantities, it also
improves ductility.
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Phosphorus
Phosphorus raises the yield strength of steel and improves a low-carbon steel’s resistance to
atmospheric corrosion. The steel tends to be brittle when cold, so no more than 0.05 %
phosphorus is normally used in steel production.
Nickel
Nickel is used extensively for alloying with steel as follows:
• In the range of 1% - 5% there is a marked improvement in strength (and hardness)
without lowering ductility. This high-strength, tough steel is widely used for highly
stressed parts.
• At about 25% nickel, the steel becomes highly corrosion-resistant, heat-resistant and
non-magnetic.
• At 36% nickel, a unique steel (known under its trade name as ‘Invar’) is created. This
has the lowest coefficient of expansion of any metal (1/20th that of steel) and is
excellent for master gauges and instruments.
• Because of the effect of such amounts of nickel on the expansion properties of steel, a
range of nickel-steels can be purpose-made, to trim the coefficient of expansion to
specific needs. These alloys are used in thermostats, spark plug electrodes etc.
With varying percentage of nickel, the following effects are produced:

• Prevents grain growth - used in case hardening steels
• Increases strength and toughness
• Improves resistance to corrosion
• Lowers the critical temperatures so that hardening requires a less sever quench
• With 25% nickel added, the steel is austenitic at room temperature and thus non-
magnetic
• With 35% nickel added, the steel will have a coefficient of expansion of nearly zero
• A high percentage of nickel gives higher magnetic permeability than obtained with
soft iron.
Nickel Alloys
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When the amount of nickel present is predominant, then the material becomes known as a
Nickel Alloy, many of which are widely used in industry.
One of the most important nickel-based alloy groups is the nimonics. These are a family of
alloys, containing 50% - 80% nickel, with the balance being mainly chromium (chrome) with
some titanium and aluminium.
Nimonic alloys are used in hot air control ducting, for gas turbine engine combustion
chambers and turbine blades because of their extremely low coefficient of expansion at
elevated temperatures.
Other ranges of nickel-based alloys come under the trade names of Inconel and Hastelloy,
which are also temperature-resistant and corrosion-resistant.
Another common nickel alloy is Monel. This metal (68% nickel and 29% copper, with iron,
manganese, silicon and carbon) has excellent resistance to both corrosion and chemical
attack, is tough, ductile, reasonably strong (equivalent to mild steel) and is non-magnetic. It is
used in many marine applications, for surgical apparatus and for aircraft rivets. Normally
Monel does not respond to heat treatment but, when alloyed with a small amount of
aluminium (2% - 4%), it can be hardened to double its strength. This version is known as K-
Monel’.
Nickel adds strength and hardness to steel as well as increasing its yield strength. By slowing
the rate of hardening during heat-treatment, the depth of hardening can be increased and the
steel’s grain structure made finer. SAE 2330 steel, containing 3.0 % nickel and 0.3 % carbon,
is used in the manufacture of bolts, nuts, rod ends and pins.
Chromium (Chrome)
When small amounts of chrome are added to steel, the strength and hardness increases, but
there is some loss of ductility.
1.5% chrome, in a high-carbon (1%) steel, results in a very hard material which is used
extensively for instrument pivots and in ball and roller bearings. Low chrome (1.5%-3%)
steels are used for high tensile fasteners and are suitable for nitriding. Chromium can also be
electrolytic ally deposited onto metals, to provide hard-wearing surfaces, such as those
required in cylinder bores.
Steels containing 12% or more chrome are very corrosion-resistant. Stainless (SS) Steels or
Corrosion Resistant Steels (CRS) come into this category. One particular stainless steel is
designated ‘18/8 Stainless’, which contains approximately 18% chrome and 8% nickel. These
stainless steels are used extensively in engine parts, particularly for hot applications and for
exhaust areas where their corrosion resistance is vital.
Summary:
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 Increases hardness and strength

 Increases rate of grain growth, so nickel, which has the opposite effect, is often added
with chromium to control the grain size
 Increases corrosion resistance. Used to make ball and roller bearings.
Nickel-Chrome Steel and its Alloys Nickel-chromium

This term is used when the amount of nickel present is greater than the chrome content. A
wide range of such steels exists, but the low nickel-chrome alloys are suitable for through-
hardening or case-hardening. The nickel content is around 3%-5% and the chrome ranges
from 0.5%- 1.5%. Crankshafts and connecting rods are often made from this group. High
nickel-chrome alloys (65%-85% nickel, 15%-20% chrome) have a high electrical resistance
and are often used as heater elements.
By adding both metals, in appropriate percentages, steel, which is suitable for high-strength
structural applications, is produced. Nickel-chromium steels are used for forged and
machined parts requiring high strength, ductility, shock-resistance and toughness.
Summary:
 Low nickel/chrome steels (3% Nickel/1 % Chromium) are used for piston engine
crankshafts, connecting rods and similar applications
 High nickel/chrome steels (18% Chromium/8% Nickel) are the stainless steel.
Cobalt
Cobalt is often included in High-Speed Steel (HSS) in addition to chrome, vanadium,
molybdenum, and tungsten (to improve still further the ability to cut at high working
temperatures). Cobalt is included in high-strength, permanent magnets, in some of the
nimonic alloys used for high-temperature components in gas turbine engines and cobalt is
also found in a range of temperature-resistant alloys called Stellite’ (used in piston engine
valves and for cutting tools)
Vanadium
When added to steel, vanadium improves the strength without loss of ductility, but also
greatly improves its toughness and its resistance to fatigue. Because of the improved tensile
and elastic properties, Valve (and many types of other) Springs, usually include vanadium.
Small amounts of vanadium are included in certain nickel-chrome steels and good quality
engineering tools.
Vanadium, when combined with chromium, produces a strong, tough, ductile steel-alloy.
Amounts of up to 0.2 % vanadium improve grain structure, ultimate tensile strength and
toughness. Ball bearings are also made from chrome-vanadium steel.
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 Percentage required is very low.

 Increases tensile strength and elastic limit
 Increases shock resistance and fatigue resistance. Used for valve spring, dies.
Molybdenum
One of the most widely used alloying elements for aircraft structural steel is molybdenum. It
reduces the grain size of steel, which increases its impact-strength and elastic limit. Other
advantages are an increase in wear-resistance and high fatigue-resistance, which is the reason
why molybdenum-steels are found in structural members and engine parts.
Summary:
 Percentage required is very low.
 Increases resistance to creep at high temperatures
 Increases tensile strength and ductility
 Prevents brittleness experienced by some nickel/chrome steels when they are heated.
Chromium and Molybdenum

Chrome-molybdenum steel is, probably, the most commonly used alloy steel in the aircraft
industry. Its SAE 4130 designation denotes an alloy of 1 0% molybdenum and 0.3 % carbon.
It machines well and is easily welded by gas or electric arc methods, as well as responding
well to heat-treatment. Its use in aircraft construction includes landing gear, engine
mountings and many engine components.
Corrosion-Resistant (Stainless) Steels
Since the 1940s the term stainless steel, also designated corrosion-resistant steel (CRES), has
become a household word because of its many applications in household items as well as in
aircraft and missiles. The development of stainless steel has made possible many of the
outstanding advances in aircraft, gas-turbine engines, and rockets, The most important
characteristics of stainless steels are corrosion resistance, strength, toughness, and resistance
to high temperatures. Stainless steels can be divided into three general groups based on their
structures:
Austenitic steels are chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni) and chromium-nickel-manganese alloys.
They can be hardened only by cold working, and heat treatment serves only to anneal them.
They are non-magnetic in the annealed condition, although some may be slightly magnetic
after cold working.
IDENTIFICATION TEST
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Alloy steels vary much in composition, but the following hints will be of use concerning their
identification. Austenitic steels are non-magnetic. Copper is not deposited on stainless steel
when copper sulphate solution is applied.
Types of
spark
Quenched
Note when Behavior Cooled in thrown
in water Appearance
dropped when air from when held
from red of fracture
on anvil chipped red heat against
heat
grinding
wheel
Files
Chips break easily, free
No Dark grey
Grey cast off from base carbon Dull red,
No ring apparent crystals of
metal before makes nonbursting
iron change uniform size
bending dirty
deposit
Very easily
Iron chipped. No
Low pitch Soft, files Very coarse Bright yellow
Chippings,be apparent
Wrought ring easily and fibrous non¬bursting
nd without change
breaking
Easily
Low
chipped. No Bright silvery, Bright yellow,
carbon Medium Soft, files
Chippings apparent rather large few carbon
steel (mild pitch ring easily
bend without change crystals bursts
steel)
breaking
Usually
harder to chip
than mild Can be filed
High Hard and Pale grey,
High pitch steel. but tougher Bright yellow,
carbon cannot be very fine
ring Chippings than mild all bursting
steel filed crystals
bend without steel
breaking
Red non-
Tungsten Hard and Hard and Silky-blue-
Very high Cannot be bursting
cannot be cannot be grey. Very
steel pitch ring chipped (follow the
filed filed fine
wheel)
Table 1.4 Identification tests of iron and steel
6.2 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS – NON FERROUS
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6.2.1. PURE METALS

Certain non-ferrous metals, such as aluminium, copper and lead, are used in the commercially
‘pure’ state for engineering purposes - usually in the form of sheets, tubes, wires or as thin
coatings on other metals.
Cadmium, chromium, nickel, tin and zinc are also often used to provide protective coatings
on other metals in order to retard the effects of corrosion.
Precious metals, such as gold, platinum and silver have been used for special work in high-
grade electrical instruments, aircraft windshields and, of course, space vehicles.
Aluminium, copper, magnesium and titanium alloys are among the more common non-
ferrous metals that are used in aircraft construction and repair.
6.2.2. ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Aluminum alloys in which the principal alloying ingredients are manganese, chromium, or
magnesium and silicon show little attack in corrosive environments. Alloys in which
substantial percentages of copper are used are more susceptible to corrosive action. The total
percentage of alloying elements is seldom more than 6 or 7 percent in the wrought alloys.
Aluminum is one of the most widely used metals in modern aircraft construction. It is vital to
the aviation industry because of its high strength to weight ratio and its comparative ease of
fabrication. The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its light weight. Aluminum melts
at the comparatively low temperature of 1,250 °F. It is nonmagnetic and is an excellent
conductor.
Pure aluminium can be strengthened by alloying with small amounts of Mn (up to 1.25%)
and Mg (up to 3.5%). The addition of larger percentages of Mg produces still higher
strengths, but precautions are needed for satisfactory performance. These alloys and pure
aluminium can be further hardened by cold work up to tensile strengths of 200 or even 300
MPa. Higher strengths are achieved in alloys which are heat-treatable.
Standard Designations
The most widely used designations are those of AA/IADS. Aluminium base alloys are
divided into 2 categories:
wrought (mechanically worked) and
cast.
Wrought alloys have a systematic identification according to the alloying elements.
Aluminium alloys may also be designated as being either heat-treatable or as non-heat-

treatable, though both types can be strengthened and hardened through work-hardening (or
strain-hardening). This process requires mechanically working an alloy at a temperature
below its critical range and can be achieved by rolling, drawing or pressing.
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Note: Alloys, which have aluminium or magnesium as their base elements, are referred to as
Light Alloys, while the remainder are termed Heavy Alloys.
There are no less than nine aluminium and aluminium alloy specification systems. The most
commonly used is the AA/IADS.
AA / IADS Metals or alloys meet compositional standards established by the Aluminium

Association of the United States (AA), which classifies materials based on the
International Alloy Designation System (IADS).
ASTM / ASME The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Most specifications
from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) are adopted from
or very similar to ASTM specifications.
AMS Metals or alloys meet specific Aerospace Material Specification (AMS)
guidelines established by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
Casting Grade (ICI, Ingot or alloy shapes meet the requirements for casting stock from the Alloy
etc.) Casting Institute (ACI), the American Die Casting Institute (ADCI), the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), and the Investment
Casting Institute (ICI).
BS The British Standard (BS)
EN European Norm or EuroNorm (EN) specifications have superseded several older,
national designation systems such as BS, DIN, NS and SS.
MIL-SPEC / MIL-SPEC metals meet U.S. government standards and are suitable for military
Federal applications. QQ and QQS are prefixes used to designate specific metals.
(QQS)
UNS Metals or alloys meet the compositional standards in the Unified Numbering
System (UNS), which was established by the ASTM, SAE.
SAE Products meet alloy grades, specifications, or designations established by the
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
JIS Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS.
Table 2.1: Different aluminium alloy designation systems
The International Alloy Designation System (IADS) Designation

The most commonly used is the AA/IADS designation, and so will be described
in greater detail here.
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99.00% pure 1xxx
Copper 2xxx
Manganese 3xxx
Silicon 4xxx
Magnesium 5xxx
Magnesium and Silicon 6xxx
Zinc 7xxx
Other element 8xxx
Table 2.2: American System of Identifying Alloying Elements with Aluminium
The second digit designates the purity of the aluminum and mill control
The digit "0" designates no control
The digits "1" through "9" designates different control levels at the mill. These
controls are registered with IADS. A complete understating requires an in depth
study of the specific IADS documentation.
The third and fourth digits have two meanings.

If the aluminium is 1xxx then the last two digits designate the amount of
aluminium above 99%. For example 1025 signifies a non alloyed aluminium that is
99.25% pure aluminium with the remaining 0.75% uncontrolled impurities
If the aluminium is any other than 1xxx the last two digits are registered with
IADS and are not otherwise meaningful. A complete understanding requires an in-
depth study of the specific IADS documentation.
In the 1xxx group, commercially ‘pure’ aluminium (over 99% pure) is good for corrosion
resistance, has good electrical and thermal conduction properties, is easy to work but is not
very strong.
The 2xxx group uses copper as its major alloying element. The major benefit of copper is a
large increase in strength, although if the alloy is not correctly heat- treated, intergranular
corrosion can occur between the aluminium and copper grains within the metal. These are
probably the commonest aluminium alloys used in aircraft construction.
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The 3xxx group has manganese as its major alloying agent and it is not possible to heat-treat.
The 4xxx series utilises silicon as its major element. This lowers its melting point and
improves its welding and brazing capabilities.
The 5xxx group has magnesium as the main alloying element. This is good for welding and
corrosion resistance although, if exposed to high temperature or cold working, it can corrode
quite badly.
The 6xxx group has silicon and magnesium added to the aluminium. This makes the alloy
heat- treatable and with good forming and corrosion resistance properties.
The 7xxx alloys are made harder and stronger by the addition of zinc. These are difficult to
bend and are more often used where flat plates are required.
Temper Designations
The treating of aluminium after it is milled sometimes called temper) is designated by a letter
following the four digit IADS number. Each letter signifies exactly how the aluminium was
treated. Not all treating is heat treating and not all treating affects temper.
F as fabricated, no digits appended
W solution heat treated, no digits appended
O Annealed, no digits appended
H Strain Hardening
• H1 Strained hardened only
• H2 Strain Hardened and annealed
• H3 Strain Hardened and stabilized thermally
• An additional digit may follow which designates hardness
o H 2 quarter hard
o H 4 half hard
o H 6 three quarter hard
o H 8 fill hard
Example: 3040-H41 would signify a treating of strain hardening to half hard.

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T Thermally treated
 T1 Cooled from hot work an naturally aged

 T2 Annealed
 T3 Solution treated and cold worked
 T4 Solution treated and naturally aged
 T5 Cooled from hot work and furnace aged
 T6 Solution treated and furnace aged
 T7 Solution treated and stabilized
 T8 Solution treated, cold worked, and furnace aged
 T9 Solution treated, furnace aged, and cold worked
 T10 Cooled from temperature, furnace aged, and cold worked
 T51 Stress relieved by stretching
 T510 Stress relieved by stretching with no further processing
 T511 Stress relieved by stretching and minor straightening
 T52 Stress relieved by compression
 T54 Stress relieved stretching and compression
 T42 Solution treated from O or F temper and naturally aged
 T62 Solution treated from O or F
Figure 2.2: Summary of the IADS designation for aluminium alloys
The British Standards (BS) Designation

British Standards for general engineering use BS 1470 -1475. In this series the prefix N is
used to denote non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys and prefix H for the heat-treatable alloys.
British Standards for aerospace use: BS X LXX. (The "L" series)
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e.g. BS 3 L72 indicates the 3rd amendment to the basic L 72 spec.
LM - indicates a cast material. The wrought materials are commonly abbreviated to L71,
L72, L73 etc.
Examples of some of these aircraft BS codes are:

a) L159 DURALUMIN Solution-Treated - Artificially aged
b) L163 ALCLAD Solution-Treated - Naturally aged
DURALUMIN (or simply DURAL) is a trade name for an Al/Cu/Mg/Si/Mn alloy,

originally manufactured by the Duren Aluminium Company (Germany) and first
used on airship frames, but it tends to be used as a generic name for similar alloys,
regardless of source of manufacture.
ALCLAD is a trade name of the ALCOA company, but also tends to be used as a
generic name for similar alloys, regardless of source of manufacture.
More modern wrought aluminium alloys are covered by BS 1470 to BS 1475. Each alloy is
identified by a number. Prefix letters (before number) indicate its form and whether or not it
is a heat treatable alloy. Suffix letters (after number) show what treatment it has received.
Heat treatment (first prefix letter)
N non heat treatable alloy
H heat treatable alloy.
Form of material (second prefix letter)

Some examples are:
S plate, sheet and strip (BS1470)
T drawn tube
F forgings and forging stock (BS 1472)
R rivet, bolt and screw stock
Condition (Suffix letter(s) )

M As manufactured state
O Annealed state
OD Annealed and lightly drawn
T Solution-treated, no precipitation required
W Solution-treated, can be precipitated
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated
H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, H8 strain hardened material subjected to cold work after
annealing or a combination of cold work and partial annealing. Designations are in order of
increasing tensile strength.
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TB Material solution heat treated and naturally aged.

TD Material solution heat treated and cold worked and naturally aged.
TF Material solution heat treated and precipitation heat treated.
TH Material solution heat treated, cold worked and then precipitation heat
treated.
Heat-Treatment of Aluminium Alloys

Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of metals in the
solid state. Its purpose is to change a mechanical property or combination of mechanical
properties so that the metal will be more useful, serviceable, and safe for a definite purpose.
By heat treating, a metal can be made harder, stronger, and more resistant to impact. Heat
treating can also make
a metal softer and more ductile. No one heat treating operation can produce all of these
characteristics. In fact, some properties are often improved at the expense of others. In being
hardened, for example, a metal may become brittle.
The various heat-treating processes are similar in that they all involve the heating and cooling
of metals. They differ, however, in the temperatures to which the metal is heated, the rate at
which it is cooled, and, of course, in the final result.
In the heat treatment of aluminum alloys, only two processes are included: (1) the hardening
and toughening process, and (2) the softening process. The hardening and toughening process
is called heat treating, and the softening process is called annealing.
There are two basic divisions of aluminium alloys with respect to heat treatment:
o Non-heat treatable - those that can be softened but not hardened by heat treatment.
o Heat treatable - those that can be softened and hardened by heat treatment.
Alloys 1100, 3003 and 5052 are not heat treatable. If they are heated to their annealing
temperature and allowed to cool slowly they will be softened to their annealed, or -0
condition.
The heating and cooling cycles occur in most treatments and it is only the time and
temperatures which differ. Aluminium alloys have two main heat-treatments, which are
referred to as solution heat-treatment and precipitation heat-treatment.
Solution Heat Treatment
Temperature
The temperatures used for solution heat treating vary with different alloys and range from
825 °F (441oC) F to 980 °F(527oC). As a rule, they must be controlled within a very narrow
range (±10 °F) to obtain specified properties.
For aluminum sheet the process consists of heating to a temperature of 500oC (to take the
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alloying elements into solution), keeping it at that temperature for a suitable period, (20
minutes for sheet) and then immediately quenching into cold water not exceeding 20 oC.
Time at Temperature
The time at temperature, referred to as soaking time, is measured from the time the coldest
metal reaches the minimum limit of the desired temperature range. The soaking time varies,
depending upon the alloy and thickness, from 10 minutes for thin sheets to approximately 12
hours for heavy forgings. For the heavy sections, the nominal soaking time is approximately
1 hour for each inch of cross-sectional thickness. Choose the minimum soaking time
necessary to develop the required physical properties. The effect of an abbreviated soaking
time is obvious. An excessive soaking period aggravates high temperature oxidation.
With clad material, prolonged heating results in excessive diffusion of copper and other
soluble constituents into the protective cladding and may defeat the purpose of cladding.
Typical soaking times for sheet aluminium alloy are as follow. This allows the material to
reach the required temperature.
Metal Gauge Time
Up to 0.032 inch 30 minutes
0.032 – 1/8 inch 30 minutes
1/8 – 1/4 ich 40 minutes
Over 1/4 inch 60 minutes
14 SWG 24 to 30 minutes
If required, forming may be carried out, but must be completed within two hours of
quenching.
Four to five days must then be allowed for natural ageing to take place.
Quenching
After the soluble constituents are in solid solution, the material is quenched to prevent or
retard immediate reprecipitation. Three distinct quenching methods are employed. The one to
be used in any particular instance depends upon the part, the alloy, and the properties desired.
Cold Water Quenching
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Parts produced from sheet, extrusions, tubing, small forgings, and similar type material are
generally quenched in a cold water bath. The temperature of the water before quenching
should not exceed 85 °F. Using a sufficient quantity of water keeps the temperature rise
under 20 °F. Such a drastic quench ensures maximum resistance to corrosion. This is
particularly
important when working with such alloys as 2017, 2024, and 7075. This is the reason a
drastic quench is preferred, even though a slower quench may produce the required
mechanical properties.
Hot Water Quenching

Large forgings and heavy sections can be quenched in hot or boiling water. This type of
quench minimizes distortion and alleviates cracking which may be producedby the unequal
temperatures obtained during the quench. The use of a hot water quench is permitted with
these parts because the temperature of the quench water does not critically affect the
resistance to corrosion
of the forging alloys. In addition, the resistance to corrosion of heavy sections is not as
critical a factor as for thin sections.
Spray Quenching
High velocity water sprays are useful for parts formed from clad sheet and for large sections
of almost all alloys. This type of quench also minimizes distortion and alleviates quench
cracking. However, many specifications forbid the use of spray quenching for bare 2017 and 2024
sheet materials because of the effect on their resistance to corrosion.
Precipitation Treatment
Perticipation treatment is also known as Artificial Age Hardening.
As previously stated, the aluminum alloys are in a comparatively soft state immediately after
quenching from a solution heat-treating temperature. To obtain their maximum strengths,
they must be either naturally aged or precipitation hardened. During this hardening and
strengthening operation, precipitation of the soluble constituents from the supersaturated
solid solution takes place. As precipitation progresses, the strength of the material increases,
often
by a series of peaks, until a maximum is reached. Further aging (overaging) causes the
strength to steadily decline until a somewhat stable condition is obtained.
The submicroscopic particles that are precipitated provide the keys or locks within the grain
structure and between the grains to resist internal slippage and distortion when a load of any
type is applied. In this manner, the strength and hardness of the alloy are
increased. Precipitation hardening produces a great increase in the strength and hardness of
the material with corresponding decreases in the ductile properties. The process used to
obtain the desired increase in strength is therefore known as aging, or precipitation hardening.
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Some of the heat treatable aluminium alloys do not age harden naturally after solution
treatment and require heating to a temperature between 100 oC and 200oC, to allow the CuAh
particles to come out of solution.
Heat uniformly for the requisite period at a temperature between 160 oC and 190oC, then
allow to cool in air.
Example :
Temperature oC Time in hours
165 12 to 18
175 9 to 12
185 3 to 6
Natural Age Hardening

The gradual formation of the copper alumide ‘islands’ (also referred to as ‘slip’), causes an
increase in hardness and strength and these properties reach maximum values after several
days (or weeks in some instances). Because of the time lapse involved, this gradual hardening
is termed ‘age-hardening’. Although copper may be the major alloying element (in the ‘2000
series’ alloys) other elements, including magnesium and manganese can also be present.
Although the aluminium/copper alloys are the most common age-hardened, high-strength
metals, they are not unique. Aluminium, when alloyed with 5%-7% Zinc, is also able to be
age- hardened. This is a more modern alloy than the aluminium/ copper type and is the
highest- strength aluminium alloy in general use. This alloy is used in heavy loaded
applications such as Main Spars, Landing Gear and Mainplane Attachment brackets etc.
Heat Treatment Precautions
o Keep the number of heat treatments to a minimum. Alclad must not be heat treated
more than three times because long periods at high temperature causes the copper
atoms to move into the aluminium coating decreasing its corrosion resistance.
o Do not rivet aluminium alloy sheet until at least 24 hours has passed from the time for
solution heat treatment. Failure to wait for this period can cause local distortion at
the rivet positions. Allow five days to pass before putting the part into service.
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o Do not allow metal to be overheated, or heat it for too long a time. A large grain size
will result, causing an increase in ductility. Weakness and roughness of the surface
may result and the part will have to be scrapped.
o When Artificial Age hardening, do not leave at the elevated temperature for too long,
otherwise the particles of alloying element become disbonded from the aluminium and
the strengthening effect is lost.
Annealing of aluminum alloy

The annealing procedure for aluminum alloys consists of heating the alloys to an elevated
temperature, holding or soaking them at this temperature for a length of time depending upon
the mass of the metal, and then cooling in still air. Annealing leaves the metal in the best
condition for cold working. However, when prolonged forming operations are involved, the
metal will
take on a condition known as “mechanical hardness” and will resist further working. It may
be necessary to anneal a part several times during the forming process to avoid cracking.
Aluminum alloys should not be used in the annealed state for parts or fittings. Clad parts
should be heated as quickly and carefully as possible, since long exposure to heat tends to
cause some of the constituents of the core to diffuse into the cladding. This reduces the
corrosion resistance of the
cladding.
Typical annealing procedure may be achieved by raising the temperature of the alloy to
between 340°C and 410°C. The alloy is then cooled slowly at about 10°C per hour (rates will
differ with each particular alloy), until it reaches a pre-determined temperature. At this point
it is allowed to cool naturally.
These, heat-treatable type, alloys must never be installed in an aircraft structure while in the
annealed state, since material properties and corrosion resistance will be severely affected.
Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloy Rivets

Aluminum alloy rivets are furnished in the following compositions: Alloys 1100, 5056, 2117,
2017, and 2024. Alloy 1100 rivets are used in the “as fabricated” condition for riveting
aluminum alloy sheets where a low strength rivet is suitable. Alloy 5056 rivets are used in
the “as fabricated” condition for riveting magnesium alloy sheets. Alloy 2117 rivets have
moderately high strength and are suitable for riveting aluminum alloy sheets. These rivets
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receive only one heat treatment, which is performed by the manufacturer, and are anodized
after
being heat treated. They require no further heat treatment before they are used. Alloy 2117
rivets retain their characteristics indefinitely after heat treatment and can be driven anytime.
Rivets made of this alloy are the most widely used in aircraft construction.
Alloy 2017 and 2024 rivets are high strength rivets suitable for use with aluminum alloy
structures. They are purchased from the manufacturer in the heat-treated condition. Since the
aging characteristics of these alloys at room temperatures are such that the rivets are unfit for
driving, they must be reheat treated just before they are to be used. Alloy 2017 rivets become
too hard for driving in approximately 1 hour after quenching. Alloy 2024 rivets become
hardened in 10 minutes after quenching. Both of these alloys may be reheat treated as often
as required; however, they must be anodized before the first reheat treatment to prevent
intergranular oxidation of the material. If these rivets are stored in a refrigerator at a
temperature lower than 32 °F immediately after quenching, they will remain soft enough to
be usable for several days. Rivets requiring heat treatment are heated either in tubular
containers in a salt bath, or in small screen wire baskets in an air furnace. The heat treatment
of alloy 2017 rivets consists of subjecting the rivets to a temperature between 930 °F to 950
°F for approximately 30 minutes, and immediately quenching in cold water. These rivets
reach maximum strength in about 9 days
after being driven. Alloy 2024 rivets should be heated to a temperature of 910 °F to 930 °F
and immediately quenched in cold water. These rivets develop a greater shear strength than
2017 rivets and are used in locations where extra strength is required. Alloy 2024 rivets
develop their maximum shear strength in 1 day after being driven.
The 2017 rivet should be driven within approximately 1 hour and the 2024 rivet within 10 to
20 minutes after heat treating or removal from refrigeration. If not used within these times,
the rivets should be re-heat treated before being refrigerated.
6.2.3. MAGNESIUM ALLOYS

Magnesium, the world’s lightest structural metal, is a silvery white material weighing only
two-thirds as much as aluminum, having a relative density of 1.7. Magnesium does not
possess sufficient strength in its pure state for structural uses, but when alloyed with zinc,
aluminum, and manganese it produces an alloy having the highest strength to weight ratio of
any of the commonly used metals.
Magnesium is difficult to obtain from its ore, electrolysis being used in a process similar to
that used to obtain aluminium.
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Some magnesium alloys are known under the name ‘electron metal’ and can be cast or
wrought alloys. Some of the alloys can be precipitation hardened in a similar way to that
used for aluminium alloys.
Magnesium alloy is used to make aircraft wheels, piston engine crankcases turbine engine
compressor casings, valve bodies etc. Magnesium alloy sheet is used in the structure of some
aircraft and helicopters.
American magnesium alloys are identified by a series of letters and numbers. The first letter
or letters identify the main alloying elements. The middle digits identify the percentage of
each of the identified elements. The last letter and number indicate the heat treatment of the
alloy.
Example: AZ31A - T4
AZ The main alloying elements are aluminium and zinc
31 This is 3% aluminium and 1% zinc
A Indicates that the alloy is original
-T4 The alloy has been solution heat treated.
6.2.4. COPPER ALLOYS

Copper is one of the most widely distributed metals. It is the only reddish colored metal and
is second only to silver in electrical conductivity. Its use as a structural material is limited
because of its great weight. However, some of its outstanding characteristics, such as its high
electrical and heat conductivity, in many cases overbalance the weight factor. Because it is
very malleable and ductile, copper is ideal for making wire. It is corroded by salt water but is
not affected by fresh water. The ultimate tensile strength of copper varies greatly. For cast
copper, the tensile
strength is about 25,000 psi, and when cold rolled or cold drawn its tensile strength increases
to a range of 40,000 to 67,000 psi. In aircraft, copper is used primarily in the electrical system
for bus bars, bonding, and as lockwire.
Copper and its alloys constitute one of the major groups of commercial metals. More than
300 standard coppers and copper alloys are produced by the copper and brass industry. These
alloys encompass a wide range of wrought and cast materials that are available in virtually all
of the commercial mill and product forms (strip, plate, sheet, pipe, tube, rod, forgings, wire,
bar, foil, extrusions, and castings). Cast products are available in varied shapes and sizes as
needed for specific applications.
The basic alloy systems for copper are:

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 copper-zinc (brass),
 copper-tin (bronze),
 copper-nickel (cupronickels),
and variations of the above, including aluminum-bronzes, phosphor-bronzes, and nickel-

silvers (copper-nickel-zinc alloys).
Coppers and copper alloys are widely used because of their excellent electrical and thermal
conductivities, ease of fabrication, good corrosion resistance in diverse media, moderate cost,
and good strength and fatigue resistance.
They are generally non-magnetic. New alloys continue to be developed and introduced to
meet the challenging requirements of the electronics industry.
The Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS) applied to wrought and cast
copper and copper alloys evolved from the three-digit system developed by the U.S. copper
and brass industry.
The standard UNS designation system is summarized in table 2.3. The UNS numbers are
simply expansions of the original Copper Development Association (CDA) three-digit
designations which were expanded to five digits following a prefix letter C.
For example, Copper Alloy No. 377 (forging brass) in the original three-digit system became
C37700 in the UNS system. The overall UNS is jointly managed by the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
For copper, the UNS designation system is administered by the CDA.
For UNS numbers of the most common alloys with some comparable international
designations (Werkstoff nr., BS, AFNOR)
UNS Numbers Description Major Constituents

WROUGHT ALLOYS
C10100-C15500 Coppers Cu
C16200-C19500 High-copper alloys Cu & Cd, Be, Cr or Fe
C20500-C28200 Brasses Cu, Zn
C31400-C38600 Leaded brasses Cu, Zn, Pb
C40500-C48500 Tin brasses Cu, Zn, Sn
C50100-C52400 Phosphor bronzes Cu, Sn
C53400-C54800 Leaded phosphor bronzes Cu, Sn, Pb
C60600-C64200 Aluminium bronzes Cu, Al
C64700-C66100 Silicon bronzes Cu, Si
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C66400-C69800 Special brasses Cu, Zn & Mn, Si, Al, etc

C70100-C72500 Copper nickels Cu, Ni
C73200-C79900 Nickel silvers Cu, Ni, Zn
CAST ALLOYS
C80100-C81100 Copper Cu
C81300-C82800 High-copper alloys Cu & Cr, Be, Co, Ni, Si
C83300-C83800 Red brasses, leaded red brasses Cu, Sn, Zn, Pb
C84200-C84800 Semi-red brasses Cu, Sn, Zn, Pb
leaded semi-red brasses
C85200-C85800 Yellow brasses Cu, Sn, Zn, Pb
leaded yellow brasses
C86100-C86800 Manganese bronzes Cu, Zn, Al, Mn, Pb
leaded manganese bronzes
C87200-C87900 Silicon bronzes & brasses Cu, Zn, Si
C90200-C91700 Tin bronzes Cu, Sn
C92200-C92900 Leaded tin bronzes Cu, Sn, Pb
C93200-C94500 High-leaded tin bronzes Cu, Sn, Pb
C94700-C94900 Nickel-tin bronzes Cu, Sn, Ni
C95200-C95800 Aluminium bronzes Cu, Al, Fe, Ni
C96200-C96600 Copper nickels Cu, Ni, Fe
C97300-C97800 Nickel silvers Cu, Ni, Zn
C98200-C98800 Leaded coppers Cu, Pb
C99300-C99700 Special alloys Cu, Ni, Fe, Al, Zn
Table 2.3: UNS Copper Alloy designations
Brass
These alloys contain zinc as the principal alloying element with or without other designated
alloying elements such as iron, aluminium, nickel and silicon.
Wrought. The wrought alloys comprise three main families of brasses: copper-zinc
alloys, copper-zinc-lead alloys (leaded brasses) and copper-zinc-tin alloys (tin
brasses).
Cast. The cast alloys contain four main families of brasses: copper-tin-zinc alloys
(red,
semi-red and yellow brasses); "manganese bronze" alloys (high-strength yellow
brasses); leaded "manganese bronze" alloys (leaded high- strength yellow brasses);
and copper-zinc-silicon alloys (silicon brasses and bronzes).
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Brass is used in the manufacture of instrument mechanisms, bellows assemblies and pitot
heads.
Binary alloys of copper and zinc are known as "brasses". Brasses with up to 15% zinc are
ductile but difficult to machine. Machinability improves with increasing zinc content up to
36% Zn.
Brasses with less than 20% Zn have corrosion resistance equivalent to copper, but with better
tensile strengths. Brasses with 20 to 40% Zn have lower corrosion resistance and are subject
to dezincification and stress corrosion cracking, especially when ammonia is present.
Bronze
Broadly speaking, bronzes are copper alloys in which the major alloying element is not zinc
or nickel. Originally "bronze" described alloys with tin as the only or principal alloying
element. Today the term is generally used not by itself but with a modifying adjective.
o Wrought: For wrought alloys, there are four main families of bronzes: copper-tin-
phosphorus alloys (phosphor bronzes), copper-tin-lead-phosphorus alloys (leaded
phosphor bronzes), copper-aluminium alloys (aluminium bronzes) and copper-silicon
alloys (silicon bronzes)
o Cast: The cast alloys have four main families of bronzes: copper-tin alloys (tin
bronzes), copper-tin-lead alloys (leaded and high-leaded tin bronzes), copper-tin-
nickel alloys (nickel- tin bronzes), and copper-aluminium alloys (aluminium
bronzes).The family of alloys known as "manganese bronzes," in which zinc is the
major alloying element, is included in the brasses.
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6.2.5. NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS

Nickel
Nickel and the nickel-base alloys constitute a family of alloys with increasing importance in
many industrial applications because they can be corrosion resistant in a wide variety of
service environments that range from sub-zero to elevated temperatures. Some types have an
almost unsurpassed corrosion resistance in certain media, but nickel alloys are usually more
expensive than, for example, iron-base or copper-base alloys or than plastic materials of
construction. Aside from its application as an alloying element, Nickel as such is used as a
material of construction, as a plating on a steel substrate or another less noble metal, or as a
cladding on steel. The plating may be deposited either by electrochemical techniques or as an
electroless plating deposited by a chemical reduction process.
Nickel piping is available as commercially pure wrought nickel and in a low-carbon version
(< 0.02%).
Nickel Alloys
"Nickel alloys" are defined as alloys in which nickel is present in greater proportion than any
other alloying element. The most important alloying constituents are iron, chromium, copper,
and molybdenum, and a variety of alloy classes is available.
Two groups of alloy classes can be distinguished : (1) alloys which depend primarily on the
inherent corrosion characteristics of nickel itself (plus some influence of alloying elements),
(2) alloys which greatly depend on chromium as the passivating alloying element (similar to
the stainless steels). Usually, one distinguishes the following alloy classes :
Room temperature yield strengths may range from about 30 to 200 KSI, depending on
composition and degree of cold working. The maximum yield strength is governed by alloy
composition, the cold worked characteristics of the material, the maximum yield strength
permitted by the application, and the ductility specified. Room temperature specified
minimum yield strengths op precipitation-hardenable Ni-alloys may vary from 50 to 150 KSI,
typically being either 90 to 120 KSI, 120 to140 KSI, or 125 to 145 KSI.
The mechanical properties of cold-worked tubing, especially in thicker sections, may vary
through the section.
Specific Alloys
HASTELLOY. "Hastelloy" signifies a line of commercial alloys containing Ni, Mo, Cr, and
Fe. The B- and C-designated alloys enjoy the widest use. Hastelloy B, however, contains no
chromium and should therefore only be used in reducing environments. Hastelloy C has
excellent resistance to a very wide range of chemicals (both oxidizing and reducing). Both
alloys have a tensile strength of about 100,000 PSI and a yield strength of about 45,000 PSI.
Equivalent alloys to Hastelloy B and C are nowadays available from different producers. In
general, they are indicated as "Alloy B" and "Alloy C".
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MONEL. "Monel" is the proprietary name for one of the best known nickel alloys. Monel
400 is the most widespread grade and contains 67% Ni and about 30% Cu (with up to 2.5%
Fe). It is a general engineering alloy with good resistance to corrosion by seawater, mineral
and organic acids, pharmaceuticals, inorganic salts, etc. This nickel-copper alloy is ductile
and tough, and can be readily fabricated and joined (welded, brazed). It is slightly
magnetic.Equivalent alloys to Monel 400 are nowadays available from different producers
and are indicated as "Alloy 400" (UNS N04400).
Monel K-500 has similar corrosion resistance to Monel 400 but is precipitation hardenable
for increased strength, hardness and abrasion resistance. It is, for example, preferred for
pump shafts, impellers, bolts, valve trim and spindles, doctor blades and scrapers, etc.
6.2.6. TUNGUM
Tungum is an alloy containing 81% to 86% copper and small amounts of nickel, silicon,
aluminium and zinc. It is highly resistant to fatigue and corrosion. It is strong and ductile. It is
used to make hydraulic and other pipelines.
6.2.7. LEAD AND LEAD ALLOYS

Lead is bright and lustrous when freshly cut, but soon oxidized to a dull grey. It is very
heavy, relative density 11.3 . It is soft and malleable, resistant to corrosion and has a low
melting point, 327oC.
Lead is a major constituent of soft solder. It is used to make flying control surface mass
balance weights. It gives protection from X-rays and is used to make containers for radio-
active isotopes, used during certain non-destructive tests on aircraft engines and airframes.
White Bearing Metals

White bearing metals used in piston engines are either tin base or lead base. Tin base bearing
models are known as Babbitt metals and contain between 3.5% and 15% Antimony e.g. 7%
antimony, 90% tin and 3% copper. They are generally heavy duty bearing metals.
The lead base white metals are intended for lower duty since they can withstand only limited
pressures. They also contain tin and antimony e.g. 13% antimony, 12% tin, 0.75% copper and
lead the remainder.
Lead and Bronze Bearing Metals

These are used in the manufacture of main bearings in piston aero-engines and for auto
mobile and diesel crankshaft bearings. They have a high wear resistance and good thermal
conductivity which helps to keep them cool during operation.
6.2.8. TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS

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Titanium was discovered by an English priest namedGregot. A crude separation of titanium

ore was accomplishedin 1825. Titanium alloys, apart from being light and strong, also have
excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in a salt-laden atmosphere.
To prevent reaction with oxygen and nitrogen, in its pure form, titanium is treated with
chlorine gas and a reducing agent, to produce a coating of titanium dioxide.There are three
types of titanium, which are called alpha, alpha-beta and beta. They have different strength
and forming properties, depending on their heat-treatments. Commercially pure titanium is
‘non-heat-treatable’ (It can be annealed, but its strength/hardness cannot be improved by
heat-treatment.).When suitably alloyed, titanium based materials are heat-treatable. The
strengthening is immediate i.e. it is not an age-hardening material.Titanium alloys are used
extensively in aerospace gas turbines, but their use is limited on subsonic civil airframes to
fasteners, and high temperature areas such as engine bays, heat shields, hot zone bulkheads,
air ducts etc.In appearances titanium is similar to 18/8 stainless steel. Two practical methods
of identification apart from weight are:
o spark test - a light touch of a grinding wheel will produce a brilliant white trace,
ending in a brilliant white burst.
o moisten the titanium and draw a line on a piece of glass - this will leave a dark line
similar to a pencil mark.
Working with Titanium and Titanium Alloys

Titanium materials are, generally, not susceptible to normal corrosion attack, but it has been
established that stress corrosion cracking can take place in some welded structures which are
exposed to trichloroethylene and other chlorinated hydro-carbons (the alloys most affected in
practise being the titanium-aluminium-tin family).
Titanium may also show evidence of deterioration in the presence of salt deposits or metal
impurities, especially at high temperatures. It is, therefore prohibited to use steel wool, iron
scrapers or steel brushes for the cleaning of, or for the removal of corrosion from, titanium
components.If titanium surfaces need cleaning, then hand-polishing, or the use of soft bristle
fibre brushes, with aluminium oxide compound or a mild abrasive may be permissible. Use
only the recommended procedures outlined in the relevant Maintenance or Overhaul
ManualWhen it is necessary to machine a welded titanium structure, or doubt exists regarding
the use of cutting fluids with a particular titanium alloy, the material manufacturer should be
consulted
Drilling Titanium
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Rigidity is essential when drilling titanium and titanium alloys so that thin-wall structures
must always have a backing support.
Centre drilling should always be used, instead of centre punching, as the local work-
hardening caused by centre punching will cause difficulty in starting the drill and will also
tend to make the drill wander as well as blunt the drill point.
A High-Speed Steel (HSS) drill, having a point angle of 105° to 120°, with a helix angle of
38° and a thickened web is recommended. It is important that a stub (i.e. short) drill should
be used. For holes of more than 6 mm (% inch) diameter, a 90° or ‘double-angled’ point is
better. Drills must be precision ground and special care must be taken to ensure that the drill
tip is completely central, as any off-set of the tip will cause work hardening as a result of
friction of the non-cutting edge.
Flood lubrication with a cutting fluid of low viscosity helps to reduce frictional troubles.
High quality soluble oils, used in the diluted form recommended by the manufacturers, or
chlorinated or sulphured oils, should be used in generous quantities for all machining
operations.
Chlorinated solvents should be removed, after machining.
For satisfactory drill life, drill surface speeds within 3 to 13 metres (10 to 40 feet) per minute
are used, otherwise work hardening is likely to result.
A continuous feed of 0.05 to 0.1mm (0.002 to 0.005 inch) per revolution for holes below
6mm. (0.25 inch) diameter, and of 0.1 to 0.2 mm (0.005 to 0.010 inch) per revolution for
larger holes is recommended. Positive power feed must be employed whenever possible.
6.2.9. IDENTIFICATION TESTS

The approximate identification of some of the more commonly known metals may be
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established by making the following tests, but such tests are unreliable and must not be
employed when material to specification is required for use.
Metal Identification Tests
Tin white in colour, light in weight, non-magnetic; soft, and sheet

Aluminium
aluminium bends easily. Application of caustic soda turns metal white.
Differs form sheet aluminium by being springy and more resistant to
Alclad bending; application of caustic soda turns the surface of sheet white and
the edge black.
Same properties as Alclad except that the application of caustic soda
Duralumin
turns surface black.
Tin white in colour, very light non-magnetic; easy to file, filings ignite in a
Magnesium
flame; application of copper sulphate causes effervescence and the
alloys
affected parts turn black.
Tin white in colour, very heavy and soft; non-magnetic, low melting point
Solder (ascertained by use of hot soldering iron); will mark white paper due to
lead content, crackling sound when bent indicates high tin content.
Very similar to stainless steel in appearance. High strength. High
Titanium
corrosion resistance. When grinding, sparks are white.
Table 2.4: Identification tests for common non-ferrous metals
6.2.10. SUMMARY OF PROPERTIES AND USES OF COMMON METALS

Very high strength/weight ratio. Very May be used to replace stainless steel &
Titanium
good physical properties and non- stainless steel as a saving in weight.
Alloys
corrosion resistance at high Used to manufacture compressor & fan
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temperatures. blades in turbine engines. Firewall heat

shields.
Used extensively in light alloys as a base

material. Examples:
Light in weight, soft, malleable, Duralumin - Aluminium plus copper,
corrosion resistant, high electrical magnesium, manganese, and silicon. Used
Aluminium
conductivity, thermal conductivity, in for aircraft structural components, tubes,
its pure state. rivets, etc. Hiduminium - Aluminium base,
plus copper, nickel, magnesium, silicon.
Used for aircraft structural parts, rivets.
Strong - Good corrosion resistance at

Nickel Mostly as an alloy and electro-plating.
high temperatures.
Light in weight, alloyed to give it
Magnesium Aircraft wheels, levers, brackets, car
strength as pure magnesium is weak
Alloy engines (cylinder heads).
and soft.
Tough, ductile, malleable. High
thermal and electrical conductivity. Tubing, elect. Conductors, used as a base
Copper
Fair corrosion resistance. Joined by for many alloys e.g. brass, bronze.
soldering and brazing.
Copper + zinc + some tin, manganese,

lead, nickel, aluminium, silicon. Good Lightly stressed castings, pipe fittings,
Brass
wearing, anti-friction, corrosion tubing, filter gauzes, bearing bushes.
resistant.
Copper + tin + some nickel and lead.
Good wearing qualities. Good
Bronze Bearing bushes.
corrosion resistance. Good anti-
friction.
Copper + tin + phosphorous. Stronger
Phosphor
than bronze and withstands heavy Bearing bushes.
Bronze
loads.
Solder Tin + lead Low melting point. Soft soldering.
Zinc Soft - good corrosion resistance. Protection of steel parts.
Table 2.5: Summary of properties and uses
6.2.11. METAL FORMING METHODS

There are four basic methods of converting raw material into the required manufactured
shape whilst also achieving the desired material structure. They are casting, deformation,
machining, and various forms of fabrication (i.e. the joining together of smaller pieces or
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particles of material to form a larger object). Welding, adhesive bonding, mechanical

fasteners or even powder metallurgy come under this latter heading.
Casting exploits the fluidity of a liquid as it takes shape and solidifies in a mould.
Deformation exploits the remarkable property of materials (mostly metals) to flow plastically
in the solid state without deterioration of their properties. Processes such as these, result in a
minimum of material waste. Machining processes provide excellent precision, but the
process generates a large amount of waste material. Fabrication techniques enable complex
shapes to be constructed from simpler particles or units.
Casting
This involves the pouring of molten material into a shaped mould and allowing it to solidify
to that shape. It is an ancient process, which enables complex shapes to be produced in a wide
range of materials in a single-step operation. Cast components can range in size from the
small teeth of a zip, to large casings of several metres in diameter. Ocean-going ships‟
propellers, up to 10 metres in diameter, are produced this way. Modern casting techniques
have resulted in:
-free products)
l dimensional tolerances
Moulds are made in a variety of materials including plaster and ceramics but, by far, the most
widely used are those of sand and metal.
Sand-Casting
The two basic types of sand-casting are:
Removable/re-usable pattern (usually wood or metal)
Disposable pattern (e.g. polystyrene patterns, which vaporise when the metal is
poured).
Although sand-casting is simple in principle, there are many vital aspects of the technique,
which are necessary to produce good castings. The sand, for example, must have:
Adequate binding qualities (to achieve this, a small percentage of clay is added).
Suitable porosity characteristics (to permit the escape of gas/steam, formed in the
mould). There are different requirements for different metals (e.g. steel and
aluminium).
Correct grain size and sufficient strength (the sand is graded by means of a sieve and
the strength is controlled by the amount of bonding agent present).
Suitable temperature resistance (i.e. the sand must withstand the molten metal
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temperature without fusing/melting).

Adequate hardness (the hardness may be checked by the resistance to indentation by a
spring-loaded ball).
Acceptable moisture content levels (this is usually in the range of 2% to 8% and is
checked by weighing the sand before and after drying).
While the characteristics of the sand are important, the design of the mould must also meet
certain standards, some of which are:
ttom halves of the mould („cope‟ and „drag respectively), must
incorporate positive alignment features.
impression.Tapered faces are, therefore, better than perpendicular faces.

Suitable feed channels must be provided for the molten metal to enter the mould.
These channels are called the „sprue‟ and the „runners‟.
filling of the mould as the metal shrinks and begins to solidify. Typical steel
shrinkage is around 3%-4% and aluminium shrinkage, 6%-7%.
when the molten metal contacts the sand.

chills‟ are sometimes included in the mould, to encourage more rapid, local
solidification of the metal.
Advantages/Disadvantages of Sand-Casting
The advantages of sand-casting are that it is a simple process, which does not require
elaborate equipment and is economical for small batches. It is also suitable for most metals.
The major shortcomings are that the process is not very rapid, it is not particularly accurate
(due to lack of sand rigidity) and it is not suitable for thin-wall sections.
Typical Casting Defects

Casting defects vary to some extent, depending on the casting process used, but the most
common ones are:
Inclusions (e.g. sand or mould lining material sticking to the surface)
Porosity (usually caused by gas/vapour, which is unable to escape before
solidification)
Cold Shuts (when local areas of metal are not molecularly joined, due to solidification
occurring too rapidly).
Hot Tears (where the material is cracked by excessive tensile stresses, resulting from
thermal contraction).
Shell-Moulding
Shell-moulding is a process in which a thin shell is produced, by bringing a mixture of sand
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and a thermosetting resin into contact with a heated pattern.
When a sufficiently thick shell has been produced, the shell is finally cured (backed up by
sand or steel shot in a moulding box). The subsequent casting process is then the same as for
normal sand-casting. The advantages of shell- moulding over conventional sand-casting are:
-automated, which reduces cost
Centrifugal-Casting
This technique involves the molten metal being poured into a rotating mould. The process is
used for the manufacture of hollow cylinders (e.g. cylinder liners), bronze or white metal
bearings etc. The rotation can result in acceleration forces of up to 60g and this produces
high- quality, dense castings, since all of the slag migrates to the bore (due to it being of
lower density than the metal) and it can then be machined out.
Die-Casting
A die casting is produced by forcing molten metalunder pressure into a metallic die and
allowing it to solidify; then the die is opened and the part removed. The basic difference
between permanent mold casting (Gravity Die-Casting) and die casting is that in the
permanent mold process the metal flows into the die under gravity. In the die casting
operation, the metal is forced under great pressure. Die castings are used where relatively
large production of a given part is involved. Remember, any shape which can be forged can
be cast. Die castings used in aircraft are usually aluminum or magnesium alloy. If weight is
of primary importance, magnesium alloy is used because it is lighter than aluminum alloy.
However, aluminum alloy is frequently used because it is stronger than most magnesium
alloys.
Investment-Casting (Lost Wax)

This is a very old method of casting (which was used by the ancient Chinese), but it only
became of great industrial importance in the 1950's, when gas turbine manufacturing began to
increase. The process was ideally suited to the production of complex-shaped nozzle guide
vanes and turbine blades which, often, contained tortuous inner passages, very thin sections
and had to be cast in exotic materials
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Figure 2.4: Investment Cast components require very little, if any, finishing by machine
The basic process is as follows:

• A master die is made first from an easily worked metal such as brass.
• Hot wax is then injected into the die, under pressure, to produce a wax pattern.
• The wax pattern is then removed from the die and coated with a layer of investment
material (a ceramic slurry or paste), usually by dipping a number of times.
• When the investment coating is set, it is then heated to allow the wax to run out, and
molten metal is then poured into the investment mould.
• When cool, the investment coating is then broken away from the cast, metallic
component.
For obvious, reasons this investment-casting process is often referred to as the ‘Lost Wax’
process. It is a technique, which is capable of producing precision castings with a
dimensional accuracy of less than 0.1 mm. Surface finish is also excellent, but the major
advantage, that the process offers, is the ability to produce accurate, complex shapes which
would be impossible by machining.
Forging
Forging is the process of forming a product by hammering or pressing. When the material is
forged below the recrystallization temperature, it is called cold forged. When worked above
the recrystallization temperature, it is referred to as hot forged. Drop forging is a hammering
process that uses a hot ingot that is placed between a pair of formed dies in a machine called
a drop hammer and a weight of several tons is dropped on the upper die. This results in the
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hot metal being forced to take the form of the dies. Because the process is very rapid, the
grain structure of the metal is altered, resulting in a significant increase in the strength of the
finished part . for many engineering applications, particularly for highly-stressed
components, such as crankshafts and especially if they are subject to a mechanical fatigue
environment.
Figure 2.5: The effect of forging on grain shape
Figure 2.6: Drop-stamping process
Drop-stamping, or drop-forging (refer to figure 2.6), involves the use of shaped dies and a
heavy drop-hammer, which usually falls under gravity. The piece of material, to be forged, is
placed between the top and bottom dies and the drop-hammer is allowed to fall the necessary
number of times for the contact faces of the dies to come together. ‘Flash gutters’ are
provided, to accommodate the excess metal (flash), which squeezes out between the top and
bottom dies.
Connecting rods are typical components made by the drop-forging process.
Hot-Pressing
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Hot-pressing is similar, in principle, to drop-forging, but is actuated by one, long, steady,

squeezing operation, as compared to a number of blows. This process tends to affect the
whole structure of the component, whereas some forging processes, using multi- (but light)
blows will, mainly, affect the material closest to the surface.
Upsetting (Upset-Forging)
Upsetting is, sometimes, called ‘Heading’ and usually involves locally heating of the end or
ends of the material, immediately prior to forging. Poppet valves are formed in this way, as
well as forged bolts. Sometimes this process is done cold (in which case it is referred to as
‘Cold Heading’), and some rivet heads are formed in this way.
Rolling
Rolling can be carried out hot or cold.
When done hot, it is capable of achieving major re-forming/re-shaping, and slabs can be
reduced to plate or sheet while bars of circular or rectangular cross section can also be
produced. Hot rolling can also produce structural shapes such as ‘H’ or ‘I’ section beams.
If the rolling is done cold, it is aimed at improved surface quality, better accuracy, and
increased hardness/strength. Hot, dilute, sulphuric acid is used to remove the hot scale from
steel prior to cold rolling. The rolling process would also be used to produce the clad (and
unclad) sheets of aluminium alloys.
Figure 2.7: Cold rolling
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Figure 2.8: Effect on grain shape of cold rolling
The following table shows some of the changes that take place when a sheet of annealed
aluminium is rolled and its thickness reduced.
Reduction in sheet Tensile Strength Elongation Hardness

thickness % N/mm2 % HV
0 20 40 20
15 28 15 28
30 33 8 33
40 38 5 38
60 43 3 43
Table 2.6: Effect on material properties of cold rolling
It can be appreciated from the above table that after about 60% reduction in thickness the
material will be too brittle to be useful.
Drawing
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Drawing is a purely, tensile operation, usually carried out hot. Wire, rod and tubing, can be
produced by this process, where the material is pulled through a shaped, hardened die. A
ductile material is essential.
Deep Drawing/Pressing
This process uses a ram, to deform a piece of sheet metal into a recessed die and is usually
done hot.
Pressing
Pressing involves the use of male and female formers for shaping sheet material. The sheet is
placed between the formers, which are then forced together by a powered ram. Pressing is
usually done hot (except for the soft, ductile materials).
Stretch-Forming
This is a technique used for shaping sheet metal over a stretch-block or former.
The sheet metal is firmly gripped by clamps and the sheet is then stretched over the former
(by moving the clamps or the former) and the material is stretched beyond its elastic limit so
that permanent deformation occurs.
This process is convenient for small batches of material (and is particularly financially
attractive since only one former is needed) but, local changes of form (concave/convex or
vice versa) cannot be produced by this process.
Rubber-Pad Forming
In principle this process uses a flexible, rubber-pad, attached to a hydraulic ram, which forces
a piece of sheet metal to conform to the shape of a forming block.
Like stretch-forming, the process only uses one former, so it eliminates critical matching and
alignment problems of conventional pressing, When used for small batches (e.g. aircraft
production), low-cost, easy to machine, materials can be used for the forming block.
Rubber-Bag forming (Hydro-forming) uses the same principle, but incorporates a flexible
diaphragm and hydraulic pressure in place of the rubber pad.
Extruding
The extrusion process involves the forcing of metal through an opening in a die, thus causing
the metal to take the shape of the die opening. The shape of the die will be the cross section
of an angle, channel, tube, or some other shape. Some metals such as lead, tin, and aluminum
may be extruded cold; however, most metals are heated before extrusion. The main
advantage of the extrusion process is its flexibility. For example, because of its workability,
aluminum can be economically extruded to more intricate shapes and larger sizes than is
practical with other metals.
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Extruded shapes are produced in very simple as well as extremely complex sections. In this
process a cylinder of aluminum, for instance, is heated to 750– 850 °F and is then forced
through the opening of a die by a hydraulic ram. The opening is the shape desired for the
cross section of the finished extrusion.
Many structural parts, such as channels, angles, T sections, and Z-sections, are formed by the
extrusion process.
Aluminum is the most extruded metal used in aircraft. Aluminum is extruded at a

temperature of 700–900 °F (371– 482 °C) and requires pressure of up to 80,000 psi (552
MPa). After extrusion, the product frequently will be subjected to both thermal and
mechanical processes to obtain the desired properties. Extrusion processes are limited to the
more ductile materials.
Impact-Extrusion
This process is, usually, a cold-forming operation, which is suitable to very soft and
malleable materials (e.g. aluminium). The shaped compon ent is formed, by forcing a punch
onto a ‘blank’ of material within a shallow recess. The extruded shape results from the metal
being forced to escape through the small gap, between the punch and the recess.
Sintering
Sintering; involves metal, in powder form, which is heated to approximately 70%-80% of its
melting temperature and then squeezed to shape in a die.
The process is often used to form components made from materials with a very high melting
temperature (e.g. tungsten). It also allows non-metallic materials, such as graphite and
carbon, to be incorporated into the mixture.
The operation is usually conducted in a controlled atmosphere (typically argon or nitrogen) to
prevent oxidation. Under the high pressures used, a metallurgical bond occurs (diffusion
bonding), between the particles of powder. The sintered end-product is, typically, around
10%- 20% porous and can then be impregnated with graphite (or high melting-point grease),
to provide excellent, self-lubricating properties for plain bearings, bushes etc.
Sintering can be used where the combined properties of materials are required, as when
copper and graphite are used for electrical brushes (i.e. copper to carry the current and
graphite to act as a low-friction contact)
Tungsten carbide cutting tools can also be produced in this way, by incorporating tungsten
carbide particles within a cobalt matrix.
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Hot, Isostatic-Pressing, uses a similar technique to sintering, but uses higher temperature and
very much higher pressures to produce zero porosity. The technique is sometimes used to
heal micro-porosity in super-critical castings.
Figure 2.9: Stages in the sintering process
Spinning
Spinning is an old process, in which a piece of sheet metal may be formed, to shape, around a
rotating former, which is mounted on the spindle of a lathe. The necessary force to deform
the sheet metal is generated by a long tool, which is levered about a suitably positioned
fulcrum.
For thin gauge, soft metals, the tool can be manipulated by hand, while, for thicker gauge
materials, a hydraulic actuator is used on a purpose-built machine.
Cones, flares, bowls and bell-mouth shapes, are produced by spinning.
Chemical Milling
Chemical milling is, sometimes, referred to as chemical etching. It is a purely chemical
process, not electro-chemical.
Although simple in principle, chemical milling offers a method of producing complex
patterns and lightweight parts and is used for incorporating integral ribs and stiffeners in
sheet metal. Tapered sections can also be easily formed - the unwanted material being eaten
away by a suitable chemical.
The process is ideally suited to aluminium alloys. The chemical, in this instance, is a hot
alkaline solution (usually caustic soda) and, while it is a relatively slow process, its unique
advantages make it very attractive for airframe components. The areas, which must not be
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eaten away by the fluid, are simply protected by a thin layer of plastic, which can be brushed
or sprayed on.
Although the chemically etched surface is not very rough, a drop in fatigue strength does
result and, in critical applications, restoration of fatigue strength is desirable. A light, peening
operation, using glass beads or steel shot, achieves this.
Electro-Chemical Machining
Using electrolysis and, by making the workpiece the anode of the dc electrical circuit, an
electrolyte is pumped rapidly (under pressure) through the gap between the shaped cathode
(also referred to as the tool) and the workpiece.
The tool is moved slowly towards the workpiece, by a ram, so that metal is progressively
removed from the workpiece, until the desired shape is achieved
The process is ideal for metals, which are difficult to machine by conventional methods, and
the finish achieved is good. High electric current is required, and other, essential,
requirements for the process are that the tool needs to be a good conductor (copper or brass)
and it must resist corrosion, because the electrolyte is often a salt solution.
Electro- Discharge Machining E.D.M.

This process is, sometimes, called spark machining (or spark erosion), because, rather than
using electrolysis, the technique involves the removal of metal by the energy (and heat) of
electrical sparks, which travel from the electrically negative tool electrode, through a
dielectric fluid, and explosively strike the electrically positive workpiece.
The intense heat of the strike, causes local particles of metal to instantaneously vaporise,
without a molten metal phase (a process known as ‘sublimation’), though, away from the
actual centre of the explosion, molten fragments of metal are washed away, with the vapour,
by the dielectric fluid.
A suitable fluid (usually kerosene) is fed, under pressure, between the electrode and the
workpiece, to maintain a uniform electrical resistance. The spark rate is around 10,000 per
second and the gap between the tool and the workpiece is critical and must be maintained,
throughout the operation, at approximately 0.025 mm - 0.075 mm (0.001 in - 0.003 in).
The real advantage of EDM is that, not only is it suitable on materials which are difficult to
machine conventionally, but it also excels in its ability to produce high-aspect ratio, very
small holes of any cross-sectional, in very hard metals.
Typical holes achievable, by this method, are in the regions of 0.025 mm diameter x 750 mm
deep (0.010 in x 3 in).
A novel variation of EDM is a technique sometimes referred to as ‘wire-cutting’, which uses
a moving, fine piece of copper or nickel wire as the electrode. The wire, 0.05 mm - 0.25 mm
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in diameter (0.002 in - 0.010 in), is positioned by, and fed over, two pulleys and resembles a
simple band-saw operation. The workpiece is mounted on a table, which can be moved in two
axes and, when the table is computer controlled, the wire-cutting process can cut accurate,
complex shapes in metals (e.g. dovetails, fir-trees etc.) which are difficult to machine with
conventional tools.
Conventional Machining
Conventional machining is done, using seven basic techniques, which are:
• Drilling/reaming
• Turning
• Milling
• Sawing
• Shaping/planing/slotting
• Broaching
• Abrasive machining (i.e. grinding)
These techniques have been well established for many years, and most of the advances, until
relatively recently, have been confined to tooling improvements which have permitted higher
material removal rates. The early, high-carbon steel tools, have been superseded by high-
speed steels (tungsten/cobalt alloy steels), cemented carbides and ceramics.
So-called ‘Machining Centres’ have also been developed, which are capable of automatic
tool changes and of doing difficult types of machining without the need for transferring work
to a different machine and re-setting up. In this way a much more versatile machine tool has
evolved. However, the biggest single machining advance in modern times (especially with
regard to aircraft manufacture) has been the introduction of Numerically Controlled (NC)
machines. NC milling, in particular, has revolutionized airframe manufacture.
NC machines are machines in which motion is controlled by a series of numbers, either via
punched tape or magnetic tape. Instructions, on the tape, are based on the Binary System (or a
variant) which is common to most electronic computing devices. The primary advantage of
NC machining is the ability to accurately control the spindle, the tool or the workpiece
movements in three directions (x, y and z axes) independently or simultaneously. NC
machines are capable of producing compound shapes and contours, and are especially suited
to the task of generating integral spars, ribs, and stiffeners in slabs or forgings.
NC machines usually incorporate a feed-back system, which ‘tells’ the control unit how much
actual movement is made, analysis is then done and final compensation eliminates any error
(i.e. the motion ceases when the input and feed-back signals agree). Electrical control of the
machine servo-motors, can control movements as small as 0.0005 mm (0.00002 in).
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CNC machines (i.e. Computer Numerically Control) differ from NC machines only in that
the electronic control unit on the CNC machine is more sophisticated in that it is adaptable to
a wide variety of software and can accommodate a diverse range of programs. Although the
capital cost of NC/CNC machines is high, the following advantages make such machines
technically desirable and economically viable, where super-light, complex, high-tech,
manufacture is concerned:
• Complex shapes with integral features are possible
• The number of jigs and fixtures is reduced
• A reduction in manufacturing time
• Adaptable to short runs
• Greater accuracy and consistency
• Program can be changed to accommodate modifications
Diffusion Bonding and Superplastic Forming

Diffusion bonding and super-plastic forming is joining in the solid state. Unlike welding, no
melting of the metallic materials takes place.
Materials are heated to high temperatures in a vacuum environment and subjected to
pressures high enough to cause plastic deformation. Intimate contact of the surfaces under
these conditions assures a quality bond, having the strength and ductility of the parent metal.
Diffusion bonding, however, is a misnomer.
There is no mass transfer of atoms across the joint interface. Re-crystallization is not required
to achieve high strength quality bonds. If the surfaces to be joined are clean and free of
metallic oxides or other forms of contamination, and are brought together under high heat and
pressure, they will join together to form a solid state bond. Atoms in the joint, will lock
together if they achieve interatomic spacing. High temperatures result in wide spacing as well
as rapid molecular activity. Both of these factors assist in achieving high quality bonds.
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Figure 2.10: Stages in superplastic forming

Titanium is a metallic material that is ideally suited for this type of processing. Titanium is
highly reactive at elevated temperatures. Titanium can be used in a high temperature vacuum
environment as a getter. Titanium will absorb it’s own surface oxides. When heated to
temperature, Titanium will stick to itself even under low pressure. Other materials can be
readily joined together by these methods. The basic requirements are the same. Even greater
care must be taken to assure that contamination of the surfaces does not occur during heating
to temperature. Titanium foil can be used to clean up oxides within the vacuum chamber.
Dissimilar metallic materials can also be joined together, if they are compatible with each
other. If they react with each other to form brittle intermetallics, then barrier materials must
be placed within the joints to achieve a transition.
Figure 2.11: Diffusion bonding and superplastic forming in action, and the finished product
Titanium can be joined together as sheet metal laminates, or as various combinations of sheet,
plate, bar, or machined parts. Tooling is required to hold the pieces together to form complex
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structures made up from these elements. Large titanium structures have been fabricated using
these concepts for the production B-1 Bomber and the Space Shuttle.
Tooling was machined from stainless steel plate or bar stock. Tooling may also be fabricated
from castings to achieve greater resistance to creep deformation under sustained pressures
during bonding. Castings also provide a more cost effective method of fabrication for
some tooling configurations.
Stainless steel retorts were used to enclose the bond assembly. Vacuum lines were attached to
purge the interior of the container. Inert gas was used to flush out air. Multiple purges were
required.
Titanium structures were heated to temperatures of 1700 F under a pressure of 2,000 pounds
per square inch, and held at pressure for three hours. The mass was then allowed to cool to
room temperature. The retort was opened, the tooling removed, and a single Titanium part
was removed that was made up from hundreds of individual pieces
Figure 2.13: A diffusion bonded aircraft component
6.3 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS – COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC
6.3.1. PLASTICS AND ELASTOMERS

Plastics are used in many applications throughout modern aircraft. These applications range
from structural components of thermosetting plastics reinforced with fiberglass to decorative
trim of thermoplastic materials to windows.
The word plastic comes from the Greek plastikos to mould, and is the ability to retain a
deformation after the load, producing it, has been removed.
The American inventor, John Wesley Hyatt (in 1869), produced the first synthetic plastic
material (used as an inexpensive substitute for ivory), from the cellulose of plants (and called
it Celluloid), while the chemist, L H Baekeland (in 1909) developed the first entirely
synthetic plastic material (Bakelite), from phenol-formaldehyde. Bakelite is hard and fairly
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brittle. It is often used with a suitable filler material (mica, or wood flour) and is widely used
for various electrical mouldings and low-stressed handles.
Plastics, however, is now the generic name, used to identify various materials (natural and
synthetic), based on long-chain molecules (polymers) of carbon, that can be cast, extruded or
moulded into various shapes or drawn out into filaments to be used as fibres.
While the two major groups of plastics are the Thermoplastic and Thermosetting
compositions, the manufacture of synthetic rubbers (called Elastomers) is also considered to
be part of the plastics industry.
Thermoplastic Materials
Thermoplastic materials, in their normal state, are hard but become soft and pliable when
heated. When softened, thermoplastic materials can be moulded and shaped, and they retain
their new shape when cooled. Unless their heat limit is exceeded, this process can be repeated
many times without damaging the material.
Two types of transparent thermoplastic materials are used for aircraft windshields and side
windows, and are usually referred to as cellulose acetate and acrylic.
Older aircraft used cellulose acetate plastic because of its transparency and light-weight. A
disadvantage of cellulose acetate is its tendency to shrink and discolour with time, which has
led to it being phased out almost completely.
Cellulose acetate can be identified by its slight yellowish tint (especially when aged), and by
the fact that a scrap of it will burn with a sputtering flame and give off black smoke. It will
also react, and soften, upon contact with some materials, such as acetone.
Acrylic plastics are identified by such trade names as Perspex (UK) and Plexiglass (USA). It
is stiffer than cellulose acetate, more transparent and practically colourless. Acrylic burns
with a clear flame and gives off a fairly pleasant odour. Acetone, if applied, will cause white
marks but will leave the material as hard as it previously was.
Examples of Thermoplastic Materials
ABS : Very tough, high impact strength.
Common applications: boat hulls and model car bodies.
Common forms: Powders, granules, wide range of colours.
Nylon : Engineering plastic - Hard, very tough, rigid and wear resistant (it is self-lubricating)
High melting point. It machines well and is good for bearings.
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Common applications: power tool casings, gear wheels, curtain rail fittings, clothing
Common forms: Powder, granules, rod, tube, sheet - usually white or off white but
other colours available.
PVC : Stiff, hard and tough at room temperature. Very good acid and alkali resistance
Common applications: pipes gutterings, bottles and containers, shoe soles.
Common forms: Powder, pastes, sheet - wide range of colours available.
Polypropylene: Strong and tough, light, floats, is flexible and is not affected by boiling water
or chemicals.
Common applications : crates, chair shells, waste and chemical pipes, packaging film,
string, rope and sacks, car bumpers, syringes, containers with integral hinges.
Common forms: Powder, granules, rod, tube, sheet - usually pale pink or off white but
can be pigmented.
Polystyrene: As thin sheets - stiff, hard and inexpensive
Common applications: Food containers, disposable cups, cutlery, plates. Model kits,
refrigerator linings, kitchenware, toys, electrical equipment cases.
Common forms: Powder, granules, sheet - wide range of colours available.
Expanded Polystyrene: very light and bouyant. Absorbs shocks. A good sound and heat
insulating material.
Common applications: sound and heat insulation, packaging.
Common forms: sheets, slabs, beads - usually white.
Acrylic (PMMA): A hard, stiff material, but fairly brittle material. Very durable outdoors,
easily machined, cemented and polished. Good electrical resistance, safe with food. Splinters
and scratches easily.
Common applications: light units and illuminated signs. Lenses, windows, rear light
covers, skylights, baths.
Common forms: rod, tube, sheet - can be clear, translucent or opaque a wide range of
colours available.
Polythene: Tough, good chemical resistance, good electrical insulator, flexible and soft.
Hardness, stiffness and impact resistance increases with density. Attracts dust unless anti-
static.
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Common applications: squeegee bottles, plastic sacks and bags, cling film, wire and
cable insulation. In its high density form it is used for bottles, barrels, tanks, buckets
and bowls.
Common forms: Powder, granules, films, sheet - wide range of colours available.
Thermosetting Materials
Thermosetting materials (also called Thermosets) will, initially, soften when heated, but will
remain soft for only a short time and will set (and harden) if the heat continues to be applied.
The process of Thermosets becoming hard, when heated, is called ‘curing’ and curing can
also be achieved by chemical (exothermic) reactions.
During the curing process, the long-chain molecules of the material cross-link (link together
between chains) and, once the cross-links are formed, the plastic becomes hard and cannot be
re-softened by heating.
Thermosets are, thus, chosen where a plastic component will be exposed to relatively high
temperatures, as some of them can tolerate temperatures in excess of 250°C before beginning
to char.
Note: Thermosetting materials are generally stronger, have a lower ductility and lower impact
properties than the Thermoplastics.
Examples of Thermosetting Materials:
Polyester Resin: A clear hard resin - brittle unless it is reinforced with glass matt.
Common applications: It can be cast and is used for embedding small objects, e.g. in
jewellery. When used in conjunction with glass matt it is called (GRP) Glass
Reinforced Polyester resin which is very strong. It can be moulded into very complex
forms which are then tough and resist splitting. It is used for boat hulls and car bodies
etc.
Common forms: Liquids or pastes
Epoxy Resin: Has exceptional adhesive qualities. Low shrinkage rate, high strength when
reinforced
Common applications: As a bonding agent, encapsulation, surface coating laminating
Common forms: Liquids or pastes
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Melamine Formaldehyde: It has a very hard tough surface which is highly resistant to
ignition.
Common applications: Used as a thin laminate to finish man-made boards. A very

useful material which transforms inexpensive man-made boards, especially chipboard,
into attractive hygienic and useful materials.
Common forms: Powder, granules, laminates
Phenolic Resin: A strong, hard and rigid thermoset. It is usually black or brown in colour.
Common applications: Pan handles, Knobs, Electrical switch covers, electrical

appliances
Common forms: Powder, granules, reinforced laminates
Resins
Natural resins are obtained from the exudations from certain trees and other plants and as
clear, translucent, yellow (amber), brown, solid, or semisolid agents, they are used in inks,
lacquers, linoleum, varnishes and, of course, plastics.
While the words plastics and resins are often used synonymously, they are, in fact, quite
different, in that plastics refers to the material in the finished items while resins are the raw
materials which may be found in the form of flakes, pellets, powder, or a syrup.
Resins may be used alone to form plastics but, usually, additives are employed with them, to
assist in the moulding characteristics, or to enhance the properties of the finished product.
The resin may be thickened and given more ‘body’ by the addition of inert fillers, which may
be used to fill gaps and voids in the structure. Typical fillers are micro-balloons, cotton and
glass flock and aerosil (fumed silica).
Reinforcing agents, plasticizers, stabilisers, colorants, flame-retardants, smoke suppressants

and processing aids, such as lubricants and coupling agents, are among the other additives
used with resins.
Resins have little strength in themselves and are generally used to impregnate linen, paper,
and ‘cloths’ made up from various synthetic fibres. For many years, aircraft control cable
pulleys have been made from thermosetting resins, reinforced with layers of linen cloth.
These pulleys are cured in a mould, at high temperature, and have high strength without
causing wear to the control cables.
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When layers of paper are impregnated with a thermosetting resin such as phenol-
formaldehyde or urea-formaldehyde, they can be moulded into flat sheets or other shapes.
Once hardened, the material makes an exceptional electrical insulator and can be found in use
as terminal strips and printed circuit boards.
Polyester Resin
Polyester resin can be extruded into fine filaments and woven into fabric (like nylon) or cast
into shape and it is also useful as a heat-resistant lacquer.
Glass fibres and mat, for example, have great strength for their weight, but lack rigidity so, to
convert glass fibre into a useful structural material, it is impregnated with polyester resin and
moulded into a desired form.
Polyesters cure by chemical action, and, so, differ from materials, which cure by the
evaporation of an oil or solvent. As polyester is thick and unmanageable, a styrene monomer
is added to make it thinner and easier to work.
If left alone, the mixture of polyester and styrene will, eventually, cure into a solid mass, so
inhibitors are added to delay this curing process and to improve shelf life.
A catalyst then has to be used, when the inhibitors are no longer wanted and the curing
process is to be started and an accelerator will appreciably shorten the curing time of the
resin, depending on the temperature and mass of the resin.
The actual cure of polyester resin occurs when a chemical reaction between the catalyst and
accelerator generates heat within the resin. This (exothermic reaction can be seen when a
thick layer cures more rapidly than a thin layer.
Thixotropic Agents
The heat, generated by the chemical reaction, can make the material less viscous and cause it
to ‘run’ (particularly if it is on a vertical surface). To overcome this problem, a thixotropic
agent is added to the resin after mixing, to increase its viscosity. The increased viscosity
allows the resin to remain in place no matter where it may be used.
Epoxy Resin
Another type of resin that can be used in place of polyester in laminated structures is epoxy
resin. Epoxy resin has a low percentage of shrinkage, high strength for its weight and the
ability to adhere to a wide range of materials
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Unlike polyester resins, that require a catalyst, epoxy resins require a hardener or curing
agent without recourse to heating.
There is also a difference in the mixing ratios between polyester and epoxy resins. For
polyester resin, the ratio is 64:1, resin to catalyst whilst, for epoxy resin, the ratio is 4:1, resin
to hardener.
Advantages of Plastics
Plastics are being used on an ever-increasing scale and are frequently replacing some of the
more conventional materials such as metals, wood and natural rubbers. Plastics have
properties, which make them a popular choice over conventional aircraft materials. Some of
the more important characteristics of plastics, which help to explain their popularity, are:
• Lightness - most plastics have specific gravities of 1.1 to 1.6 whereas the more
common engineering materials, such as aluminium and steel, have values of 2.7 and
7.8 respectively.
• Corrosion Resistance - plastics will tolerate hostile corrosion environments and
many of them resist acid attack.
• Low Thermal Conductivity - this property makes many plastics ideal for thermal
insulators.
• Electrical Resistance - plastics are used in enormous quantities for electrical
insulation applications.
• Formability - many plastics are easily formed into the finished product, by casting
moulding or extrusion, often in a single operation.
• Surface Finish - excellent surface finishes can be achieved in the basic forming
operation, so finishing operations are not necessary.
• Relatively Low Cost - because, although some of the materials may not be
particularly cheap, the lack of machining necessary and the high production rates
possible, keeps the costs down.
• Light Transmission - some plastics are naturally clear, whilst other are opaque.
These characteristics, consequently, provide the possibility for a range of light-
transmission properties. Optical properties can also be achieved with some plastics.
• Vibration Damping - many plastics are naturally resistant to fatigue and, because of
the high value of internal damping present, resonances will tend to be of relatively
low amplitude.
Disadvantages of Plastics
Although plastics are extremely useful materials, some shortcomings inevitably exist,
particularly when compared to some metals. Plastics major deficiencies are:
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• Lack of Strength - most plastics are much weaker than metals and mild steel has
approximately six times the strength of nylon. Mild steel, however, is six times the
weight of nylon so, on a strength/weight ratio, they are comparable.
• Low Stiffness - plastics have a very inferior value of Young’s Modulus compared
with the common metals.
• Low Impact Strength - many plastics have poor impact strength, but there are a few
exceptions, such as with certain polycarbonates.
• Poor Dimensional Stability - mainly due to high values of thermal coefficient of
expansion
• Poor High-Temperature Capability - metals are generally capable of retaining
reasonable strength at much higher temperatures than the plastics. The long-term
maximum operating temperature, for the better plastics, is not usually above 250°C.
High- temperature metals can operate for long periods well in excess of 800°C.
• Moisture Absorption - many types of plastic absorb moisture, which can result in a
significant loss of strength in a humid environment.
• Ultra Violet Light - some plastics deteriorate when exposed to UV light for long
periods. Increased brittleness and loss of strength can occur.
Some Common Plastics

Name Type Uses
ABS car dash boards, telephones,

(acrlonitrile butadiene thermoplastic safety helmets, electrical
styrene) appliances
Acrylic
display signs, machine guards,
(polymethyl thermoplastic
baths, roof lights
methacrylate)
spectacle frames, cutlery
Cellulose Acetate thermoplastic handles, chisel / screwdriver
handles
adhesives, castings, printed
Epoxy Resin (epoxide, ER) thermoset circuit boards (PCB’s), surface
coatings
tableware, electrical insulation,
Melamine Formaldehyde synthetic resin paints,
thermoset
(melamine methanol, MF) decorative laminates for work
surfaces
curtain rail fittings, combs,
Nylon
thermoplastic bearings, hinges, clothes, gear
(polyamide) wheels
PET thermoplastic bottles for food and drink (up to
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(polyethylene 2 litres)
terephthalate)
dark coloured electrical fittings
and parts for domestic
Phenol Formaldehyde
thermoset appliances, high strength
(phenol methanol, PF)
fabrics, bottle tops, kettle / iron
/ saucepan handles
riot shields, safety spectacles,
Polycarbonate thermoplastic machine guards, light diffusers,
skylights
laminated to form GRP,
Polyester Resin (PR) thermoset casting, encapsulating, car
bodies, boats
chemical resistant containers,
Polypropylene (polypropene, bottle crates, medical
thermoplastic
PP) equipment, syringes, food
containers, nets, storage boxes
packaging, sound and heat
Polystyrene (expanded, PS) thermoplastic
insulation, ceiling tiles
low cost and disposable items
produced by vacuum forming
Polystyrene (high impact,
thermoplastic or injection moulding, internal
HIPS)
secondary glazing, toys, model
kits, refrigerator linings
Polythene (high density bottles, pipes, bowls, milk
thermoplastic
polyethylene, HDPE) crates, buckets
Polythene packaging film, carrier bags,
(low density polyethylene, thermoplastic toys, detergent 'squeegy'
LDPE) bottles, dip coating
as solid: skateboard wheels,
Polyurethane shoe soles, buoyancy in boat
thermoset / thermoplastic
(PU) hulls, as foam: sponges,
cushioning, as liquid: varnish,
non stick coatings (Teflon), low
PTFE
friction applications,
(polytetrafluoro- thermoplastic
mechanical pipe joint sealing
ethylene
tape
leathercloth, dip coating, hose
PVC, plasticised pipes, insulation around
thermoplastic
(polyvinylchloride) electrical wiring, vinyl
wallpaper, toys, dolls, footballs
rainwater goods, air and water
pipes, chemical tanks, shoe
PVC, rigid
thermoplastic soles, shrink and blister
(polyvinylchloride)
packaging, floor and wall
coverings
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Urea electrical fittings, domestic

Formaldehyde (urea thermoset appliance parts, textiles, wood
methanol, UF) adhesives
Some Special Engineering Plastics
Kevlar®
Kevlar was introduced by DuPont in the 1970s. It was the first organic fiber with sufficient
tensile strength and modulus to be used in advanced composites. Originally developed as a
replacement for steel in radial tires, Kevlar is now used in a wide range of applications.
Kevlar is an aramid, a term invented as an abbreviation for aromatic polyamide. The
chemical composition of Kevlar is poly para-phenyleneterephthalamide, and it is more
properly known as a para-aramid. Aramids belong to the family of nylons. Common nylons,
such as nylon 6,6, do not have very good structural properties, so the para-aramid distinction
is important. The aramid ring gives Kevlar thermal stability, while the para structure gives it
high strength and modulus.
Like nylons, Kevlar filaments are made by extruding the precursor through a spinneret. The
rod form of the para-aramid molecules and the extrusion process make Kevlar fibres
anisotropic-- they are stronger and stiffer in the axial direction than in the transverse
direction. In comparison, graphite fibres are also anisotropic, but glass fibres are isotropic.
Today, there are three grades of Kevlar available: Kevlar 29, Kevlar 49, and Kevlar 149. The
table below shows the differences in material properties among the different grades. If you
purchase Kevlar cloth, it is most likely Kevlar 49.
Tensile Tensile Tensile

Density
Grade Modulus Strength Elongation
g/cm3
GPa GPa
%
29 1.44 83 3.6 4.0
49 1.44 131 3.6--4.1 2.8
149 1.47 186 3.4 2.0
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The tensile modulus and strength of Kevlar 29 is roughly comparable to that of glass (S or E),
yet its density is almost half that of glass. Thus, to a first approximation, Kevlar can be
substituted for glass where lighter weight is desired. Kevlar 49 or 149 can cut the weight even
further if the higher strength is accounted for.
Kevlar has other advantages besides weight and strength. Like graphite, it has a slightly
negative axial coefficient of thermal expansion, which means Kevlar laminates can be made
thermally stable. Unlike graphite, Kevlar is very resistant to impact and abrasion damage. It
can be used as a protective layer on graphite laminates. Kevlar can also be mixed with
graphite in hybrid fabrics to provide damage resistance, increased ultimate strains, and to
prevent catastrophic failure modes.
Like all good things, Kevlar also has a few disadvantages. The fibres themselves absorb
moisture, so Kevlar composites are more sensitive to the environment than glass or graphite
composites. Although tensile strength and modulus are high, compressive properties are
relatively poor. Finally, Kevlar is also very difficult to cut. You will need special scissors for
cutting dry fabric or pre-preg, and special drill bits for drilling cured laminates. Cutting of
cured laminates without fraying is very difficult.
Nomex®
The inherently flame-resistant properties provided by NOMEX® mean that those who rely on
it are safe and protected from the hazards they face on the job every day. It is that knowledge
and sense of security that enables them to concentrate on the task at hand, and to make a
substantial contribution to things that are important in our every day lives.
Advanced thermal technology was born more than 30 years ago when DuPont scientists
created a fiber with an extraordinary combination of high-performance heat- and flame-
resistant properties, as well as superior textile characteristics.
In both fibre and sheet forms, NOMEX® helps people and materials to perform, even in
highly aggressive environments.
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DuPont's family of NOMEX® fiber products provides outstanding heat and flame resistance
and offers excellent textile properties. Applications include filters, industrial coated fabrics,
etc., etc.
NOMEX® is also used for electrical insulation in both paper and pressboard forms, where its
inherent dielectric strength, mechanical toughness and thermal stability provide high
reliability in the most demanding applications.
Aviation Applications for Core Structures of NOMEX® - NOMEX® offers not only thermal
protection, but exceptional light weight, necessities for the aviation industry. Honeycombs of
NOMEX® substantially improve the performance of most current commercial aircraft. A
structure with a NOMEX® core can increase strength by 37 times while increasing weight by
only 6%. Found in flaps, wing-to-body fairings, nacelles, radomes, doors, floors, ceilings,
stow bins and walls, NOMEX® helps aircraft manufacturers save weight and helps keep
passengers safe
Electrical Applications - Wherever there is a need for electrical insulation, there are usually
NOMEX® brand products to fill it. In its various forms - primarily papers and pressboards -
NOMEX® has the right balance of properties for use in transformers, motors, generators and
other electrical equipment. This unique balance of properties has been providing reliability to
manufacturers for over 35 years.
NOMEX® is a synthetic aromatic polyamide polymer that provides high levels of electrical,
chemical and mechanical integrity when converted into its various sheet forms. Used
properly, NOMEX® paper products can extend the life of electrical equipment, reduce
premature failures and repairs, and act as a safeguard in unforeseen electrical stress
situations.
NOMEX® paper products have characteristics which make them ideally suited for electrical
insulation applications. These characteristics may vary slightly in the different forms and
types of NOMEX®. The following pages provide a comprehensive look at NOMEX® and
explain the advantages of specifying it in a broad range of electrical applications.
Within the family of NOMEX® products—papers, pressboards, non-wovens, fabricated parts

and specialized forms - there is a solution to meet your particular requirements.
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Elastomers
From the Greek word elastos – elastic, elastomers may be natural or, synthetic materials
(polymers) which have considerable elastic properties.
Because they may also be moulded into shapes, which they retain, they qualify to be included
in the category of plastics. Elastomers will tolerate repeated elongation and return to their
original size and shape, in a similar way to natural rubber
Some of the more common elastomers, to be found in the aerospace industry include:
Buna ‗N‘ - also known as Nitrile. A synthetic rubber, made (initially in Germany) by the
polymerisation of butadeine and sodium (hence BuNa), it has excellent resistance to fuels and
oils, and is used for oil and fuel hoses, gaskets, and seals. This material also has low
‗stiction‘ properties, when in contact with metal, and is, therefore, particularly suited to
‗moving-seal‘ applications.
Buna ‗S‘ relatively cheap material, also with a performance similar to natural rubber. It is
often used for tyres and tubes, but its poor resistance to fuels/oils/cleaning fluids makes it
unsuitable for seals.
Fluoro-Elastomers - these have exceptional high-temperature properties and can be used
at 250ºC. They are also solvent-resistant and are mainly used for high-temperature seals. A
common name for these materials is Viton. These materials are expensive.
- has very good tensile properties and excellent elastic recovery qualities. It is
also solvent-resistant and, therefore, has a wide range of applications as fuel and hydraulic
seals and gaskets. However, because of its special elastic recovery properties, it is also ideally
suited to diaphragms and hydraulic seals.
Poly-Sulphide Rubber - although it possesses relatively poor physical properties, it has
exceptionally high resistance to fuels and oils and is widely used for lining or sealing fuel
tanks. It is also used for lightly stressed seals and hoses, which come into contact with fuels
or oils. This compound is commonly known under the trade names of PRC or Thiokol.
Silicone Rubber - has very good high- and low-temperature properties (-80ºC to + 200ºC).
It is often used for seals, but is also used for the potting of electrical circuits, because of its
ability to retain its rubbery state, even at low temperatures.
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Plastic Manufacturing Processes
The most common manufacturing methods are:
- the molten material is simply poured into a mould and allowed to set.
- powder, liquid or paste is forced into a set of shaped dies.
- plastic is forced through a suitably shaped die.
Rod, sheet, tube, angle sections etc. are produced this way.
-up - load-carrying plastic fibres and an adhesive are layered in a mould or around a
former.
-Construction - plastic facings have, sandwiched between them, a honeycomb

or foam core. Very stiff, but light, structures are achieved by this method.
– the material is put into a heated, hardened, polished steel

container (the die) and forced into shape, by a plunger.
Note: Vacuum Forming uses a similar tooling but, in this instance, the plastic is sucked into
contact with the shaped die (a method often used to manufacture aircraft interior trim).
Non-Metallic Components
In addition to the non-metallic materials, used in the aircraft structure, non-metallic materials
are used in many aircraft components and systems. Many of these materials require specialist
knowledge and understanding, during aircraft maintenance.
Seals
Seals or packing rings (refer to figure 3.1) serve to retain fluids and gases, within their
respective systems, as well as to exclude air, moisture and contaminants. They also have to
withstand a wide range of temperatures and pressures and, because of this, they have to be
manufactured in a variety of shapes and materials.
The most common materials, from which seals are manufactured, are natural rubber,
synthetic rubber and Teflon (trade name for polytetrafluoroethane or PTFE). O-ring seals
effectively seal in both directions of movement. They are used to prevent both internal and
external leakage, and are the most commonly used seals in aviation
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Figure 3.1: Examples of seals and packing rings
Where installations operate at pressures above 10.34 x 103 kN/m2 (1500 PSI), additional
back¬up rings can be used to prevent the O-ring from being forced out or extruded. These
back-up rings are usually made from Teflon, which does not deteriorate with age, is
unaffected by system fluids and vapours and tolerates temperatures well in excess of those
found in high- pressure hydraulic systems.
O-rings are available in many different materials and sizes (both diameter and thickness).
They are supplied in individual, hermetically-sealed, envelopes with all the necessary
information marked on the packaging. This system has generally replaced the previously
used, colour- coding of seals, which had severe limitations.
For applications (such as in actuators) that subject a seal to pressure from two sides, two
back-up rings can be used but, when the pressure is from one side only, a single back-up ring
is adequate.
Other seals, commonly found are V-ring and U-ring seals. The V-ring has an open ‘V’ facing
the pressure and is located by the use of a male and female adapter. The U-ring seals will,
usually, be found in brake unit assemblies and master cylinders, where pressures below 89 x
103 kN/m2 (1000 PSI) are encountered. As they only seal in one direction, the concave
surface must face towards the pressure.
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Adhesives and Sealants
Adhesive bonding has been used on an ever-increasing scale and particularly in the aerospace
industry. Adhesives are used for constructional tasks varying from aircraft fuselages, flight
control surfaces, to propellers and helicopter rotor blades.
The Mechanics of Bonding

The actual adhesive bond may be achieved in two ways:
 Mechanical: - here the adhesive penetrates into the surface and forms a mechanical
lock, by keying into the surface. It also forms re-entrants, where the adhesive penetrates
behind parts of the structure, and becomes an integral part of the component to be
joined.
 Chemical (Specific): - in this method of bonding, the adhesive is spread over the
surfaces to be joined and forms a chemical bond with the surface
In practice, most adhesives use both ways of bonding to form a joint.
Stresses on a Bonded Joint

Adhesive joints are liable to experience four main types of stress
Joint stress is at a maximum when the adhesive is in shear (refer to figure 3.2). Adhesives
should not be used if significant stresses will be carried in tension or peel. Lap joints are the
types more, generally favoured, as the strength of the adhesive bond is proportional to the
area bonded,):
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Tensile
Where the two surfaces are pulled directly apart.
Shear
Where the two surfaces tend to slide across each other.
Cleavage
Where two edges are pulled apart.
Peel
Where one surface is stripped back from the other
Figure 3.2: Stresses on Bonded Joints
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Advantages of Adhesives
The major reasons for the widespread use of adhesives are as follows:
• No weakening of the component due to the presence of holes. Also providing a
smooth finish due to lack of rivet heads.
• No local stress raisers, which are present with widely-pitched conventional fasteners
(Bolts, rivets etc.).
• Can be used to join dissimilar materials and materials of awkward shapes and of
different thickness, as riveting and welding are not always possible on very thin (or
very thick) materials.
• Although the strength per unit area, may be inferior to a mechanical or welded joint,
adhesive bonding takes place over a greater continuous area and, therefore, gives
comparable or increased strength, coupled with improved stiffness.
• Adhesive and sealants provide electrical insulation and prevent dissimilar- metal
corrosion between different materials.
• Leak-proof (fuel and gas) joints can be achieved.
• The elastic properties of some adhesives, gives flexibility to the joint and may help to
damp out vibrations.
• Heat-sensitive materials can be joined.
Disadvantages of Adhesives
The major disadvantages associated with adhesive bonding are:
• Limited heat resistance. This restricts the process to applications where environmental
temperatures will not, generally, be above 200°C.
• Poor electrical and thermal conductivity.
• High thermal expansion.
• Limited resistance to certain chemicals (i.e. some paint strippers).
• Integrity difficult to check with non-destructive testing procedures.
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Strength of Adhesives
The three most important considerations are:
• Fail Stress: - fail load within the glued area

• Creep behaviour
• Durability: - its long-life capability without serious deterioration.
Groups and Forms of Adhesives

There exists, an enormous range of adhesives, and the correct type, for a particular
application will be specified in the relevant repair procedure.
Great care must be taken that only the correct type is used as, otherwise, a catastrophic failure
may well occur, should an unsuitable adhesive be used on a critical structure.
The two major groups of adhesives are:
• Flexible
• Structural
Flexible Adhesives
Flexible adhesives are used when some flexing, or slight relative movement of the joint, is
essential and where high load-carrying properties are not paramount.
In general, flexible adhesives are based on flexible plastics or elastomers, whereas structural
adhesives are based on resins, (the most common ones being epoxy or polyester)
Structural Adhesives
Structural adhesives are primarily aimed at applications where high loads must be carried
without excessive creep. They are, therefore, relatively rigid, but without being excessively
hard or brittle
Note: Another group of adhesives is the two-polymer type, which has a reasonably even
balance of resin and elastomer, which results in a flexible, yet fairly strong, adhesive
Adhesive Forms
Adhesives can be obtained in a variety of forms, the most common being liquid, paste or
film. Others, available, are those such as the special foaming types, which are used to splice
honeycomb sections together. Some require heat for curing, whilst others can be cured by the
addition of a catalyst or hardener.
Adhesives in Use
To achieve optimum bonding, performance, and life in service, from adhesives and sealants,
it is absolutely crucial to follow carefully planned processes and procedures and to pay the
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utmost attention to quality at every stage. In fact, the major criticisms, levelled against the use
of adhesives, are:
• Absolute cleanliness at all stages is essential. Surface preparation of the component is
also crucial. To ensure consistent results on structural components, a purpose-built
‘clean room’ is required, in order to reduce contamination to a minimum.
• Pressure and heat may be required. Sophisticated equipment is required to produce
pressure over the components in areas where adhesives are applied. This will often
entail vacuum bags, purpose-built ovens, or pressurised curing ovens (autoclaves).
• Inspection of the bonded joint is difficult. Special inspection techniques and test
pieces are necessary to check the integrity of the bond. Prior to preparing the mating
surfaces for ‘gluing’, it is necessary to carry out a ‘dry’ lay-up i.e. a trial assembly of
all related parts to check and adjust the fit if necessary. This procedure is essential, to
enable the final assembly ‘wet’ lay-up to proceed without delay, and without the risk
of generating swarf or of contaminating specially prepared surfaces.
Surface Preparation
• Grease, oil, or other contaminants, must be removed by suitable solvents.
• An optimum surface roughness must be produced.
• Once pre-treated, a surface must be protected from harmful contamination until the
bonding process is complete.
• Surfaces to be bonded are normally thoroughly cleaned/degreased in a suitable
solvent. This may be followed by a chemical etch or light blasting treatment, followed
by a water wash and subsequent drying.
Final Assembly
The adhesive is applied (usually within a specified time, otherwise re-processing may be
necessary), and the assembly suitably clamped, or put in a nylon vacuum bag, and heated in
an autoclave. The curing process then takes place under carefully controlled temperature and
pressure conditions.
When cool, the component is inspected, visually for positioning and for a satisfactory spew
line. The glue-line thickness is also checked, with a calibrated electronic probe, and specimen
test pieces are tested for shear and peel properties.
Following a satisfactory inspection, the component is finally given appropriate corrosion
protection (usually over-painting).
Note: After commencing the final (wet) lay-up, curing of the adhesive must be carried out
within a specified time (usually 12 hours). If this period is exceeded by a few hours it is
necessary to increase the temperature and pressure levels during curing (and to obtain an
official ‘concession’ cover for this discrepancy).
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If the permissible time between wet lay-up and curing is greatly exceeded (e.g. a full shift or
day), it will be necessary to dismantle and not only re-commence the wet lay-up, but also to,
possibly, repeat some of the preliminary surface preparation treatments (such as etching).
Typical (Abbreviated) Process
• Dry lay-up (i.e. ‘dummy run’)

• Prepare faces to be bonded (alumina blast, etch (pickle) anodise, etc).
• Water wash and dry.
• Apply adhesive in clean room and clamp or apply vacuum bag.
• Cure in press/oven or autoclave (typically 120°C - 170°C)
• Release autoclave pressure when cool.
• Inspect:
 Positioning, uniform, continuous glue-line etc.
 Glue-line thickness (electronic probe).
 Specimen test-piece results (shear and peel).
• Carry out final post-cure surface treatments. (e.g. over-painting of primer, sealant or
top coat of solvent-resistant paint)
Sealing Compounds
Certain areas of all aircraft are sealed to withstand pressurisation, prevent fuel or fume
leakage and to delay the onset of corrosion, by sealing against the weather.
Most sealant compounds, consist of two or more ingredients, that are compounded to produce
a desired combination of strength, flexibility and adherence. Some materials are ready-for-
use, straight from their packaging, whilst others require mixing before application.
One-Part Sealants
One-part sealants are prepared by the manufacturer and are ready for application straight
from their packaging. The consistency of some of these compounds can be altered to satisfy a
particular application method. If, for example, thinning is required, then a thinner
(recommended by the sealant manufacturer), is mixed with the sealant.
Two-Part Sealants
Two-part sealants are compounds requiring separate packaging, to prevent curing prior to
application. The two parts are identified as the base sealing compound and the accelerator.
Two-part sealants are generally mixed, by combining equal portions (by weight), of the base
and accelerator compounds and any deviation from the prescribed ratios will result in inferior
sealing or adhesion.
Many common sealants/adhesives are produced in pre-measured kits, that simply require the
mixing together of the whole quantities of the materials supplied. These eliminate the need
for balances and other weighing equipment.
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The instructions must be followed but, in general, require the addition of the accelerator to
the base compound, followed by thorough mixing before application.
A working life is usually quoted, which applies after mixing, so the work must be thoroughly
prepared prior to mixing.
Some materials may be kept, after mixing, for a limited time, by the use of refrigeration. The
instructions will give details if this is possible.
Sealant Curing
The curing rate, of mixed sealants, varies with temperature and humidity. For example, at
temperatures below 15°C, curing is extremely slow. At temperatures above 21 °C, curing
times are usually faster. For best results, a temperature of around 25°C, with a relative
humidity of 50%, is ideal for curing most sealants.
If the temperature of curing is increased to accelerate the curing time, it must not exceed 50
°C at any time during the curing cycle. The heat can be applied, by using infrared lamps, or
heated air, providing the air is dry and filtered.
A practical test, to see if curing has been completed, can be done by laying a sheet of
cellophane on the work, and checking whether the sheet adheres to it (lack of adhesion
indicates full curing).
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Glossary of Adhesives Terms
Adhesion
The state in which two surfaces are held together by interfacial forces which may consist of
valence forces or interlocking action.
Adhesion, Mechanical
Adhesion between surfaces in which the adhesive holds the parts together by interlocking
action.
Adhesive, Specific
Adhesion between surfaces which are held together by valence forces or molecular bonding.
Adhesive
A substance capable of holding material together by surface attachment.
Adhesive Failure
Failure resulting from insufficient bond between the adhesive and one or both substrates.
Adhesive strips away from substrates.
Adhesive Tensile
An adhesive is in tensile loading when the acting forces are applied at right angles to the
plane of the adhesive. The tensile strength of a bond is the maximum tensile load per unit
area, required to break the bond expressed in pounds per square inch.
Amorphous Phase
Non-crystalline. Most plastics are amorphous at processing temperature. Many retain this
strength under normal temps.
Antioxidants
Compounds that retard the rate of oxidation of a polymer.
Cohesive Failure
Occurs when internal strength of the adhesive is not as great as the forces applied to it.
Adhesive remains bonded to both substrates.
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Crystalline
A state of molecular structure in some polymers denoting uniformity and compactness of the
molecular chains.
Degradation
Deleterious change in the chemical structure of a plastic reflected in its appearance or
physical properties.
Dielectric Constant
That property of a dielectric which determines the electrostatic energy per unit volume for
unit potential grade.
Dielectric Strength
The voltage at which an insulating material can withstand before breaking down occurs,
usually expressed as volts per mil.
Dissipation Factor
The tangent of the loss angle of the insulating material.
Elongation
The fractional increase in length of a material stressed in tension.
Encapsulating/Potting
Enclosing an article in an envelope of adhesive.
EVA (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Resins)

Co-polymers of the polyolefins family derived from random co-polymerisation of acetate and
ethylene.
Exudation
Migration of adhesives from the interior to the surface of plastic.
Film Tension
The greatest longitudinal stress a cast film (125 mils thickness) can bear without tearing
apart.
Heat Resistance
The temperature at which a bond subjected to a PSI load fails.
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Hot Tack
A characteristic of hot melts in that they have holding power even while in the liquid hot
state.
Hydrolysis
Decomposition of a substrate by reaction with water.
Hygroscopic
Capable of absorbing and retaining environmental moisture.
Mechanical Adhesion
Adhesion between surfaces in which the adhesive holds the parts together by interlocking
action.
Migration
Migration of adhesives from the interior to the surface of a plastic.
Molecular Weight
The sum of the atomic weight of all atoms in a molecule.
Penetration
The entering of an adhesive into a substrate.
Polyamide Resin
A polymer in which the structural units are linked by amide grouping.
Polyester Resin
A polymer in which the structural units are linked by ester grouping.
Polymer
A chemical compound or mixture of compounds formed by polymerisation.
Polymerisation
A chemical reaction in which two or more small molecules continue to form larger molecules
that contain repeating structural units of the original molecules. [Reproduction of parts].
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Potting
Enclosing an article in an envelope of adhesive.
Resistivity
The ability of a material to resist passage of electrical current either through its bulk or
surface.
Shear tensile
An adhesive is in tensile loading when the acting forces are applied parallel to the plane of
the adhesive. The tensile strength of an adhesive bond is the maximum tensile load per unit
area required to break the bond. Expressed in pounds per square inch.
Specific Gravity
The density (mass per unit volume) of any material divided by that of water at a standard
temperature ; specific gravity of water= 1:00.
Thermal Conductivity
Ability of a material to conduct heat.
Thermoplastic
A material capable of being repeatedly softened by heat and hardened by cooling.
Thermoset
A material which will undergo a chemical reaction by action of heat, catalysts etc.. Leading
to a relatively infusible state.
Viscosity
The measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow usually expressed in poise (or centipoise). A
higher reading indicates thicker material.
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6.3.2. COMPOSITES
In the 1940s, the aircraft industry began to develop synthetic fibers to enhance aircraft design.
Since that time, composite materials have been used more and more. When composites are
mentioned, most people think of only fiberglass, or maybe graphite or aramids (Kevlar).
Composites began in aviation, but now are being embraced by many other industries,
including
auto racing, sporting goods, and boating, as well as defense industry uses.
A “composite” material is defined as a mixture of different materials or things. This

definition is so general that it could refer to metal alloys made from several metals to enhance
the strength, ductility, conductivity or whatever characteristics are desired. Likewise, the
composition of composite materials is a combination of reinforcement, such as a fiber,
whisker, or particle, surrounded and held in place by a resin, forming a structure. Separately,
the reinforcement and
the resin are very different from their combined state. Even in their combined state, they can
still be individually identified and mechanically separated. One composite, concrete, is
composed of cement (resin) and gravel or reinforcement rods for the reinforcement to create
the concrete.
Advantages/Disadvantages of Composites
Some of the many advantages for using composite

materials are:
• High strength to weight ratio
• Fiber-to-fiber transfer of stress allowed bychemical bonding
• Modulus (stiffness to density ratio) 3.5 to 5 times that of steel or aluminum
• Longer life than metals
• Higher corrosion resistance
• Tensile strength 4 to 6 times that of steel or aluminum
• Greater design flexibility
• Bonded construction eliminates joints and fasteners
• Easily repairable
The disadvantages of composites include:
• Inspection methods difficult to conduct, especially delamination detection (Advancements

in technology will eventually correct this problem.)
• Lack of long term design database, relatively new technology methods
• Cost
• Very expensive processing equipment
• Lack of standardized system of methodology
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• Great variety of materials, processes, and techniques

• General lack of repair knowledge and expertise
• Products often toxic and hazardous
• Lack of standardized methodology forconstruction and repairs
The increased strength and the ability to design for the performance needs of the product
makes composites much superior to the traditional materials used in today’s aircraft. As
more and more composites are used, the costs, design, inspection ease, and information about
strength to weight advantages will help composites become the material of choice for aircraft
construction.
Composite Safety
Composite products can be very harmful to the skin, eyes, and lungs. In the long or short
term, people can become sensitized to the materials with serious irritation and health issues.
Personal protection is often uncomfortable, hot, and difficult to wear; however, a little
discomfort while working with the composite materials can prevent serious health issues or
even death.
Respirator particle protection is very important to protecting the lungs from permanent
damage from tiny glass bubbles and fiber pieces. At a minimum, a dust mask approved for
fiberglass is a necessity. The best protection is a respirator with dust filters. The proper fit of
a respirator or dust mask is very important because if the air around the seal is breathed, the
mask cannot protect the wearer’s lungs. When working with resins, it is important to use
vapor protection.
Charcoal filters in a respirator will remove the vapors for a period of time. If you can smell
the resin vapors after placing the mask back on after a break, replace the filters immediately.
Sometimes, charcoal filters last less than 4 hours. Store the respirator in a sealed bag when
not in use. If working with toxic materials for an extended period of time, a supplied air mask
and hood are recommended.
Avoid skin contact with the fibers and other particles by wearing long pants and long sleeves
along with gloves or barrier creams. The eyes must be protected using leak-proof goggles (no
vent holes) when working with resins or solvents because chemical damageto the eyes is
usually irreversible.
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Fiber Reinforced Materials
The purpose of reinforcement in reinforced plastics is to provide most of the strength. The
three main forms of fiber reinforcements are particles, whiskers, and fibers.
A particle is a square piece of material. Glass bubbles (Q-cell) are hollow glass spheres, and
since their dimensions are equal on all axes, they are called a particle.
A whisker is a piece of material that is longer than it is wide. Whiskers are usually single
crystals. They are very strong and used to reinforce ceramics and metals. Fibers are single
filaments that are much longer than they are wide. Fibers can be made of almost any material,
and are not crystalline like whiskers. Fibers are the base for most composites. Fibers are
smaller than the finest human hair and are normally woven into cloth-like materials.
Laminated Structures
Composites can be made with or without an inner core of material. Laminated structure with
a core center is called a sandwich structure. Laminate construction is strong and stiff, but
heavy. The sandwich laminate is equal in strength, and its weight is much less; less weight is
very important to aerospace products.
The core of a laminate can be made from nearly anything. The decision is normally based on
use, strength, and fabricating methods to be used.
Various types of cores for laminated structures include rigid foam, wood, metal, or the
aerospace preference of honeycomb made from paper, Nomex, carbon, fiberglass or metal.
Figure 5-14 shows a typical sandwich structure. It is very important to follow proper
techniques to construct or repair laminated structures to ensure the strength is not
compromised. A sandwich assembly is made by taking a high-density laminate
or solid face and backplate and sandwiching a core in the middle. The selection of materials
for the face and backplate are decided by the design engineer, depending on the intended
application of the part. It is important to follow manufacturers maintenance manual specific
instructions regarding testing and repair procedures as they apply to a particular aircraft.
Reinforced Plastic
Reinforced plastic is a thermosetting material used in the manufacture of radomes, antenna

covers, and wingtips, and as insulation for various pieces of electrical equipment and fuel
cells. It has excellent dielectric characteristics which make it ideal for radomes; however, its
high strength-to-weight ratio, resistance to mildew, rust, and rot, and ease of fabrication make
it equally suited for other parts of the aircraft.
Reinforced plastic components of aircraft are formed of either solid laminates or sandwich-
type laminates. Resins used to impregnate glass cloths are of the contact pressure type
(requiring little or no pressure during cure). These resins are supplied as a liquid which can
vary in viscosity from a waterlike consistency to a thick syrup. Cure or polymerization is
effected by the use of a catalyst, usually benzoyl peroxide.
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Solid laminates are constructed of three or more layers of resin impregnated cloths “wet
laminated” together to form a solid sheet facing or molded shape.
Sandwich-type laminates are constructed of two or more solid sheet facings or a molded
shape enclosing a fiberglass honeycomb or foam-type core. Honeycomb cores are made of
glass cloths impregnated with a polyester or a combination of nylon and phenolic resins. The
specific density and cell size of honeycomb cores varies over a considerable latitude.
Honeycomb cores are normally fabricated in blocks that are later cut to
the desired thickness on a bandsaw.
Foam-type cores are formulated from combinations of alkyd resins and metatoluene di
isocyanate. Sandwichtype fiberglass components filled with foam-type cores are
manufactured to exceedingly close tolerances on overall thickness of the molded facing and
core material.
To achieve this accuracy, the resin is poured into a close tolerance, molded shape. The resin
formulation immediately foams up to fill the void in the molded shape and forms a bond
between the facing and the core.
Types of Composites
Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP)
The first man-made fibre, glass can be spun into cloth and used for fire-proof curtains or
(when extremely pure glass is used), made into fibres which are able to transmit light over
long distances.
The ultimate tensile strength of undamaged, very small diameter glass fibres is extremely
high, although the strength is reduced significantly if the fibres are slightly damaged.
In its structural use it is often merely referred to as glass fibre or fibreglass, when glass fibres
(in various forms) are bonded together by appropriate resins.
When moulded with resin, the resulting composite is, also, of considerably lower strength
but, nevertheless, good GRP structures are stronger than mild steel and, on a simple strength-
for- weight basis, can be comparable to high tensile steel if the fibre form and lay-up is near
optimum. It is however, considerably less stiff than steel or even aluminium.
A graphic example of GRP flexibility is the enormous deflection, which takes place in the
pole during a pole vault. As the glass fibres are about a hundred times stronger than the resin,
it is obviously necessary to get as much fibre packed into the moulding as possible.
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Non-structural items may be made from, or include, a percentage of chopped strand mat, (i.e.
glass fibres in a random, non- woven state) but, where considerable strength is required,
uni¬directional glass cloth is used.
To provide all round strength, sheets of uni-directional cloth can be layed up at 90° to each
other, in a similar manner to the grain in plywood. Sometimes such sheets are used as facings
for an internal honeycomb of plastic-impregnated paper, to give a very efficient structure in
terms of strength, stiffness and weight.
The glass fibre sheet material can be supplied with cloth already impregnated with resin and
partially cured (‘Pre-preg’), in which case it is necessary to keep the material in refrigerated
storage. Resin curing is usually done at elevated temperatures (120 °C - 170°C), with the
GRP component in its mould and, often, under pressure, in an autoclave.
The main reasons for using GRP are:

o in instances where metal cannot be used (e.g. for radar domes or other non-electrical
conducting applications)
o the ease and low cost of producing very complex shapes
o to provide good strength/weight ratio
o its ability to produce selected directional strength.
The main disadvantage of glass fibre is that it lacks stiffness and, as such, is not suitable for
applications subject to high structural loadings.
Ceramic Fibres
Made by firing clay or other non-metallic materials, ceramic fibres are a form of glass fibre,
used in high-temperature applications. They can be used at temperatures up to 1650°C and
are suited for use around engine and exhaust systems. Ceramic fibres are heavy (and
expensive) and are only used where no other materials are suitable.
Carbon Fibre Composite (CFC)
CFC (also referred to as ‘Graphite’) is a composit e material, which was primarily developed
to retain (or improve upon) the high strength-to-weight ratio characteristics exhibited by
GRP, but with very much greater stiffness values.
Carbon fibres are very stiff and, when formed into a composite, the Youn g's Modulus (‘E’)
value can be higher than steel. CFC is not only six times stiffer than GRP but is also over
50% stronger. It also has twice the strength of high-strength aluminium alloy and three times
the stiffness.
Carbon fibres are typically less than 0.01 mm (0.0004 in) in diameter and are produced by
subjecting a fine thread of a suitable nylon-type plastic to a very high temperature (to
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decompose the polymer), and driving off all of the elements with the exception of carbon.
The carbon thread is then stretched, at white heat (2000°C-3000°C), to develop strength.
Unfortunately, the process is complex and very costly.
Nevertheless, where the high cost can be justified, CFC can offer considerable weight savings
over conventional materials. CFC components are generally made from ‘Pre-preg’ sheet
(fibres impregnated with resin and a hardener, which only require heat and pressure to cure).
Some specialist items are made by a laborious, but ideal, process called ‘Filament Winding’,
in which a carbon fibre string is wound over a former in the shape of the workpiece whilst
bonded with resin.
Because of CFC's high stiffness modulus, it is also used extensively to stiffen GRP or
aluminium alloy structures.
A material known as Carbon-Carbon (where the resin is also graphitised), is used for the
rotors and stators on brake units. It offers a significant weight saving, as well as high
efficiency, due to the fact that it dissipates the heat generated very quickly.
Replacing 40% of an aluminium alloy structure by CFC would result in a 40% saving in total
structural weight and CFC is used on such items as the wings, horizontal (and vertical)
stabilisers, forward fuselages and spoilers of many aircraft.
The use of composites, in the manufacture of helicopter rotor blades, has led to significant
increases in their life and, in some cases, they may have an unlimited life span (subject to
damage). The modern blade is highly complex and may be comprised of CFC, GRP, stainless
steel, a honeycomb core and foam filling.
Aramid Fibre Reinforced Plastic (ARP)

The aramid fibres are closely related to the nylon-type of synthetic fibres and are well known
for their superior toughness, strength-to-weight characteristics and heat-resistance. Tyres,
reinforced with aramid fibres are comparable to those reinforced with steel cords.
Better known under its trade name - Kevlar - in cloth form, it is a soft, yellow, organic fibre
that is extremely light, strong and tough. Its great impact-resistance makes it useful in areas,
which are liable to be struck by debris, as experienced in areas around engine reverse-thrust
buckets. Kevlar is used to manufacture bullet-proof jackets and, also, as a reinforcement, in
aircraft fuel tanks.
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Composite Structures
A sheet of fibre reinforced material is ‘anisotropic’, - which means its properties depend on
the direction of the fibres. Random direction fibres would result in a much lower strength
than uni¬directional fibres, laying parallel to the applied load. However, the strength (and
stiffness) of a uni-directional lay-up would be very low, with the applied load at 90° to the
fibres, as this is primarily a test of the resin (hence the usual practice of placing alternate
layers at 90° to each other).
Due to small variations in the size of the individual fibres, and the final quality of the finished
component (which can be affected by careless handling, variations in cleanliness or lay-up,
voids, pressures, temperatures, etc), there will, inevitably, be a greater scatter on final
strength than on a conventional, metallic component. Due allowance on stress reserve factors
is, therefore, essential.
It has already been stated that composites usually have good internal damping characteristics
and are less prone to vibration resonances. Where high strength, combined with stiffness is
required, then a CFC is used but, when lesser levels of stiffness are necessary, then GRP or
ARP are used.
Composites have very low elongation properties and toughness. Aluminium alloy has a
typical elongation-to-fracture value of 11%, whereas composites range from 3% for GRP to
0.5% for CFC.
The maximum operating temperatures, for GRP, CFC and Kevlar composites, depend, to
some extent, on the actual adhesives used, but are, generally, in the range 220 °C-250°C.
Some composites, such as carbon fibre in a carbon matrix, have very high permissible
operating temperatures (around 3000°C), and are used for high-energy braking applications
and as thermal barriers for space vehicles).
Boron, Tungsten, Silicon Carbide and Quartz may also be used to provide fibres for high-
temperature composites
Laminated, Sandwich and Monolithic Structures

Laminated plastics consist of layers of synthetic resin-impregnated fibres (or other, coated,
fillers), which are bonded together (usually heated and under pressure), to form a single
laminate or sheet of composite material. Plastic laminates are used to ‘face’ other structural
materials, in order to;
o provide a more durable surface to a softer (less expensive) material
o enhance the surface appearance (colour, porosity, smoothness etc.)
o increase the strength and rigidity of many non-metallic structures
o produce other desirable surface characteristics such as when acid- or corrosion-
resistance, non-conductivity, non-magnetisability or the ease of keeping a surface
clean is required
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To provide a light-weight structure, which possesses strength and rigidity, one of several
structural materials, is sandwiched between two laminated composites.
The sandwiched material (the core) may be made of a solid material, such as wood, or a
series of thin corrugations of a material, which are joined and placed end-on (in the form of
the cells of a honeycomb), within the laminates.
Where wood is used, as the core material, it usually consists of low-density balsa wood,
which has been cut across the grain and sandwiched between two layers of reinforced resin
(or a metal). This construction makes an extremely light, yet strong material, which can be
used as floor panels, wall panels and, occasionally, aircraft skins.
The cellular core, used for laminated honeycomb material, may be made from resin-
impregnated paper, or from one of the many fibre cloths. The core is formed or shaped and
then bonded between two face sheets of resin-impregnated cloth. The finished sandwich
structure is very rigid, has a high strength-to-weight ratio, and is transparent to
electromagnetic (radar/radio) waves, making it ideal for radomes of all kinds.
Metal honeycomb cores (made from light alloy or stainless steel), are also sandwiched
between two face sheets of fibre-reinforced resins. On other occasions the metal honeycombs
may be found sandwiched between sheets of light alloy, stainless steel or titanium. This type
of core is referred to as ‘metal -faced honeycomb’ and is used where abrasion - and heat-
resistance is important or when sound-absorption qualities are desired.
In monolithic structures, angle sections (‘Top Hat’, ‘U’, ‘I’ and ‘Z’), frames ribs and stringers
are fashioned from similar materials to the outer layers of the sandwich structure, then
covered with the appropriate surface ‘skin’, before the stronger, metallic spars and hinges are
attached, Such a structure can save many kilograms (or pounds) in the weight of the flying
control surfaces (or the fin structure) of a large aircraft.
General Characteristics of Composites

Composite structures are those aircraft components that are manufactured using fibrous
materials combined with a specially formulated medium called a matrix. The matrix supports
the fibres, as shown in figure 3.3.
The original composite materials used in aircraft components were limited to fibreglass fibres
combined with thermoset polyester resins as the matrix and were not used in critical
applications. A thermoset resin is a type of resin that, once cured, cannot return to the
uncured, or soft, state.
Improved thermoset adhesives, such as epoxies and vinyl-ester resins, bismaleimides, and
thermoplastic adhesive, such as poly-ether-ether-keytones (PEEK) as well as new fibre-
reinforcement materials have been developed for applications that include critical flight parts.
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Thermoplastic resins may be repeatedly softened with heat, even after they are originally
cured.
Both thermosetting resins and thermoplastics increase the workability of a material. In
addition, thermosetting resins may be added to the material before the component-fabrication
process begins. When a matrix is added to the fibrous material as part of a material’s
manufacturing process - but prior to its use, it is preimpregnated. This material is commonly
called pre-preg and is discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
Figure 3.3: Fibrous materials encapsulate in a matrix.
The most critical properties of a composite, which are controlled by the direction of the
reinforcement fibres and the ability of the matrix to transfer loads from one fibre to another,
are called transverse properties. The load-carrying properties of a fibrous composite are
greatest when the load applied runs in the same direction as the fibres. Loads that do not run
parallel to the reinforcement fibres must, at least in part. be transferred through the matrix,
which typically has the lowest load-carrying capability. Therefore, to a point, the greater the
ratio of reinforcement fibres to matrix, the greater the strength of the composite.
Kevlar®, a Du Pont trade name, carbon fibre, commonly referred to as graphite (even though
it is not a mined material), boron, tungsten, quartz, silicon carbide, ceramics, and
SPECTRA®, a trade name of Allied Signal Corporation, are commonly used composite
materials. Collectively they are referred to as advanced composite materials.
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In 1969, Grumman aircraft, in conjunction with the U.S. Navy, fabricated the world’s first
primary flight-critical structure made of advanced composites for a production aircraft. This
was a boron- epoxy combination horizontal stabilizer for the F-l4 TOMCAT fighter.
As the demand for the use of composites increased, additional developments in the areas of
specialized fibre-reinforcement materials, adhesives, and processes have taken place. These
developments have made the use of composite material in aircraft more economical and
structurally compatible. As a result, bonded and composite structures can be found in a great
many parts of today’s aircraft. Landing-gear doors, flaps, vertical and horizontal tail
structures, propellers, internal turbine engine parts, helicopter rotor blades, and flight-control
surfaces are just a few places where these structures are found. The advantages of the high
material strength-to-weight ratio coupled with corrosion and fatigue resistance frequently
makes fibrous reinforced composite materials the first choice of aircraft designers and
manufacturers.
When compared to conventional sheet-metal structures, composites have a low sensitivity to

sonic vibrations (good vibration resistance). There are also lower assembly costs due to a
reduction in the number of mechanical fasteners and parts in a particular assembly. In
addition, there are other advantages such as reduced weight, high corrosion resistance, high
deterioration resistance, and the capability of achieving a smooth surface, thereby reducing
aerodynamic and parasitic drag.
Types of Composite Structures

Composite structures can either be a solid laminate or a honeycomb/rigid foam sandwich
construction. A solid laminate is made by bonding together several layers of reinforcing fibre
materials that have been impregnated with the resin matrix (see figure 3.5)
A sandwich assembly is made by taking a high-density laminate or solid face and back plate
and sandwiching a low-density tiller (core) between them. This filler can be honeycomb (see
figure 3.4), which may be fabricated from reinforced paper, Nomex, fibreglass, aluminium, or
carbon; a rigid foam (for example, high-temperature polyurethane),
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Figure 3.4 Honeycomb sandwich construction
as illustrated in figure 3.6; or balsa wood (using a low-temperature curing matrix). The
sandwich arrangement creates an improved structural performance and high strength-to-
weight ratio.
Laminates depend more on the combination of the assembly materials than sandwich
assembles for their strength and durability. In sandwich applications the core material is often
constructed using mechanical principles in order to
Figure 3.5: Solid laminate using reinforced fibres.
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Figure 3.6: An assembly using composite components
produce additional strength, such as the inherent strength of a honeycomb design compared to
a simple square pattern. The selection of materials used for the face, core, and back materials
as well as the design configuration of the core material are varied by the design engineer,
depending upon application anticipated for the component part.
Composites Fibres
Reinforcement fibres are produced in several forms using various materials. Fibreglass
material is the most widely used in aircraft. It is manufactured in either S-glass fibre or E-
glass fibre forms for aircraft applications. Glass can be found as chopped strands, woven
roving, woven fabrics, continuous-strand mats, chopped-strand mats, and milled fibres.
Figure 3.7 shows some of the configurations of glass.
Figure 3.7 Hollow fibres, fibres of noncircular cross section, and solid, circular cross-
sectional fibres
As stated, carbon, Kevlar, boron, tungsten, quartz, and ceramics are collectively known as
high- strength advanced composites. They are produced in the form of particles, flakes,
fillers, and fibres of various lengths. A detailed analysis of all composite forms is beyond the
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scope of this text. However, due to the common use of fibre-form composites in the aviation
industry, further discussion of fibre forms is appropriate.
Even in the fibre form, there are a number of variations. There are hollow fibres, fibres of
noncircular cross section, and solid, circular cross-sectional fibres, as shown in figure 3.8.
The most common of these are solid-circular cross-sectional fibres, which are commonly
found in general and commercial aviation applications.
These solid-circular cross-sectional fibres are combined with strong, stiff heat-resistant,
synthetic resin matrices to form a composite material. The engineering performance of a
fibre- matrix combination depends upon the fibres’ orientation, length, shape, and
composition. The mechanical properties of a composite are directly proportional to the
amount of fibre that is oriented by volume in a particular direction.
Figure 3.8: Chopped strands, woven roving, woven fabrics, continuous-strand mats,
chopped strand mats, and milled fibres
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Figure 3.9: Uni-directional weave (woven in a continuous straight line)
Since fibre length has a bearing on the processability of the composite, this consideration is
of major concern during part fabrication. Continuous fibres are much easier to handle than
short ones, but the former are sometimes more limited in their ability to make compound
curved shapes, particularly boron.
Continuous fibres can either be woven into fabrics that are bi-directional, woven at right
angles to each other (figure3.8), or unidirectional, woven in a continuous straight line (figure
3.9). Filament winding consists of resin-impregnated continuous fibres wrapped on a mandrel
simulating the shape of the part (figure 3.10), using one continuous strand, as applied in the
manufacture of helicopter rotor blades. Short fibres are utilized in flat and irregular-shaped
parts using either open- or closed-mould processes, discussed later in this chapter.
FIBERS AT 0°, 90°
Figure 3.9 Bi-directional weave (woven at right angles to each other)
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Figure 3.10 Filament winding consists of resin impregnated continuous fibres,

wrapped on a mandrel the shape of the part
The fibres are manufactured by first creating individual filaments. These filaments are then
assembled into tows, as shown in figure 3.11. Tows can have as many as 160,000 filaments.
Tapes are processed directly from the tow. In the case of fabric, the tows are then twisted
together in bundles to form yarns (or rovings), and the yarns are then processed into fabrics.
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Figure 3.11 Tows to yarn and tape
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Figure 3.12 Weave definition
A weave (see figure 3.12) consists of warp yarn, fill (weft) yarn, and selvage. The warp yarn
is the yarn that runs parallel to the sewn or manufactured edge of the roll and is usually made
up of the longest threads. The fill (weft) yarn is the yarn woven perpendicular to the
manufactured edge. Fill yarn is woven so that it passes over and under warp yarns in a weave
pattern. Selvage is a closely woven pattern used to prevent the edges of the cloth from
unravelling during handling. Selvage is typically removed from the fabric during the
composite manufacturing process. To help the technician identify the warp yarn direction
during the usage of the cloth, warp tracers, which are warp fibres of the same composition
but dyed a different colour, are woven into the fabric.
Bi-directional fabrics are available with various

weave patterns, yarns per inch. and ounce per
yard weight. A plain-weave (figure 3.13) fabric
pattern has an individual warp yarn woven over
one individual fill yarn and under the next. A
plain weave is considered the most stable weave
pattern, providing both openness in the weave
(for even resin flow) and weave stability
(reducing slippage and draping during the part
lay-up). Uniform strength is achieved in both
directions.
Figure 3.13: A Plain Weave
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Satin weaves (figure 3.14) are manufactured when the warp

yams are woven over several successive fill yarns and then
under one fill yarn. When the warp yarns are woven over
three fill yarns and under one fill yarn, the pattern is known
as a crowfoot satin-weave pattern. If the warp yarns are
woven over four fill yarns and under one fill yarn, the pattern
is called a five-harness satin-weave pattern.
An eight-harness satin-weave pattern is identified by the
warp yams having been woven over seven fill yarns first and
then under one fill yarn. The satin weaves are more pliable
than the plain-weave pattern and therefore conform more
easily to complex shapes.
These bi-directional weave patterns allow the material to
retain high strength in both directions.
Unidirectional fabrics are fabricated with all structural fibres
laying in the same lengthwise direction on the roll.
Unidirectional fabrics use a few fibres loosely woven at right
angles to the warp yam to keep the warp yams together in a
flat shape.
Composite Matrices
A composite matrix is the plastic-based medium that
encapsulates. or surrounds, the reinforcement fibres to
protect them and help transmit the stress forces between the
fibres. These matrices can either be thermosetting or
thermoplastic in makeup. They can be a two-part liquid
mixture that has a room temperature cure of 70°F (21°C), or
a factory-mixed and frozen system that requires an
accurately controlled elevated temperature cure cycle up to
700°F (371°C). Epoxy matrix is normally cured at either
250°F (121°C) or 350°F (177°C). Polyamide adhesives cure
in the 260°F (127°C) to 450°F (232°c) range but may require
temperatures as high as 600°F (316°C.
Figure 3.14: A Satin Weaves
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Bismaleimides adhesives cure in the 350°F (177°C) range but require higher posture
temperatures of up to 700°F (37 1 °C). A posture requires additional time at elevated
temperatures to ensure the completeness of the bonding process. Post cures may also beused
to increase strength and relieve stress.
The matrices can have metal flakes added to them during the manufacturing process. In this
combination the matrix provides an impermeable barrier between the atmosphere and the
metal flakes, both limiting the potential for corrosion of the metal flakes and giving the pan
thermal and electrical conductivity. Stainless steel wire whiskers are added to some matrices
to give them additional impact strength, heat-distortion points, and lightning strike protection.
Resin matrices are available to the technician in many forms, including a one-part polymer,
two- part liquid mixture, sheet-film adhesive, and preimpregnated reinforcement fibres. The
term wet lay-up is frequently used to describe the process of applying the two-part liquid
mixture.
In the two-part liquid mixture, the technician must accurately proportion. by weight or
volume (depending upon the manufacturer’s instructions), the two liquid components and
mix them thoroughly before applying the mixture to the fibre-reinforcement materials. This
stage of the resin-curing process in the liquid form, is said to be in the A stage (it is in a
runny liquid stage - the beginning stage). This method is common for simple manufacturing
or repair situations where accuracy of the fibre-to-matrix ratio is not critical. The individual
matrix components have a maximum storage life prior to use, called a shelf life that must be
controlled. After the components have been thoroughly mixed, the combination then has a
pot life, which is the maximum time it can be applied prior to gelling.
Another form of matrix application is a sheet-film adhesive, which must be stored at low
temperatures. It has a maximum shelf life of 6 months. This stage of the resin-curing process,
in stiff sheet form, is known as the B stage (it’s not a liquid or a cured solid - an intermediate
stage). A sheet-film foaming adhesive is used when bonding together sections of honeycomb.
The foaming adhesive expands during the cure cycle to fill voids (a pocket that lacks
adhesive) that may occur due to improper fit of the core pieces.
A more accurate method of matrix application involves using fibre reinforcement materials
that have been pre-impregnated (pre-preg) with matrix at the material manufacturer, it is
during this stage in the resin-curing process that the resin is blended with the reinforcement
material and kept frozen in the Stage B condition.
The technician must assure that pre-preg materials are stored and used properly. Pre-preg
materials must be kept at 0°F (-18°C) or below until ready for use. There is a maximum out
time (accumulative time that the pre-preg roll is out of the freezer) that must be controlled to
assure “freshness” of the adhesive. The material must be checked by a chemical engineer for
usability. The pre-preg materials must be handled in a clean room environment (temperature-
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and humidity-controlled without dust and dirt). This does present a handling problem but
helps assure a good bond. When the pre-preg material has been cured using the controlled
elevated- temperature curing system, the resin is said to be in the C stage (fully cured).
When using the wet lay-up method, the technician can get a ratio of approximately 40 percent
resin to 60 percent fibre reinforcement, which is sufficient for most aerospace application.
When using the pre-preg method, mixes of 30 percent resin to 70 percent fibre can be
achieved. Remember that to a point, the more the reinforcement fibre volume, the more
strength the final assembly will have.
Solid microspheres or solid beads of plastic, are often added to matrices to increase strength
while controlling costs. When solid or hollow beads of plastic are introduced to the resin
mixture, the mixture is often called syntactic foam. Syntactic foams are non-gas blown. Not
only does this mixture increase the matrix resin strength, but it also helps to solve problems
in shrinkage and warpage during the cure cycles. This mixture may be used on the edges of
honeycomb core as a potting compound prior to shaping in order to prevent core crush.
When hollow microspheres (microballoons) of glass or plastic are introduced to the resin
mixture, the glass spheres have a tendency to disperse throughout the part being
manufactured, resulting in stronger edges and corners. Microballoons are used as a filler to
assure uniform shrinkage without causing possible internal stresses during curing.
Matrices with solid microspheres or hollow microspheres added are isotropic, which means
that they have no specific strength orientation. The improved strength characteristics of both
processes typically occur with an overall improved strength-to-weight ratio, because the
microspheres have less density than the matrix.
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Fabrication Techniques for Composites

From previous discussions, it is clear that composite parts may be fabricated into a variety of
configurations. depending upon the design needs determined by the aircraft engineer. The
fabrication may be accomplished by the use of moulds or dies. Since this text deals primarily
with maintenance-related activities the discussion is limited to fabrication techniques using
moulds.
Forming these configurations is accomplished by combining the fibres and matrix over a
form, called a mould. A mould is a tool that conforms to the desired shape of the finished
product. Moulds may be either open or closed moulds.
Open moulds, often referred to as a bond form or lay-up tool allow easy access to the
composite materials during the fabrication process and depend upon gravity and atmospheric
pressure or externally applied pressure to mould the composite material against the mould
until the curing process is complete. Closed moulds are designed in a matched male-female
configuration. Forcing the two mould halves together ensures that the composite material
takes the shape of the mould. Gravity from the weight on the top mould half or externally
applied pressure may be used to ensure the proper mating of the mould.
One important consideration in the design of moulds for close-tolerance composite parts is
the coefficient of thermal expansion of all the related materials. As previously discussed, the
process typically involves the generation of or the use of externally applied heat. The use of
materials with the same or similar coefficients of expansion for moulds is preferred. If a
mould is fabricated using materials with coefficients of expansion different than those of the
composite materials, adaptations for the different expansion rates must be included in the
mould design.
The first step in mould design, when using materials with different coefficients of thermal
expansion is to determine how the finished-part dimensions change at the curing temperature.
For example, a composite part that has a dimension of 10 in. at room temperature might
measure 10 1/32 in. at the elevated curing temperature. Therefore, for the part to be at the 10
in. finished dimension at room temperature, it must be 10 1/32 in. at curing temperature.
The mould must also be at the expanded dimension at the elevated curing temperature.
However, if the coefficient thermal expansion of the mould material is different than that of
the finished part, the dimensions of the mould will be different at room temperature.
Continuing the preceding example, the mould must have a dimension of 10 1/32 in. at
elevated temperature. When cooled to room temperature the mould will have different
dimensions. For example, assume that the coefficient of thermal expansion for the mc
material was half that of the part material. The mould cooled to room temperature would
measure 10 1/64 in. When the mould is fabricated, it is fabricated to the cool dimension,
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which when heated to the elevated curing temperature, would result in a mould dimension
equal to the dimension of the part at the curing temperature.
Figure 3.15 illustrates the proper relationship between the coefficients of expansion of the
mould material and the part material. The proper relationship between the coefficients
expansion of the part and mould materials depends upon the configuration of the finished
part. For example, if the part is U channel and the mould form is the inside the channel, the
coefficient of thermal expansion for the mould material must greater than that of the part
material. If this were not true, the mould would not reduce dimensionally enough to allow the
part to contract to the proper finished dimension, causing interference between the mould and
the part. However, if the mould is the outside the ‘U’ channel, the coefficient of thermal
expansion for the mould material must be less than that of the part material or interference
will again develop as the part and mould are cooled to room temperature.
The removal of the composite materials from the mould can result in damage to the part if the
moulds are not properly prepared with a release agent or release film, which used to prevent
the bonding of the matrix to the mould itself The type of releasing media used is determined
by the type of matrix used, the heat of the curing process, and material from which the mould
is fabricated.
In low-volume production processes and repairs, a vacuum bag, which is a plastic bag
surrounding the part from which air has been evacuated, and a separate heat source may be
used. Common heat sources include controlled ovens, portable “hot bonders,” and heat
blankets.
Figure 3.15 Compensating for the different coefficients of thermal expansion of

mould and part materials are bonded in close proximity to each other. The strength of
the lay-up depends on the volume of the fibres and their orientation.
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High volume and critical composite structures are often heated using an autoclave, which is
an oven that heats the material while it is under pressure.
Warp-Orientation Techniques
As previously mentioned, the strength, or load-carrying properties of a fibrous composite are
greatest when the load applied runs in the same direction as the fibres. Loads that do not run
parallel to the reinforcement fibres must, at least in part be transferred through the matrix,
which typically has the lowest load-carrying capability.
When designing a composite part, the engineer considers the relation of the design load to an
arbitrarily selected orientation line on the part. The reinforcing fibres in a composite material
will usually be designed to run parallel to the load. It is, therefore, important that the
fabricator of the part understand the directional relationship of the fibres to the design of the
part. To do this the engineer will specify a 0o plane as an alignment indicator. The orientation
of the warp fibres as a fabric is rolled off the bolt is defined as the 0o position for the fabric.
Because the alignment indicator is not always in the same plane as the design loads, the
engineer may specify a warp orientation in terms of degrees relative to the reference, or 0o
plane. This is frequently done in the form of a warp clock (see figure 3.16), which is a circle
divided into four quadrants. Each quadrant has a plus or minus orientation, which reflects the
direction of rotation required of the warp fibres if they were to be positioned parallel to the
alignment line. Clockwise is usually plus. Counter-clockwise is usually negative.
A warp clock is typically included as part of the manufacturing drawing or in the text of the
manufacturers’ specification sheets for the particular aircraft. Generally, most manufacturers
use the same orientation for warp clocks as just discussed, but the technician should always
consult the particular manufacturer’s information sheets before building a part or making
repairs.
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Figure 3.16: Warp orientation
If the warp fibres are positioned in such a manner that they lay in only one direction, they are
said to be unidirectional, or anisotropic, in stress design. Quasi-isotropic stress design refers
to design capabilities that are capable of carrying loads in more than one direction but not in
all directions. For example, if the warp fibres are laid perpendicular to each other - that is, at
a 0° and a 900 point—they are said to be bi-directional because the stress design is in two
intersecting directions, they are also considered quasi-isotropic. If the warp fibres are placed
in such a way that they fall at a point of 0° and 45o to the alignment point (0° on the lay-up
tool), the lay-up is again said to be quasi-isotropic. When the warp fibres are assembled in a
laminate with the fibres heading in the 0o, 45°, 90°, and -45° positions, the lay-up is said to
be a cross-ply stress design. This multidirectional pattern is sometimes referred to as
isotropic, because the stress design is in all directions typically specified on the warp-
orientation indicator. Isotropic refers to the capability of a material to bear loads in all
directions, so technically cross-ply applications are not truly isotropic.
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Trimming and Drilling of Composites

Since composites are usually an assembly consisting of laminated layered materials, they are
subject to delamination. In delamination the layers of material are forced apart and are no
longer bonded together. Therefore, care must be taken during trimming and drilling to avoid
delamination.
Drilling and trimming of composite materials is difficult because standard tool steels will
rapidly dull in the process. Problems can occur because of the way drills are shaped and
sharpened.
As a drill dulls, it tends to push against the material rather than cut, causing layer separation.
The drill bit should be shaped in a spade form (figure 3.17 top) or a long tapered form
sometimes referred to as a dagger drill (figure 3.17 bottom). Figure 3.18 depicts a series of
commercially available composite toolings. Diamond-tipped equipment will allow more cuts
to be taken per tool. When drilling carbon products, it is best to use a high-speed, low-feed
combination with the drill motor.
Kevlar and fibreglass are highly fibrous materials, and using a drill that is diamond-dust
coated will only aggravate the situation. The fibres will grab at the drill bit and pull the
diamond from the base metal or fill the voids in the dust pattern with material. These
composite materials should be drilled with a specially ground drill bit that causes the material
to be sheared during the drilling process. This point will also reduce the fuzziness of the drill
hole typically found after drilling.
Honeycomb structures are best cut with a cutting wheel or a saw tipped with carbide or
diamond materials, with the teeth of the saw shaped like a bread knife. When routing out
fibreglass or Nomex core, use a coarse router bit, because a fine one will not cut the material.
A diamond- coated router bit is also too tine to be effective.
Edges of composites can be finished with sanding disks and sandpaper with a grit of 80 or
finer. Be careful in dealing with KEVLAR structures because the fuzzy nature of the material
will cause it to grab at the surface of high-speed tools and pull the sanding disks or cutter
from the power tool’s jaws, throwing the tool.
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Figure 3.17 Spade and dagger drills. (Federal Mogul, Metal Remover Division.)
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Figure 3.18 Various types of composite tooling. (Federal Mogul, Metal Remover Division)
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Composite Inspection
The specific inspection method used for a composite structure varies with the composite
material used and the using organization’s experience with inspection methods.
Acoustic emission, holography, ultrasonics, X rays, thermography, and ring tests are some of
the non-destructive inspection (NDI) techniques currently in use. The information presented
here is a summary of the methods commonly used. However, the aviation maintenance
technician should always consult the manufacturer’s maintenance manual for specific testing
and repair procedures as they apply to a particular aircraft.
A ring test can be used to detect voids (no matrix between the fibres and delaminations
(separations) between the layers. A 1oz hammer, a coin, or other lightweight metal-tapping
device is used to tap on the bonded areas. If the bonding is intact, the tapping gives a solid
“ring.” If there is a void or delamination under the surface, the tapping results in a dull sound.
If a separation is located, the extent of the separation has to be evaluated by other inspection
methods to be assured that there really is a problem.
When performing the ring test, the sound may change due to a transition to a different
internal structure, the technician striking the part at a slightly different angle, and/or pressure.
Variations in the sound during the ring test may be caused by factors other than internal
damage. This test is quite quick but “unscientific” and is more a cause for continued
inspection using other techniques than a true indication of component failure. An example of
a change in internal configuration that would change tones would be where a laminate
changes to a sandwich area. The honeycomb will give a different sound than the solid sheet.
An ultrasonic tester can be used to transmit a sound wave signal into a solid laminate anel.
The sensors of the analyzer send and receive the sound signal and evaluate the speed at which
it moves through the structure. The analyzer then displays the signal time on a cathode-ray
tube. A trained operator can evaluate the display and determine the location, depth. and
extent of voids, delaminations, occlusions (debris), resin richness or starvation, and other
damage as the sending/receiving probe is positioned on different parts of the structure. A
couplant or thin coating of petroleum jelly, oil, or water is used between the sending unit and
the material surface as a sound-transmission medium. The couplant provides an airtight bond
between the material being tested and the signal pickup device.
Radiology can be accomplished using X-ray signals. These can be used to locate moisture
and corrosion in honeycomb, delaminations, and separations of the core from the skin. The
use of radiology is a complex operation that requires the services of specially trained
technicians to operate the equipment and interpret the exposed films.
Acoustic emission monitoring is used to detect corrosion and disbonding of the adhesive
bond. This system also relies on the transmission of sound waves through a material. This
inspection method employs a very sensitive microphone and amplifier. The microphone is
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placed on the surface of a bonded structure. If active corrosion is present the noise associated
with the bubbles generated by the corrosion activity can be detected as a hissing sound. If the
panel being inspected is heated to about 150°F (82°C) disbonding of the adhesive will be
indicated by a crackling sound.
Repairing Composite Structures
The classification of damage and the repair methods for composite materials have not been
standardized in the aviation industry. Each manufacturer has developed a method of
classifying damage and establishing an appropriate repair procedure. The specific repair data
should be consulted prior to repair attempts. The repair procedures presented here are
intended to give the technician a general understanding of some of the procedures.
Damage to one laminated skin surface with no damage to the core can be repaired by the
installation of a surface patch. Prior to the installation of the patch the surface is cleaned.
Topcoat and undercoat paint materials are removed to expose the skin itself around the
damaged area. Note that cleaning and paint removal should be accomplished using abrasives.
The use of chemicals for cleaning and paint removal may lead to weakening of the composite
structure.
The damaged area is either scarfed (sanded) or stepped (routed) using a small disk sander or
a microstop settable air-powered grinder to remove each layer. The damaged area is removed
with ascending concentric circles of material in 1/2in. increments (the area should look like a
shooting target with the bulls-eye in the centre of the damaged area). Circular patches of
repair material are cut corresponding to the diameters of the removed material. The repair
material must be of the same type as the original or an approved substitute. If three layers of
the fabric have to be cut back, then four patches are cut, as shown in figure 3.19. The first
patch is the size of the material removed from the innermost portion of the tapered area (the
bulls-eye). The next two patches are the size of the next two correspondingly enlarging layers
that were cut hack. The fourth patch is large enough to overlap the sanded area by 1 in. on all
sides. If a liquid wet lay-up adhesive is to he used, it is mixed and the time is noted so that the
mixture pot life will not he exceeded. A thin coat of adhesive is then applied over the cleaned
and prepared area. Each patch is saturated (impregnated) with adhesive. The patches are
stacked sequentially, from smallest to largest and placed (usually symmetrically) over the
damaged area. The warp fibres of the repair patches must align with the warp direction of the
original parent material.
If pre-preg materials are used, patches are simply cut from specified materials and laid with
the same warp direction as the original parent: the repair is then cured. Pre-preg materials
must be carefully handled to avoid contamination. After the lay-up has been accomplished,
the repair is sealed in a vacuum bag with thermocouples (temperature sensors) attached to a
temperature controller. The repair can be cooked with an oven, autoclave, or a portable hot
bonder and the appropriate cure cycle. The temperature controller tells either the oven
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controller, the autoclave controller, or the heat-blanket controller of the “hot bonder” how to
control the temperature rise, soak, and drop-off during the cure cycle.
Figure 3.19 Layout of a three-layer cut-back composite repair.
When using a vacuum-bag process (which can be used with either the wet lay-up process or
the pre-preg lay-up process) there are several things to consider. After the repair patches have
been put into place, a layer of peel ply is placed directly over the patch. This material is
normally a porous film because excess resin needs to be bled from the lay-up and the solvents
and volatiles need to be vented. This is peeled from the repair patch after cure, leaving a
rough surface so that the paint will adhere. If the painted surface is to be smooth, the area will
require “filling” before painting. When preparing the surface for filling and painting, care
should be taken not to damage the fabric filaments.
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Next, a breather-bleeder material, such as felt, is placed on top of the release film. This
material provides a path for the air, volatiles, and solvents to flow through during the curing
process. It also absorbs excess resin that has been worked to the edges. Once the release film
and breather-bleeder are in position, a vacuum port is placed on one corner of the lay-up area
(it is not placed on the patch itself), with a piece of breather-bleeder material under it (to
protect it from the resins and aid in air flow from the lay-up). The patch area is then covered
with a heavy piece of high-temperature nylon plastic bagging film and sealed airtight. A
vacuum is applied to the vacuum attachment. The source should create a vacuum of at least
23 in Hg (at sea level) and the plastic over the patch should compress free of wrinkles. The
complete repair arrangement is shown in figure 3.20.
If the repair is a wet lay-up process, the excess resin matrix in the patch can now be worked
out with a plastic squeegee. The squeegee should be flexible and have rounded edges (to
preclude tearing the plastic bagging film). All the air bubbles should be worked toward the
edge of the patch and into the breather-bleeder material. The squeegee is used until the excess
resin can no longer be moved away from the patch. Care must be taken not to remove too
much matrix, as this will render the patch dry and “unairworthy.” The time should be
monitored when working the wet lay-up process in order that the pot life of the matrix is not
exceeded. The matrix should not be worked past its pot life.
If a pre-preg patch is used, the repair area is heated using the available heating equipment
after the vacuum has been applied (cure cycle). The amount of heat applied should be held
constant by monitoring the surface temperature of the repair with the thermocouple. Special
heat- monitoring units are available that will automatically turn the heat source on and off to
keep the temperature of the patch at the desired value. Care should be taken not to apply too
much heat initially as the initial out-gassing of the matrix may cause air bubbles to appear in
the patch. Pre- preg material manufacturers have developed specific cure cycles for their
products, which must be followed.
Heat lamps and hand-held guns are not recommended because of the difficulty in maintaining
a constant and controlled level of heat on the patch for the required curing period. When it is
necessary to apply heat to a limited area, heating blankets with the proper temperature-
controlling equipment may be used. The use of an oven is not recommended unless the
complete part can be placed in the oven while fixed in a bondform or fabrication fixture. The
component could warp during the heating process.
In some aircraft repair manuals, there is a provision for an emergency, temporary surface
patch (commonly called a scab patch) that can be riveted in place using blind pull rivets, as
shown in figure 3.21. Still other aircraft manufacturers may allow the use of a microsphere
impregnated potting compound to repair small defects in a skin surface.
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If damage penetrates the skin surface and the core material then all the damaged material
must be removed. This can be done by the use of a router and template. as shown in figure
3.22, a hole saw, or a fly cutter. The router cuts out the damaged core using a template as a
guide for the movement of the router. The shape of the cleaned-out area can be circular, oval,
or rectangular. The depth of the routing operation is determined by the depth of the damage
penetration, as shown in figure 3.23. If the damage is on a sloping surface, bridges must be
used under the router to allow it to cut parallel with the undamaged surface, as shown in
figure 3.24.
If a syntactic foam is used to fill the core, the core material should be undercut beyond the
edges of the surface opening to anchor the foam within the structure. The routed-out area
should be cleaned with a reagent solvent, a solvent that has been chemically purified. The
repair area is then air dried thoroughly to assure that the core has not retained any liquid. If
liquid is still present the adhesive could break down.
Figure 3.20 Vacuum bag repair arrangement.
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Figure 3.21 A riveted surface patch repair. (Grumman American Aviation.)
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Figure 3.22 Router, support assembly, and template.
Figure 3.23 Areas routed-out prior to repair.
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Figure 3.24 Bridges used for router support.
There are several basic techniques used to repair damage. If the damage penetrates only one
skin and is barely into the core. Syntactic foam can be used to fill the cavity if the damage is
no more than 1 in. in diameter. A piece of plastic is placed over the repair opening, as shown
in figure 3.25. A Duxseal sealing-compound is used to form a cone. Syntactic foam potting
compound is forced into the opening of the repair cavity until the damaged area is full and air
pockets are eliminated. The repair should be vacuum bagged with a thin coat of pure resin
coated over the trimmed foam prior to the outer patch application. The resin is then allowed
to cure. This prevents trapped air from being drawn up through the foam material and into the
patch during its cure period, rendering the patch unairworthy.
If more extensive damage occurs to the core material, a replacement piece of core material is
needed as well as a replacement skin patch. The damaged area is prepared by scarfing or
stepping the outer skin and removing the damaged core with a router. It a wet lay-up is to be
used, the sides of the replacement core plug are coated, or “buttered,” with liquid adhesive
mixture (viscous slurry) and the core is pushed into place. The replacement plies of the skin
are impregnated with the liquid resin and stacked over the core in the same orientation as the
parent material.
Figure 3.25 A potted repair to the core and skin.
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If pre-preg materials are used for the repair, then a sheet foaming adhesive is used to install
the core. The adhesive is removed from the freezer, cut into strips, and wrapped around the
core before it is placed into the cavity. A layer of sheet adhesive (non-foaming) is placed in
the cavity on which the core sits. If a pre-preg material is used for the skin, the properly
identified material roll is removed from the freezer and allowed to thaw in the sealed storage
bag in which the material is stored. This allows the material to come up to room temperature
without having condensation form on the material surface. Monitor the out-time record to
make sure the storage and out-life limits have not been exceeded. The replacement plies are
cut to shape after the material has thawed and are then placed over the core in the proper
orientation. Some manufacturers also recommend the application of adhesive between the
plies of the prepregged layers. Remember to use clean gloves to protect the material from oils
in your skin. This procedure is shown in figure 3.26. The repair is vacuum-bagged and cured.
Once the adhesives have set, the repair is smoothed and finished.
Figure 3.26 A plug repair on an edge
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Figure 3.27 A riveted plug repair.
Another method shown in figure 3.27 is sometimes called a temporary repair or riveted
repair. In this illustration all the core material in the original structure has been removed. The
core plug is inserted and an external plate is blind pull riveted into place. If damage
penetrates both skins, the hole is routed out through the entire panel. Plug and surface patches
are prepared, and the pieces are assembled. as shown in figure 3.28. A similar riveted repair
is shown in figure 3.29. If you have a choice, the surface patch should be of the same material
as the parent skin. If that material is not available, aluminium face sheet should be used.
A rivet gun and bucking bar should not be used to install solid rivets in composite structures
because the pounding will delaminate more of the skin areas.
Although some of the repairs illustrated in this chapter show the trimmed surface openings
without any tapering or stepping, most manufacturers require that the skin surface be tapered
or stepped and the patch be composed of materials similar to those of the parent skin.
Remember, this chapter describes generic repairs. Alwa ys consult the manufacturer’s repair
manual for specific information.
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Figure 3.28: A repair using a skin and core replacement.
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Figure 3.29: A core replacement by riveting.
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Glossary of Composites Terms
Acceptance Test
A test, or series of tests, conducted by the procuring agency, or an agent thereof, upon receipt
to determine whether an individual lot of materials conforms to the purchase order or contract
or to determine the degree of uniformity of the material supplied by the vendor or both.
Accelerator
A substance designed to accelerate or enhance the adhesive's curing process.
Activator
A substance, which initiates or accelerates the cure of an adhesive.
Ambient temperature
The temperature in the surrounding area.
Anaerobic Adhesive
Anaerobic adhesives cure in the absence of air and the presence of active metals.
Assembly
A group of materials or parts, including adhesive, which has been placed together for bonding
or which has been bonded together.
Assembly Time
The time interval between the spreading of the adhesive on the adherend and the application
of pressure or heat, or both, to the assembly.
Batch
The manufactured unit or a blend of two or more units of the same formulation and
processing.
Binder
A component of an adhesive composition that is primarily responsible for the adhesive forces
which hold two bodies together.
Blister
An elevation of the surface of an adherend, somewhat resembling in shape a blister on the
human skin; its boundaries may be indefinitely outlined and it may have burst and become
flattened. A blister may be caused by insufficient adhesive; inadequate curing time,
temperature or pressure; or trapped air, water, or solvent vapour.
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B-Stage
An intermediate stage in the reaction of certain thermosetting resins in which the material
softens when heated and swells when in contact with certain liquids, but may not entirely fuse
or dissolve. The resin in an uncured thermosetting adhesive is usually in this stage.
Sometimes referred to as Resitol.
Cartridge (EDS)
A rigid container in which adhesives in pre-measured quantities are supplied. Cartridges can
be
Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials - Composite and Non-Metallic 3-67
either side-by-side (EDS) or a single tube. A dispensing gun is required.
Catalyst
A substance that markedly speeds up the cure of an adhesive when added in minor quantity as
compared to the amounts of the primary reactants.
Centipoise (cP)
Viscosity measurement where water is 1 cP (also see mPas)
Coefficient of thermal Expansion
The measured expansion of a product under heat measured per 1 °C rise or fall in
temperature.
Cold Pressing
A bonding operation in which an assembly is subjected to pressure without the application of
heat.
Cold Storage
Some adhesives and resins should be stored in refrigerators or freezers. This is normally,
specified by the manufacturer.
Compression Strength
The resistance to rupture under inward pressure. Adhesives generally perform well under
compression.
Condensation
A chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine with the separation of water or
some other simple substance. If a polymer is formed, the process is called polycondensation.
Crazing
Fine cracks that may extend in a network on or under the surface of or through a layer of
adhesive.
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Creep
The dimensional change with time of a material under load, following the initial
instantaneous elastic or rapid deformation. Creep at room temperature is sometimes called
Cold Flow.
Crosslinking
The chemical combining of monomers, oligomers and/or polymers to enhance their
properties which also renders them insoluble.
Cure
To change the physical properties of an adhesive by chemical reaction, which may be
condensation, polymerisation, or vulcanisation; usually accomplished by the action of heat
and catalyst, alone or in combination, with or without pressure.
Cure Temperature
The temperature to which an adhesive or an assembly is subjected to cure the adhesive.
Cure Time
The period of time during which an assembly is subjected to heat or pressure, or both, to cure
the adhesive.
Delamination
The separation of layers in a laminate because of failure of the adhesive, either in the
adhesive itself or at the interface between the adhesive and the adherend.
Doped Lamps
The specific wavelengths emitted from an ultraviolet lamp are mainly dependent upon the
fill. Using mercury as the norm, the spectral output can be changed by the addition of dopants
such as beryllium or iron.
Ductility
A material property that allows deformation (bending, stretching, twisting) without fracture.
Endothermic
A chemical reaction which absorbs heat.
Epoxy - 1 Part
Single part adhesive, which cures at elevated temperatures. Excellent durability but limited to
whether the substrates can take the heat necessary to cure the adhesive.
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Epoxy - 2 Part
A two part adhesive, which cures at room temperature. Very versatile, used for many
applications from fast repairs through to structural bonding.
Exothermic
A chemical reaction which gives off heat. .
Filled
An adhesive, which incorporates solid particles to change its properties - i.e. electrical
conductivity or to increase the gap-filling capability.
Filler
A relatively non-adhesive substance added to an adhesive to improve its working properties,
permanence, strength, or other qualities.
Fillet
That portion of an adhesive, which fills the corner or angle formed where two adherends are
joined.
Flash Point
The temperature in degrees °F (°C) at which a liquid gives off sufficient vapour to form a
flammable or ignitable mixture with air.
Flow
Movement of an adhesive during the bonding process, before the adhesive is set.
FRP
Fibre Reinforced Plastic (see also GRP)
Full Cure
When the adhesive has reached its full strength - in contrast to its working strength.
Gel
A semisolid system consisting of a network of solid aggregates in which liquid is held.
Gel (cure):
A description of an adhesive as it hardens from liquid to solid.
Gel (viscosity)
Term to describe the viscosity of an adhesive which is gelling.
Gel Time
The amount of time it takes for an adhesive to reach a gel cure state.
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Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)

The temperature where the material changes from a flexible condition to quite hard and brittle
condition or vice versa.
GRP
Glass Reinforced Plastic (see also FRP)
Handling Time
The time after which a bonded unit may be moved to continue the assembly process, but no
significant loads should be exerted on the bond line.
Hardener
A substance or mixture of substances added to an adhesive to promote or control the curing
reaction taking part in it. The term is also used to designate a substance added to control the
degree of hardness of the cured film.
Heat curing
To effect the change from liquid to solid for an adhesive which has to be heated - usually
anywhere between 30 - 180°C.
Hygroscopic
Materials which have a tendency to absorb moisture from the atmosphere.
Impregnating
The process of imbedding a liquid into a porous solid to change its physical properties.
Induction curing
Cures the adhesive by heating one of the ferrous metal substrates using induction. Very rapid
setting times can be achieved.
Infrared Energy
Photon energy having wavelengths between 1 and 100 microns.
Inhibitor
A substance that slows down chemical reaction. Inhibitors are sometimes used in certain
types of adhesives to prolong storage or working life.
Initiator
A substance, which starts the cure process.
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Laminate
A product made by bonding together two or more layers of material or materials. To unite
layers of material with adhesive.
Mixing Order
The order in which the resin is mixed with the catalyst and accelerator. Always Resin -
Catalyst – Accelerator
Modifier
Any chemically inert ingredient added to an adhesive formulation that changes its properties.
Monomer
A molecule of relative low molecular weight and simple structure capable of combining with
itself or other similar molecules through reactive sites to form polymers.
Nylon
The common name for a family of plastics, also known as polyamides.
Oxygen Inhibition
The effect of oxygen which terminates or retards the rate of polymerisation.
Paste
An adhesive composition having a characteristic plastic-type consistency, that is, a high order
of yield value, such as that of a paste prepared by heating a mixture of starch and water and
subsequently cooling the hydrolysed product.
Plasticity
A property of adhesives that allows the material to be deformed continuously and
permanently without rupture upon the application of a force that exceeds the yield value of
the material.
Plasticizer
A material incorporated in an adhesive to increase its flexibility, workability, or
dispensability.
The addition of the plasticizer may cause a reduction in melt viscosity, lower the temperature
of the second order transition, or lower the elastic modulus of the solidified adhesive.
Polymer
A macromolecule consisting of a large number of monomer units. The molecular weights
may range from about 20,000 into the millions.
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Polymerisation
A chemical reaction in which the molecules of a monomer are linked together to form large
molecules whose molecular weight is a multiple of that of the original substance. When two
or more monomers are involved, the process is called copolymerisation or
heteropolymerization.
Porosity Sealing
Sealing of pin holes in welded or cast materials.
Post Cure
A treatment (normally involving heat) applied to an adhesive assembly following the initial
cure, to modify specific properties. To expose an adhesive assembly to an additional cure,
following the initial cure, for the purpose of modifying specific properties.
Pot Life
The time in which an adhesive may be used before it starts to skin or film over.
Potting
The processes of filling or coating parts to protect them from shock, vibration or
environmental hazards such as water.
Primer
A coating applied to a surface, prior to the application of an adhesive, to improve the
performance of the bond.
Resin
A solid, semisolid, or psuedosolid organic material that has an indefinite and often high
molecular weight, exhibits a tendency to flow when subjected to stress, usually has a
softening or melting range, and usually fractures conchoidally. .
Room Temperature
Generally taken as being between 20°C and 30°C (68°F and 86°F).
Sag
Also known as slump relating to the flow of the adhesive.
Service Temperature
A range between which a cured adhesive may be used and considered to perform adequately.
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Set (Setting)
To convert an adhesive into a fixed or hardened state by chemical or physical action, such as
condensation, polymerisation, oxidation, vulcanisation, gelation, hydration, or evaporation of
volatile constituents.
Shelf Life
The amount of time a material may be stored under specified conditions with no significant
changes in properties. .
Solvent
A liquid, which is capable of dissolving uncured and cured adhesives. Also, may be used as a
catalyst to initiate cure of some types of adhesives. .
Static Mixer
A nozzle, which is used in conjunction with a twin barrelled cartridge. The nozzle contains a
mixing element to ensure that as the adhesive is pushed down through the nozzle it mixes
thoroughly. These nozzles allow fully mixed product to be applied direct to the work piece,
and remove the need to mix by hand and the risk of entrapping air within the adhesive.
Stress cracking
Certain adhesives may cause some plastics to "relax" or "crazy pave".
Substrate
A material upon the surface of which an adhesive-containing substance is spread for any
purpose, such as bonding or coating. A broader term than adherend.
Surface Preparation
A physical or chemical preparation, or both, of an adherend to render it suitable for adhesive
joining. A method by which a substrate is made suitable to be bonded.
Synthetic
A material produced by chemical means, which is not naturally occurring.
Tack
The property of an adhesive that enables it to form a bond of measurable strength
immediately after adhesive and adherend are brought into contact under low pressure.
Thermocouple
An electric device used to monitor temperature.
Thermoplastic
A material capable of being repeatedly softened by heat and hardened by cooling.
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Thermoset
A material that will undergo or has undergone a chemical reaction by the action of heat,
catalysts, ultraviolet light, etc., leading to a relatively infusible state. A plastic which, when
heated, will not melt but will eventually char and burn.
Thixotropic
Non-drip characteristic - an adjective to describe a material, which will thin on shearing and
then recover a gel like structure on standing.
Toughening
A system designed to arrest crack propagation within an adhesive.
Ultraviolet Light (UV)

Radiant energy in the wavelength band of 180 to 400 nanometres.
UV Curable Adhesive
An adhesive whose cure is initiated by UV light.
Viscosity
A measurement of the thickness of a liquid - usually measured in cP (centipoise) or mPa
(millipascal seconds). The ratio of the shear stress existing between laminae of moving fluid
and the rate of shear between these laminae. A fluid is said to exhibit Newtonian behaviour
when the rate of shear is proportional to the shear stress. A fluid is said to exhibit non-
Newtonian behaviour when an increase or decrease in the rate of shear is not accompanied by
a proportional increase or decrease in the shear stress.
Vulcanisation
A chemical reaction in which the physical properties of a rubber are changed in the direction
of decreased plastic flow, less surface tackiness, and increased tensile strength by reacting it
with sulphur or other suitable agents.
Warp
The longitudinal direction fibre, parallel to the manufactured edge. .
Wetting
The coating of a substrate surface with an adhesive.
Wicking
The flow of a liquid along a surface into a narrow space, similar to capillary action.
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Working Life
The period of time during which an adhesive, after mixing with catalyst, solvent, or other
compounding ingredients, remains suitable for use.
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6.3.3. WOOD AND WOOD STRUCTURES
The earliest aircraft were constructed of wood and cloth. Today, except for restorations and
some homebuilt aircraft, very little wood is used in aircraft construction.
Wood was among the first materials used to construct aircraft. Most of the airplanes built
during World War I (WWI) were constructed of wood frames with fabric coverings. Wood
was the material of choice for aircraft construction into the 1930s. Part of the reason was the
slow development of strong, lightweight, metal aircraft structures and the lack of suitable
corrosion-resistant materials for all-metal aircraft. It is the responsibility of the mechanic to
carefully inspect such structures for deterioration and continuing airworthiness.
Wood Types
Quality of Wood
All wood and plywood used in the repair of aircraft structures should be of aircraft quality.
Table 3.1 lists some permissible variations in characteristics and properties of aircraft wood.
However, selection and approval of wood stock for aircraft structural use are specialized
skills and should be done by personnel who are thoroughly familiar with inspection criteria
and methods.
Figure 3.30: Shrinkage effects are based on the grain directions
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Substitution of Original Wood

The wood species used to repair a part should be the same as that of the original whenever
possible; however, some permissible substitutes are given in table 3.1. Obtain approval from
the airframe manufacturer for the replacement of modified woods or other non-wood
products with a substitute material.
Effects of Shrinkage. When the moisture content of a wooden part is lowered, the part
shrinks. Since the shrinkage is not equal in all directions, the mechanic should consider the
effect that the repair may have on the completed structure. The shrinkage is greatest in a
tangential direction (across the fibers and parallel to the growth rings), somewhat less in a
radial direction(across the fibers and perpendicular to the growth rings), and is negligible in a
longitudinal direction(parallel to the fibers). Figure 3.30 illustrates the different grain
directions
and the effects of shrinkage on the shape of a part. These dimensional changes can have
several detrimental effects upon a wood structure, such as loosening of fittings and wire
bracing and checking or splitting of wood members. A few suggestions for minimizing these
shrinkage effects are:
• Use bushings that are slightly short so that when the wood member shrinks the
bushings do not protrude and the fittings may be tightened firmly against the member.
• Gradually drop off plywood faceplates by feathering as shown in figure 3.31.
• Thoroughly seal all wood surfaces, particularly end grain and bolt holes, with varnish,
epoxy, or other acceptable sealer to slow or prevent moisture changes in the member.
(See Section
Figure 3.31: Drop-offs of plywood faceplates
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Maximum
Strength
permissible
properties
grain
Species of Wood as Remarks
deviation
compared to
(slope of
spruce
grain)
Spruce (Picea) Sitka 100% 1:15 Excellent for all uses. Considered as
(P. Sitchensis) Red standard for this table.
(P. Rubra) White (p.
Glauca).
Douglas Fir Exceeds 1:15 May be used as substitute for spruce in

(Pseudotsuga spruce. same sizes or in slightly reduced sizes
Taxifolia). providing reductions are substantiated.
Difficult to work with hand-tools. Some
tendency to split and splinter during
fabrication and considerable more care in
manufacture is necessary. Large solid
pieces should be avoided due to inspection
Noble Fir (Abies Slightly 1:15 difficulties. Gluing
Satisfactory satisfactory
characteristics with respect to
Nobiles). exceeds workability, warping, and splitting. May be
spruce except used as direct substitute for spruce in same
8% deficient sizes providing shear does not become
in shear. critical. Hardness somewhat less than
spruce. Gluing satisfactory.
Western Hemlock Slightly Less uniform in texture than spruce. May

(Tsuga exceeds be used as direct substitute for spruce.
Heterpphylla). spruce. Upland growth superior to lowland growth.
Gluing satisfactory.
Pine, Properties 1:15 Excellent working qualities and uniform in

Northern between 85 % properties, but somewhat low in hardness
White (Pinus and 96 % and shock resisting capacity . Cannot be
Strobus). those of used as substitute for spruce without
spruce. increase in sizes to compensate for lesser
strength. Gluing satisfactory.
White Cedar, Port Exceeds 1:15 May be used as substitute for spruce in
Orford spruce. same sizes or in slightly reduced sizes
(Charaecyparis providing reductions are substantiated.
Lawsoniana). Easy to work with hand-tools.
Gluing difficult, but satisfactory joints can
be obtained if suitable precautions are
taken.
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Poplar, Slightly less 1:15 Excellent working qualities. Should not be

Yellow than spruce used as a direct substitute for spruce
(Liriodendro except in without carefully accounting for slightly
w Tulipifera). compression reduced strength properties. Somewhat low
(crushing) in shock-resisting capacity.
and shear. Gluing satisfactory.
Table 3.1: Selection and Properties of Aircraft Wood. (See notes following tabl
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Notes For Table 3.1
Defect Permitted
Cross grain. Spiral grain, diagonal grain, or a combination of the two is acceptable providing
the grain does not diverge from the longitudinal axis of the material more than 1:15. A check
of all four faces of the board is necessary to determine the amount of divergence. The
direction of free-flowing ink will frequently assist in determining grain direction
Wavy, curly, and interlocked grain. Acceptable, if local irregularities do not exceed
limitations specified for spiral and diagonal grain.
Hard knots. Sound, hard knots up to 3/8 inch in maximum diameter are acceptable providing:
(1) they are not projecting portions of I-beams, along the edges of rectangular or beveled
unrouted beams, or along the edges of flanges of box beams (except in lowly stressed
portions); (2) they do not cause grain divergence at the edges of the board or in the flanges of
a beam more than specified in column 3; and (3) they are in the center third of the beam and
are not closer than 20 inches to another knot or other defect (pertains to 3/8 inch knots-smaller
knots may be proportionately closer). Knots greater than 1/4 inch must be used with caution.
Pin knot clusters. Small clusters are acceptable providing they produce only a small effect on
grain direction
Pitch pockets. Acceptable in center portion of a beam providing they are at least 14 inches
apart when they lie in the same growth ring and do not exceed 1 -1/2 inches length by 1/8 inch
width by 1/8 inch depth, and providing they are not along the projecting portions of I-beams,
along the edges of rectangular or beveled unrouted beams, or along the edges of the flanges of
box beams
Mineral streaks. Acceptable, providing careful inspection fails to reveal any decay
Defects Not Permitted
Cross grain. Not acceptable, unless within limitations noted in ‘Defects Permitted’ above
Wavy, curly, and interlocked grain. Not acceptable, unless within limitations noted in
‘Defects Permitted’ above.
Hard knots. Not acceptable, unless within limitations noted in ‘Defects Permitted’ above
Pin knot clusters. Not acceptable, if they produce large effect on grain direction.
Spike knots. These are knots running completely through the depth of a beam perpendicular
to the annual rings and appear most frequently in quarter-sawed lumber. Reject wood
containing this defect.
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Pitch pockets. Not acceptable, unless within limitations noted in ‘Defects Permitted’ above.
Mineral streaks. Not acceptable, if accompanied by decay (see ‘Defects Permitted’ above).
Checks, shakes, and splits. Checks are longitudinal cracks extending, in general, across the
annual rings.
Shakes are longitudinal cracks usually between two annual rings. Splits are longitudinal
cracks induced by artificially induced stress. Reject wood containing these defects.
Compression wood. This defect is very detrimental to strength and is difficult to recognize
readily. It is characterized by high specific gravity, has the appearance of an excessive
growth of summer wood, and in most species shows little contrast in color between spring
wood and summer wood. In doubtful cases reject the material, or subject samples to
toughness machine test to establish the quality of the wood. Reject all material containing
compression wood.
Compression failures. This defect is caused from the wood being overstressed in
compression due to natural forces during the growth of the tree, felling trees on rough or
irregular ground, or rough handling of logs or lumber. Compression failures are characterized
by a buckling of the fibers that appear as streaks on the surface of the piece substantially at
right angles to the grain, and vary from pronounced failures to very fine hairlines that require
close inspection to detect. Reject wood containing obvious failures. In doubtful cases reject
the wood, or make a further inspection in the form of microscopic examination or toughness
test, the latter means being the more reliable.
Decay. Examine all stains and discoloration carefully to determine whether or not they are
harmless, or in a stage of preliminary or advanced decay. All pieces must be free from rot,
dote, red heart, purple-heart, and all other forms of decay.
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Modified Wood Products. The most common forms of modified woods found in aircraft
construction are plywood. Although not a wood product, Phenolic parts are sometimes
incorporated into structures. These products are used whenever the manufacturer requires
specialized strength or durability characteristics.
Adhesives for Wood

Because of the critical role played by adhesives in aircraft structure, the mechanic must
employ only those types of adhesives that meet all of the performance requirements
necessary for use in certificated civil aircraft. Use each product strictly in accordance with the
aircraft and adhesive manufacturer’s instructions.
Adhesives acceptable can be identified in the following ways:

• Refer to the aircraft maintenance or repair manual for specific instructions on
acceptable adhesive selection for use on that type aircraft.
• Adhesives meeting the requirements of a Military Specification (Mil Spec),
Aerospace Material Specification (AMS), or Technical Standard Order (TSO) for
wooden aircraft structures are satisfactory providing they are found to be compatible
with existing structural materials in the aircraft and the fabrication methods to be used
in the repair.
Common types of adhesives that are or have been used in aircraft structure fall into two
general groups: casein and synthetic-resins. Adhesive technology continues to evolve, and
new types may become available in the future.
 Casein adhesive performance is generally considered inferior to other products
available today, modern adhesives should be considered first.
CAUTION: Casein adhesive deteriorates over the years after exposure to moisture
in the air and temperature variations. Some modern adhesives are incompatible
with casein adhesive. If a joint that has previously been bonded with casein is to be
rebounded with another type adhesive, all traces of the casein must be scraped off
before the new adhesive is applied. If any casein adhesive is left, residual alkalinity
may cause the new adhesive to fail to cure properly.
 Synthetic-resin adhesives comprise a broad family which includes plastic resin

glue, resorcinol, hot-pressed Phenol, and epoxy.
 Plastic resin glue (urea-formaldehyde resin glue) has been used in wood aircraft
for many years. Caution should be used due to possible rapid deterioration (more
rapidly than wood)of plastic resin glue in hot, moist environments and under cyclic
swell-shrink stress. For these reasons, urea-formaldehyde should be considered
obsolete for all repairs.
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 Federal Specification MMM-A-181D and Military Specification MIL-A-22397

both describe a required series of tests that verify the chemical and mechanical
properties of resorcinol. Resorcinol is the only known adhesive recommended and
approved for use in wooden aircraft structure and fully meets necessary strength
and durability requirements. Resorcinol adhesive (resorcinol-formaldehyde resin)
is a two -part synthetic resin adhesive consisting of resin and a hardener. The
appropriate amount of hardener (per manufacturer’s instruction) is added to the
resin, and it is stirred until it is uniformly mixed; the adhesive is now ready for
immediate use. Quality of fit and proper clamping pressure are both critical to the
achievement of full joint strength. The adhesive bond lines must be very thin and
uniform in order to achieve full joint strength.
CAUTION: Read and observe material safety data. Be sure to follow the
manufacturer’s instructions regarding mixing, open assembly and close assembly
times, and usable temperature ranges.
 Phenol-formaldehyde adhesive is commonly used in the manufacturing of aircraft

grade plywood. This product is cured at elevated temperature and pressure; therefore,
it is not practical for use in structural repair.
 Epoxy adhesives are a two-part synthetic resin product, and are acceptable providing
they meet the requirements of paragraph 1-4a.Many new epoxy resin systems appear
to have excellent working properties. They have been found to be much less critical of
joint quality and clamping pressure. They penetrate well into wood and plywood.
However, joint durability in the presence of elevated temperature or moisture is
inadequate in many epoxies. The epoxy adhesives generally consist of a resin and a
hardener that are mixed together in the proportions specified by the manufacturer.
Depending on the type of epoxy, pot life may vary from a few minutes to an hour.
Cure times vary between products.
CAUTION: Some epoxies may have unacceptable thermal or other hidden

characteristics not obvious in a shop test. It is essential that only those products
meeting the requirements of paragraph 1-4a be used in aircraft repair. Do not vary
the resin-to-hardener ratio in an attempt to alter the cure time. Strength, thermal,
and chemical resistance will be adversely affected. Read and observe material safety
data. Be sure to follow the adhesive manufacturer’s instructions regarding mixing,
open and closed curing time, and usable temperature ranges.
Bonding Precautions. Satisfactory bond joints in aircraft will develop the full strength of
wood under all conditions of stress. To produce this result, the bonding operation must be
carefully controlled to obtain a continuous thin and uniform film of solid adhesive in the joint
with adequate adhesion and penetration to both surfaces of the wood. Some of the more
important conditions involve:
• Properly prepared wood surfaces.
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• Adhesive of good quality, properly prepared, and properly selected for the task at
hand.
• Good bonding technique, consistent with the adhesive manufacturer’s instructions
for the specific application.
Preparation of Wood Surfaces for Bonding

It is recommended that no more time than necessary be permitted to elapse between final
surfacing and bonding. Keep prepared surfaces covered with a clean plastic sheet or other
material to maintain cleanliness prior to the bonding operation. The mating surfaces should
be machined smooth and true with planers, joiners, or special miter saws. Planer marks,
chipped or loosened grain, and other surface irregularities are not permitted. Sandpaper must
never be used to smooth softwood surfaces that are to be bonded. Sawn surfaces must
approach well- planed surfaces in uniformity, smoothness, and freedom from crushed fibers.
It is advisable to clean both joint surfaces with a vacuum cleaner just prior to adhesive
application. Wood surfaces ready for bonding must be free from oil, wax, varnish, shellac,
lacquer, enamel, dope, sealers, paint, dust, dirt, adhesive, crayon marks, and other extraneous
materials.
 Roughening smooth, well-planed surfaces of normal wood before bonding is not

recommended. Such treatment of well-planed wood surfaces may result in local
irregularities and objectionable rounding of edges. When surfaces cannot be
freshly machined before bonding, such as plywood or inaccessible members, very
slight sanding of the surface with a fine grit such as 220, greatly improves
penetration by the adhesive of aged or polished surfaces. Sanding should never be
continued to the extent that it alters the flatness of the surface. Very light sanding
may also improve the wetting of the adhesive to very hard or resinous materials.
 Wetting tests are useful as a means of detecting the presence of wax, old adhesive,
and finish. A drop of water placed on a surface that is difficult to wet and thus
difficult to bond will not spread or wet the wood rapidly (in seconds or minutes).
The surface may be difficult to wet due to the presence of wax, exposure of the
surface to heat and pressure as in the manufacture of ho press bonded plywood, the
presence of synthetic resins or wood extractives, or simply chemical or physical
changes in the wood surface with time. Good wettability is only an indication that
a surface can be bonded satisfactorily. After performing wetting tests, allow
adequate time for wood to dry before bonding. Preliminary bonding tests and tests
for bond strength are the only positive means of actually determining the bonding
characteristics of the adhesive and material combinations.(See paragraph 1-29h.)
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Applying the Adhesive

To make a satisfactory bonded joint, spread the adhesive in a thin, even layer on both
surfaces to be joined. It is recommended that a clean brush be used and care taken to see that
all surfaces are covered. Spreading of adhesive on only one of the two surfaces is not
recommended. Be sure to read and follow the adhesive manufacturer’s application
instructions.
Assembly Time in Bonding

Resorcinol, epoxy, and other adhesives cure as a result of a chemical reaction. Time is an
important consideration in the bonding process. Specific time constraints are as follows:
 Pot life is the usable life of the adhesive from the time that it is mixed until it must
be spread onto the wood surface. Once pot life has expired, the remaining adhesive
must be discarded. Do not add thinning agents to the adhesive to extend the life of
the batch.
 Open assembly time is the period from the moment the adhesive is spread until
the parts are clamped together. Where surfaces are coated and exposed freely to the
air, some adhesives experience a much more rapid change inconsistency than when
the parts are laid together as soon as the spreading has been completed.
 Closed assembly time is the period from the moment that the structure parts are
placed together until clamping pressure is applied. The consistency of the adhesive
does not change as rapidly when the parts are laid together.
 Pressing (or clamping) time is the period during which the parts are pressed tightly
together and the adhesive cures. The pressing time must be sufficient to ensure that
joint strength is adequate before handling or machining the bonded structure.
NOTE: Follow the adhesive manufacturer’s instructions for all time limits in the bonding
process. If the recommended open or closed assembly periods are exceeded, the bond
process should not be continued. Discard the parts if feasible. If the parts cannot be
discarded, remove the partially cured adhesive and clean the bond line per adhesive
manufacturer’s instructions before application of new adhesive.
Bonding Temperature. Temperature of the bond line affects the cure rate of the adhesive.
Some adhesive types, such as resorcinol, require a minimum temperature which must be
maintained throughout the curing process. Each type of adhesive requires a specific
temperature during the cure cycle , and the manufacturer’s recommendations should be
followed.
Clamping Pressure
 Use the recommended pressure to squeeze adhesive out into a thin, continuous
film between the wood layers. This forces air from the joint and brings the wood
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surfaces into intimate contact. Pressure should be applied to the joint before the
adhesive becomes too thick to flow and is accomplished by means of clamps,
presses, or other mechanical devices.
 Non uniform clamping pressure commonly results in weak and strong areas in
the same joint. The amount of pressure required to produce strong joints in aircraft
assembly operations varies with the type of adhesive used and the type of wood to
be bonded. Typical pressures when using resorcinol may vary from 125 to 150
pounds per square inch for softwoods and 150 to 200 pounds per square inch for
hardwoods. Insufficient pressure or poorly machined wood surfaces usually result
in thick bond lines, which indicate a weak joint, and should be carefully guarded
against. Some epoxy adhesives require much less clamping pressure to produce
acceptable joint strength. Be sure to read and follow the manufacturer’s
instructions in all cases.
Method of Applying Pressure

The methods of applying pressure to joints in aircraft bonding operations range from the use
of brads, nails, small screws, and clamps; to the use of hydraulic and electrical power presses.
The selection of appropriate clamping means is important to achieving sound bond joints.
 Hand nailing is used rather extensively in the bonding of ribs and in the
application of plywood skins to the wing, control surfaces, and fuselage frames.
Small brass screws may also be used advantageously when the particular parts to
be bonded are relatively small and do not allow application of pressure by means
of clamps. Both nails and screws produce adverse after effects. There is
considerable risk of splitting small parts when installing nails or screws. Metal
fasteners also provide vulnerable points for moisture to enter during service.
 On small joints using thin plywood for gussets or where plywood is used as an
outer skin, the pressure is usually applied by nailing or stapling. Thin plywood
nailing strips are often used to spread the nailing pressure over a larger area and to
facilitate removal of the nails after the adhesive has cured.
 The size of the nails must vary with the size of the members. If multiple rows of
nails are required, the nails should be 1 inch apart in rows spaced 1/2 inch apart.
The nails in adjacent rows should be staggered. In no case should the nails in
adjacent rows be more than 3/4 inch from the nearest nail. The length of the nails
should be such that they penetrate the wood below the joint at least 3/8 inch. In the
case of small members, the end of the nail should not protrude through the member
below the joint. Hit the nails with several light strokes, just seating the head into
the surface of the gusset. Be careful not to crush the wood with a heavy hammer
blow.
 In some cases the nails are removed after adhesive cure, while in others the nails
are left in place. The nails are employed for clamping pressure during adhesive
cure and must not be expected to hold members together in service. In deciding
whether to re move nails after assembly, the mechanic should examine adjacent
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structure to see whether nails remain from original manufacture.On larger

members (spar repairs for example), apply pressure by means of screw clamps,
such as a cabinet-maker’s bar or “C-clamps.” Strips or blocks should be used to
distribute clamping pressure and protect members from local crushing due to the
when one member is thin (such as plywood). The strip or block should be at least
twice as thick as the thinner member being bonded.
 Immediately after clamping or nailing a member, the mechanic must examine the
entire joint to assure uniform part contact and adhesive squeeze-out. Wipe away
excess adhesive.
Inspection of Wood and Wood Structures

Inspection of wooden structure includes some methods, equipment, and awareness of failure
modes which are unique to wooden aircraft.
Types of Deterioration and Damage
 Wood Decay. Wood is an organic product which is subject to attack by fungi.

Fungi are plants that grow on and in wood. The moisture content of the wood
nominally will have to be 20 percent or greater to sustain fungus growth. The result
of this growth is called decay. Decayed wood exhibits softness, swelling if still
wet, excessive shrinkage when dry, cracking, and discoloration. Repair or replace
wood if any amount or form of decay is found.
 Splitting. Splits or cracks in wooden members occur along grain lines. When the
moisture content of wood is lowered, its dimensions decrease. The dimensional
change is greatest in a tangential direction (across the fibers and parallel to the
growth rings), somewhat less in a radial direction (across the fibers and
perpendicular to the growth rings), and is negligible in a longitudinal direction
(parallel to the fibers). These dimensional changes can have detrimental effects
upon a wood structure, particularly when two parts are bonded together with grains
in different directions. This effect can often be seen where a plywood doubler is
bonded to a spruce member. As the spruce member dries, it attempts to shrink, but
is restrained by the plywood, which shrinks less. The resulting stress in the spruce
member exceeds its cross-grain strength, and a split occurs.
 Bond Failure. Bond joint failure is generally due to improper fabrication
technique or prolonged exposure to moisture in service. Although none of the older
adhesives have been specifically found to fail by simple aging, the mechanic is
advised to inspect all accessible joints carefully.
 Finish Failure. The finish coat on wood structure (usually varnish) is the last line
of defense to prevent water entry into wood and the resulting decay. Finish failure
can be the result of prolonged water exposure, wood splitting, ultraviolet light
exposure, or surface abrasion.
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 Damage. Stress, impact, or mechanical damage to a wood structure is caused by

excessive aerodynamic loads or impact loads occurring while the aircraft is on the
ground. Overtightening of fittings can also cause crushing of the underlying wood
member and possible bending of the metal fitting.
Inspection Methods
Whenever possible, the aircraft should be kept in a dry, well-ventilated hangar, with all
inspection covers, access panels, etc., removed for as long as possible before final inspection.
The aircraft should be given a preliminary inspection when first removing the inspection
covers and access panels and inspected with a moisture meter at this time. If the moisture
content is high, the aircraft should be thoroughly dried. If the aircraft is dry, this will facilitate
later inspection, especially when determining the condition of bonded joints.
Likely locations for wood structure deterioration should be given special attention. Most
damage is caused by external influence such as moisture, temperature extremes, or sunlight.
Care should be taken to note all possible entry points for moisture, (i.e., cracks or breaks in
the finish, fastener holes, inspection/access openings, control system openings, drain holes,
and the interfaces of metal fittings also look for evidence of swelling or warpage of the
aircraft’s wood structure, which would indicate underlying damage or decay. Particular
attention should be paid to the wood structure immediately beneath the upper surfaces,
especially under areas that are finished in dark colors, for signs of deteriorating adhesives.
Cracks in wood spars are often hidden under metal fittings or metal rib flanges and leading
edge skins. Any time a reinforcement plate exists that is not feathered out on its ends, a stress
riser exists at the ends of the plate. A failure of the primary structure can be expected to
occur at this point.
 Tapping the wood structure with a light plastic hammer or screwdriver handle
should produce a sharp solid report. If the suspect area sounds hollow and soft,
further inspection is warranted by the following methods.
 Probe the area in question, if accessible, with a sharp metal tool. The wood
structure should be solid and firm. If the suspect area feels soft and mushy the
mechanic should assume that the area is rotted. Disassembly of the structure is
warranted at this point.
 Prying the area of a bond joint will reveal any mechanical separation of the joint.
If the mechanic detects any relative movement between two adjacent wood
members, a failure of the bond is evident. Any loose fittings should arouse the
mechanic’s suspicion, and the fittings should be removed to check for elongated
bolt holes. Disassembly is warranted for further inspection.
 Odor is an important indicator of possible deterioration. During the initial
inspection, as the access panels are being removed from the structure, the
mechanic should be aware of any areas that smell musty or moldy.
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These odors are indicative of the presence of moisture and associated fungal growth
and decay.
Visual inspection requires looking at the wood structure both externally and internally for
visual signs of decay or physical damage. Any accumulations of dirt, bird nests, or rodent
nests are likely places to hold moisture and promote decay.
(1) The mechanic should remove any such accumulations that are found and inspect the
area for signs of decay. Decay will appear as a dark discoloration or gray stains
running along the grain and often a swelling of the wood member if still wet. Fittings
will be imbedded in the wood instead of flush.
(2) Highly suspected structurally damaged areas are shown in figure 3.32. A list of most
likely areas to incur structural damage include the following:
o Check front and rear spars for compression cracks adjacent to the plywood
reinforcing plates, where the lift struts attach, and at the rib attach points on
either side of the strut attach points. Triple-check these areas and the spar to
fuselage attach points for cracks if the wingtip has contacted the ground, a
hangar wall, etc.
o Check all metal fittings which attach to wooden structure for looseness,
corrosion, cracks, or warps. Areas of particular interest are strut attach fittings,
spar butt fittings, aileron and flap hinges, jury strut fittings, compression
struts, pulley brackets, and any landing gear fittings.
o Check front and rear spars for longitudinal cracks at the ends of the plywood
reinforcement plates where the lift struts attach. Triple-check this area if the
wing has encountered any kind of ground strike, points for missing or loose
rib-to-spar attach nails.
o Check ribs on either side of strut attach points for cracks where the cap strips
pass
o over and under the spars.
o Check for cracked leading edge skin and/or failed nose ribs in the area directly
in front of the jury strut.
o Check the brackets which attach the struts to the spars for cracks.
o Check the aileron, flap hinge, and hinge brackets for cracks and loose or
missing rivets.
o Check all exposed end grain wood, particularly the spar butts, for cracking or
checking. Checking, or splitting, of wood spar butts is common on aircraft
based in arid areas.
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Figure 3.32: Highly suspected structurally damaged
Also check for any cracks that indicate bond line failure or structural failure of the wood
member. Any evidence of movement of fittings, bushings, or fasteners should be cause for
concern, and further inspection is warranted. Splits in fabric covering the plywood, especially
on upper surfaces exposed to ultraviolet light and water, dictate that the mechanic remove the
fabric around the split so the underlying plywood may be inspected for physical damage or
decay. When removing metal fasteners from wood, check for evidence of corrosion. Any
corrosion present indicates the presence of moisture and the strong probability of decay in the
adjoining wood structure.
Any wooden member that has been overstressed is subject to compression failure (e.g.,
ground loop). Compression cracking and failure of the wood spars in certain aircraft are a
continuing problem. Compression failures are defined as failure of wood fibers on a plane
perpendicular to the wood fiber’s longitudinal axis. If undetected, compression failures may
result in structural failure of the wing during flight. Compression cracks have been found
emanating from the upper surfaces of the wing spars and progressing downward.
The usual locations for cracks have been the front spar at both ends of the reinforcement plate
for the lift strut and the front spar rib attach points, both inboard and outboard of the spar
reinforcement plate; and the rear spar lift strut and rib attach points. An inspection of both the
front and rear spars for compression cracks is recommended.
The two areas where it is possible to identify a compression crack are on the face and top
surface of the spar. Using a borescope through existing inspection holes is one method of
inspection. An alternate method is to cut inspection holes in the skin. If inspection holes are
cut, they should be made on the aft side of the front spar and the forward side of the rear spar.
This will allow the fabric to be peeled away from the spar. Longitudinal cracks may also be
detected during this inspection. Loose or missing rib nails may indicate further damage and
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should be thoroughly investigated. The mechanic may shine a light, at a low angle and
parallel with the grain, in the area of the member subjected to the compression load. An area
of grain waviness would indicate a potential compression failure. In all cases the
manufacturer’s inspection data should be followed.
Moisture Meters are effective tools for detection of excessive moisture content in wood
members. An instrument such as this allows the mechanic to insert a probe into the wood
member and read its moisture content directly off the meter. A correction chart usually
accompanies the instrument to correct for temperature and species of wood. Any reading over
20 percent indicates the probability of fungus growth in the member. Moisture content of the
wood should be 8-16 percent, preferably in the 10-12 percent range (this range is during
inspection). Where plywood skin covers the spar and the spar would be inaccessible without
removing the skin, the moisture meter probe can be inserted through the plywood skin and
into the spar to check the moisture content of the spar. The small holes made by the probe are
easily sealed.
Destructive testing of sample bonded joints whenever a new bond joint is made, a sample
joint should be made with the adhesive from the same batch used on the repair and scraps of
wood left over from the repair. After curing, the sample joint should be destructively tested to
ensure proper bonding of the two wood pieces. Any failure in the bond line indicates a
cohesive failure of the adhesive. Any failure along the bond line indicates an adhesive failure,
which is indicative of poor bonding. The ideal situation is when wood fibers are observed on
both sides of the fracture surface. This indicates a failure in the wood, and indicates the bond
joint is actually stronger than the wood.
Repairs to Wood Structures
General. The basic standard for any aircraft repair is that the repaired structure must be as
strong as the original structure and be equivalent to the original in rigidity and aerodynamic
shape. Repairs should be made in accordance with manufacturer specifications whenever
such data is available.
Replacement of Drain Holes and Skin Stiffeners. Whenever repairs are made that require
replacing a portion that includes drain holes, skin stiffeners, or any other items, the repaired
portion must be provided with similar drain holes, skin stiffeners, or items of the same
dimensions in the same location. Additional drain holes may be required if reinforcement
under a skin repair interferes with water-flow to existing drain holes. Make any additional
drain holes the same diameter as originals, usually 1/4 inch.
Control Surface Flutter Precautions. When repairing or refinishing control surfaces,

especially on high-performance airplanes, care must be exercised that the repairs do not
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involve the addition of weight aft of the hinge line. Such a procedure may adversely affect
the balance of the surface to a degree that could induce flutter. As a general rule, it will be
necessary to repair control surfaces in such a manner that the structure is identical to the
original, and that the stiffness, weight distribution, and mass balance are not affected in any
way. Consult the aircraft maintenance manual or seek manufacturer’s direction for specific
requirements on checking control surface balance after repair and refinishing of any control
surface.
Scarf Joints. The scarf joint is the most satisfactory method of making an end joint between
two solid wood members. Cut both parts accurately. The strength of the joints depends upon
good joint design and a thin, uniform bond line. Make the scarf cut in the general direction of
the grain slope as shown in figure 3.33.
Figure 3.33: Scarf cuts

No grain deviation steeper than 1 in 15 should be present in an outer eighth of the depth of
the spar. In adjacent eighths, deviations involving steeper slopes, such as a wave in a few
growth layers, are unlikely to be harmful. Local grain slope deviations in excess of those
specified may be permitted in spar flanges only in the inner one-fourth of the flange depth.
Splicing of Spars. Unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer, a spar may be spliced at
any point except under the wing attachment fittings, landing gear fittings, engine mount
fittings, or lift and interplane strut fittings. These fittings may not overlap any part of the
splice. A spar splice repair should not be made adjacent to a previous splice or adjacent to a
reinforcing plate. Spacing between two splices or between a splice and a reinforcing plate
should be no less than three times the length of the longer splice.
Splicing under minor fittings such as drag wire, anti-drag wire, or compression strut fittings is
acceptable under the following conditions:
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 The reinforcement plates of the splice should not interfere with the proper
attachment or alignment of the fittings. Do not alter the locations of pulley support
brackets, bellcrank support brackets, or control surface support brackets. Plates are
to be tapered off, as depicted in figure 3.31.
 The reinforcement plate may overlap drag wire, anti-drag wire, or compression
strut fittings, if the reinforcement plates are on the rear face of the rear spar or the
front face of the front spar. In such cases, it will be necessary to install slightly
longer bolts. The front face reinforcement plate should not overlap drag strut
fittings, except when it does not require sufficient shortening of compression struts
or changes in drag-truss geometry, to prevent adjustment for proper rigging. Even
though take up is sufficient, it may be necessary to change the angles on the
fittings. (Acceptable methods for splicing the various types of spars are shown in
figure 3.34 through figure 3.38.) Reinforcement plates must be used as indicated
on all scarf repairs to spars and the slopes of scarves shown are minimum slopes.
Spar Replacement. Replacement of spars is a major repair. Spars may be replaced by new
parts made by the manufacturer or the holder of a Parts Manufacturer Approval (PMA) for
that part. Owner-produced spars may be installed providing they are made from a
manufacturer- approved drawing. Also, a spar may be made by reference to an existing spar
providing sufficient evidence is presented to verify that the existing spar is an original part,
and that all materials and dimensions can be determined. The dimensions and type of wood
used are critical to the structural strength of the aircraft. Care should be taken that any
replacement spars accurately match the manufacturer’s original design.
Splicing of Box Spar Webs.

Always splice and reinforce plywood webs with the same type of plywood as found on the
original part. Do not use solid wood to replace plywood webs. Plywood is stronger in shear
than solid wood of the same thickness due to the grain direction of the individual plies. The
face- grain of plywood replacement webs and reinforcement plates must be in the same
direction as the original member to ensure that the new web will have the required strength.
(The method of splicing plywood webs is shown in figure 3.39.)
Replacing Solid-Type Spars with Laminated-Type Spars. Solid spars may be replaced
with laminated spars or vice versa, provided the material is of the same high quality. External
reinforcements (plywood or solid) must always be replaced as on the original member.
Spar Longitudinal Cracks and Local Damage. Cracked spars (except box spars) may be
repaired by bonding plates of spruce or plywood of sufficient thickness to develop the
longitudinal shear on both sides of the spar. Extend the plates well beyond the termination of
the cracks, as shown in figure 3.39. A method of repairing small local damage to either the
top or bottom side of a spar is also shown in figure 3.39.
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 Longitudinal Cracking of Wood Wing Spars of Aircraft Operating in Arid

Regions.
Aircraft having wood spars and operating in arid regions may develop longitudinal
spar cracks in the vicinity of the plywood reinforcement plates. These cracks result
from the tendency of the spar to shrink when drying takes place. Plywood resists
this tendency to shrink and causes the basic spar stock to split. Cracks start under
the plywood plates, usually (but not necessarily) at a bolt hole or cutout, and
usually spread in each direction until they extend a short distance beyond the ends
of the plates where the resistance to spar shrinkage disappears. Cracks have also
been found in the butt end of spars. Other factors, which have been found
conducive to the formation of cracks are poor protective finishes, large cutouts,
and metal fittings that utilize two lines of large diameter bolts.
 Repairing Cracks versus Installing a New Spar. The presence of cracks does not
necessarily mean that the spar must be discarded. If the crack is not too long or too
close to either edge and can be reinforced properly, it will probably be more
economical and satisfactory to perform repair rather than install a new spar or
section. However, a generally acceptable procedure suitable for all airplane models
is not available. Because of the possibility of strength deficiencies contact the
manufacturer. In absence of the manufacturer, the FAA should be contacted for
approval before making repairs not in accordance with the manufacturer-approved
instructions or the recommendations of this advisory circular. Longitudinal
cracking or the recurrence of cracking can be minimized by ensuring that the
moisture content of the solid wood portion is within the proper range before
bonding. In arid desert areas, during bonding the moisture content should be in the
range of 6-8 percent before bonding, but in other areas 10-12 percent is
satisfactory. If solid or plywood repair stock is procured from another climatic
region, it should be allowed to season, in the same storage area as the part to be
repaired, for no less than 2 weeks.
 Preventing Cracks. An important step in the prevention of longitudinal cracking,
particularly in spar butts, is to ensure that the wood is thoroughly sealed with a
penetrating and highly moisture- resistant finish. Application of a thin, slow-curing
epoxy adhesive or sealer can be very effective in slowing or preventing moisture
changes in spar butts.
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Figure 3.34 Typical splice of solid rectangular spar
Figure 3.35
Elongated Holes in Spars. In cases of elongated bolt holes in a spar, or cracks in the vicinity
of bolt holes, splice in a new section of spar, or replace the spar entirely. If hole elongation or
cracking is minimal and the bolt holes are for non-critical fittings, repair (rather than
replacement) may be feasible. Obtain approval for any such repair from the manufacturer. In
many cases, it has been found advantageous to laminate the new section of the spar,
particularly if the spar butts are being replaced.
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Rib Repairs. Ribs may be replaced by new parts made by the manufacturer or the holder of a
PMA for that part. Owner-produced ribs may be installed providing they are made from a
manufacturer-approved drawing or by reference to an existing original rib. A rib may be
made by reference to an existing rib providing sufficient evidence is presented to verify that
the existing rib is an original part and that all materials and dimensions can be determined.
The contour of the rib is important to the safe flying qualities of the aircraft, and care should
be taken that any replacement ribs accurately match the manufacturer’s original des ign.
Figure 3.36 Repair to built up I spar
Rib Repair Methods. Acceptable methods of repairing damaged ribs are shown in figure
3.40. Wood ribs should not be nailed to wood spars by driving nails through the rib cap strips,
as this weakens the rib materially. The attachment should be by means of adhesive with
cement coated, barbed, or spiraled nails driven through the vertical rib members on each face
of the spar.
Compression Rib Repair. Acceptable methods of repairing damaged compression ribs are
shown in figure 3.41.
• Figure 3.41 (A) illustrates the repair of a compression rib of the “I” section type; i.e.,
wide, shallow cap strips, and a center plywood web with a rectangular compression
member on each side of the web. The rib is assumed to be cracked through the cap
strips, web member, and compression member in the illustration. Cut the compression
member as shown in figure 3.41 (D). Cut and replace the aft portion of the cap strips,
and reinforce as shown in figure 1.40. The plywood side plates are bonded on, as
indicated in figure 3.41 (A). These plates are added to reinforce the damaged web.
Figure 3.41 (B) illustrates a compression rib of the type that is basically a standard rib
with rectangular compression members added to one side and plywood web to the
other side. The method used in this repair is essentially the same as in figure 1.41 (A)
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except that the plywood reinforcement plate, shown in section B-B, is continued the
full distance between spars.
Figure 3.37
Figure 1.41 (C) illustrates a compression rib of the “I” type with a rectangular
vertical member on each side of the web. The method of repair is essentially the
same as in figure 1.41 (A) except the plywood reinforcement plates on each side,
shown as striped blocks in section C-C, are continued the full distance between
spars.
Plywood Skin Repair. Make extensive repairs to damaged stressed skin plywood structures
in accordance with specific recommendations from the aircraft manufacturer. It is
recommended that repairs be made by replacing the entire panel, from one structural member
to the next, if damage is very extensive. When damaged plywood skin is repaired, carefully
inspect the adjacent internal structure for possible hidden damage. Repair any defective frame
members prior to making skin repairs.
Determination of Single or Double Curvature. Much of the outside surface of plywood

aircraft is curved. On such areas, plywood used for repairs to the skin must be similarly
curved. Curved skins are either of single curvature or of double (compound) curvature. A
simple test to determine which type of curvature exists may be made by laying a sheet of
heavy paper on the surface in question. If the sheet can be made to conform to the surface
without wrinkling, the surface is either flat or single curvature. If the sheet cannot be made to
conform to the surface without wrinkling, the surface is of double curvature.
Repairs to Single Curvature Plywood Skin. Repairs to single curvature plywood skin may
usually be formed from flat plywood, either by bending it dry or after soaking it in hot water.
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The degree of curvature to which a piece of plywood can be bent will depend upon the
direction of the grain and the thickness. Table 3.2 is a guide for determining which process of
bending should be used for the curvature being considered.
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Figure 3.38
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Figure 3.39
Plywood, after softening, may be bent on a cold ventilated form, or it may be

bent over the leading edge near the area being patched if space permits. In either
method the repair part should be allowed to dry completely on the form. When
bending plywood over a leading edge, drying may be hastened by laying a piece
of coarse burlap over the leading edge before using it as a bending form. To speed
drying, a fan may be used to circulate air around the repair part.
In bending pieces of small radii or to speed up the bending of a large number of

parts of the same curvature, it may be necessary to use a heated bending form.
The surface temperature of this form may be as high as 149oC (300oF), if
necessary, without danger of damage to the plywood. The plywood should be left
on the heated form only long enough to dry to room conditions.
Repairs to Double Curvature Plywood Skin. The molded plywood necessary for a repair to
a damaged plywood skin of double curvature cannot be made from flat plywood unless the
area to be repaired is very small or is of exceedingly slight double curvature; therefore,
molded plywood of the proper curvature must be on hand before the repair can be made. If
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molded plywood of the proper curvature is available, the repair may be made using the same
procedure as on single curvature skins.
Figure 3.40
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Figure 3.41
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Table 3.2
Types of Patches. There are four types of patches: splayed patch, surface (or overlay) patch,
scarf patch, and plug patch. They are all acceptable for repairing plywood skins.
Splayed Patch. Small holes with their largest dimensions not over 15 times the skin
thickness, in skins not more than 1/10 inch in thickness, may be repaired by using a circular
splayed patch as illustrated in figure 3.42. The term “splayed” is used to denote that the edges
of the patch are tapered, but the slope is steeper than is allowed in scarfing operations.
• Lay out the patch according to figure 3.42. Tack a small piece of plywood over the
hole for a center point and draw two circles with a divider, the inner circle to be the
size of the hole and the outer circle marking the limits of the taper. The difference
between the radii is 5T (5 times the thickness of the skin). If one leg of the dividers
has been sharpened to a chisel edge, the dividers may be used to cut the inner circle.
• Taper the hole evenly to the outer mark with a chisel, knife, or rasp.
• Prepare a circular tapered patch to fit the prepared hole, and bond the patch into place
with face-grain direction matching that of the original surface.
• Use waxed paper or plastic wrap, (cut larger than the size of the patch) between
the patch and the plywood pressure plate. This prevents excess adhesive from bonding
the pressure plate to the skin. Center the pressure plate carefully over the patch.
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• As there is no reinforcement behind this patch, care must be used so that pressure is
not great enough to crack the skin. On horizontal surfaces, weights or sandbags will
be sufficient. On patches too far from any edge for the use of standard hand clamps,
jaws of greater length may be improvised. Table 3.2, columns (1) and (3), may also be
used for determining the maximum thickness of single laminations for curved
members.
• Fill, sand, and refinish the patch.
Surface Patch. Plywood skins that are damaged between or along framing members may be
repaired by surface or overlay patches as shown in figure 3.43. Surface patches located
entirely aft of the 10 percent chord line, or which wrap around the leading edge and terminate
aft of the 10 percent chord line, are permissible. Surface patches may have as much as a 50
inch perimeter and may cover as much as 1 frame (or rib) space. Trim the damaged skin to a
rectangular or triangular shape and round the corners. The radius of rounded corners must be
at least 5 times the skin thickness. Bevel the forward edges of patches located entirely aft of
the 10 percent chord line to 4 times the skin thickness. The face-grain direction must be the
same as the original skin. Cover completed surface patches with fabric to match surrounding
area.
The fabric must overlap the original fabric at least 2 inches.
Scarf Patch. A properly prepared and inserted scarf patch is the best repair for damaged
plywood skins and is preferred for most skin repairs. Figure 3.44 shows the details and
dimensions to be used when installing typical scarf skin patches, when the back of the skin is
accessible. Follow figure 3.45 when the back of the skin is not accessible. The scarf slope of
1 in 12, shown in both figures, is the steepest slope permitted for all kinds of plywood. If the
radius of curvature of the skin at all points on the trimmed opening is greater than 100 times
the skin thickness, a scarf patch may be installed.
• Scarf cuts in plywood may be made by hand plane, spoke shave, scraper, or accurate
sandpaper block. Rasped surfaces, except at the corners of scarf patches and sawn
surfaces, are not recommended as they are likely to be rough or inaccurate.
• Nail strip or small screw clamping is often the only method available for bonding
scarf joints in plywood skin repairs. It is essential that all scarf joints in plywood be
backed with plywood or solid wood to provide adequate nail holding capacity. The
face-grain direction of the plywood patch must be the same as that of the original
skin.
• If the back of a damaged plywood skin is accessible (such as a fuselage skin), it
should be repaired with a scarf patch, following the details shown in figure 3.44.
Whenever possible, the edges of the patch should be supported as shown in section C-
C of figure 3.44. When the damage follows or extends to a framing member, the scarf
may be supported as shown in section B-B of figure 3.44. Damages that do not exceed
25 times the skin thickness in diameter after being trimmed to a circular shape and are
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not less than 15 times the skin thickness to a framing member, may be repaired as
shown in figure 3.44, section D-D.
o The backing block is carefully shaped from solid wood and fitted to the inside
surface of the skin, and is temporarily held in place with nails.
o Use waxed paper or plastic wrap to prevent bonding of the backing block to the
skin.
Figure 3.42
o A hole, the exact size of the inside circle of the scarf patch, is made in the block,
and is centered over the trimmed area of damage.
o The block is removed, after the adhesive on the patch has set, leaving a flush
surface to the repaired skin.
• Steps in making a scarf patch when the back of the skin is not accessible are as
follows:
o After removing damaged sections, install backing strips, as shown in figure 3.45,
along all edges that are not fully backed by a rib or a spar. To prevent warping of
the skin, backing strips should be made of a soft-textured plywood, such as
yellow poplar or spruce rather than solid wood. All junctions between backing
strips and ribs or spars should have the end of the backing strip supported by a
saddle gusset of plywood.
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o If needed, nail and bond the new gusset plate to rib. It may be necessary to
remove and replace the old gusset plate with a new saddle gusset, or it may be
necessary to nail a saddle gusset over the original gusset.
o Attach nailing strips to hold backing strips in place while the adhesive sets. Use a
bucking bar, where necessary, to provide support for nailing. After the backing
strips are fully bonded, install the patch.
Plug Patch. Either oval or round plug patches may be used on plywood skins provided the
damage can be covered by the patches whose dimensions are given in figure 3.46 and figure
3.47. The plug patch is strictly a skin repair, and should be used only for damage that does
not involve the supporting structure under the skin. The face-grain direction of the finished
patch must match the surrounding skin.
Steps in making an oval plug patch are as follows:
• Explore the area about the hole to be sure it lies at least the width of the oval doubler
from a rib or a spar. Refer to figure 3.46 for repair details.
• Prepare a patch and a doubler of the same species plywood as the surrounding skin
using the dimensions shown in figure 3.46.
• Lay the oval plug patch over the damage and trace the patch onto the skin. Saw to the
line, and trim the hole edges with a knife and sandpaper.
• Mark the exact size of the patch on one surface of the oval doubler and apply adhesive
to the area outside the line. Insert doubler through the hole and bring it, adhesive side
up, to the underside of the skin with the pencil outline of the patch matching the edges
of the hole. If the curvature of the surface to be repaired is greater than a rise of 1/8
inch in 6 inches, the doubler should be preformed by hot water or steam bending to the
approximate curvature. As an alternative to pre-forming of the 1/4 inch stock, the
doubler may be laminated from two thicknesses of 1/8 inch ply.
• Apply nailing strips outlining the hole to apply bonding pressure between doubler
and skin. Use a bucking bar to provide support for nailing. When two rows of nails
are used, stagger nail spacing. Allow adhesive to cure.
• Apply adhesive to remaining surface of the doubler and to the mating surface on the
patch. Lay the patch in position over the doubler, and screw the pressure plate to the
patch assembly using a small nail to line up the holes that have been previously made
with patch and plate matching. No. 4 round head screws are used. Lead holes in the
plywood doubler are not necessary. Waxed paper or plastic wrap between the plate and
patch prevents adhesive from bonding the plate to the patch. No clamps or further
pressure need be applied, as the nailing strips and screws exert ample pressure.
• Round plug patches may be made by following the steps in figure 3.47. The steps are
identical to those for making the oval patch except for the insertion of the doubler. In
using the round patch, where access is from only one side, the round doubler cannot be
inserted unless it has been split.
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Figure 3.43
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Figure 3.44
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Figure 3.45
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Fabric Patch. Small holes not exceeding 1 inch in diameter, after being trimmed to a smooth
outline, may be repaired by doping a fabric patch on the outside of the plywood skin. The
edges of the trimmed hole should first be sealed, and the fabric patch should overlap the
plywood skin by at least 1 inch. Holes nearer than 1 inch to any frame member, or in the
leading edge or frontal area of the fuselage, should not be repaired with fabric patches.
Figure 3.46
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Figure 3.47
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Finishing Wood Structures
General. Any repair to spars, ribs, skin surfaces, or other structural parts of the airframe
involves finishing as the final step of the job. The surface finish is the final line of defense to
prevent the destructive effects of moisture entry into the structure. The time and effort spent
during the preparatory phase of the refinishing process will be reflected in the appearance and
longevity of the finished surface. Adherence to the instructions issued by the finish
manufacturer is necessary to obtain the appearance desired and protective characteristics for
the product used. The primary objective of interior finishes is to afford protection of the wood
against serious change in moisture content when exposed to damp air or to water that gains
entrance to closed spaces by condensation or by penetration of rain, mist, or fog. Coatings, on
contact areas between wood and metal protect the metal against corrosion from moisture in
the wood. The primary objectives of the exterior finish are to protect the wood against
weathering, provide a suitable appearance, and present a smooth surface in flight.
Acceptable Finishes. Any varnish conforming to Federal Specification TT-V-109, as

amended, or other coating approved by the airframe manufacturer is acceptable. Exterior
surfaces must be further protected from the effects of abrasion, weather, and sunlight. A
number of systems for exterior finishing have STC approval and are manufactured under a
PMA. Low viscosity epoxy may be used as an internal surface finish when subsequent
bonding is necessary.
Precautions
 When making repairs, avoid excessive contamination of surfaces with adhesive
squeeze-out at joints and on all surfaces. Excess adhesive should always be
removed before applying finish. Because many paints and adhesives are
incompatible, even a slight amount of adhesive underneath the finish may cause
premature deterioration of the finish.
 Soiling substances, such as oil and grease, should be removed as completely as
possible. Naphtha may be used to remove surface deposits of oil and grease;
however, thinned residue may penetrate into any unprotected wood. In areas where
minor amounts of oil or grease have penetrated the wood surface, removal may be
accomplished by use of an absorbent type of cleaner such as gunsmith's whiting or
a clothing spot lifter. Marks that are made by grease pencils or lumber crayons
containing wax are harmful and should be removed, but marks made by ordinary
soft graphite pencils and non-oily stamp pad inks may be safely finished over. All
dust, dirt, and other solid particles should be removed.
 Sawdust, shavings, and chips must be removed from enclosed spaces before they
are sealed off by replacement of skin. A vacuum cleaner is useful for such
cleaning.
 Since most adhesives will not bond satisfactorily to sealers, it is necessary to
avoid applying sealer over the areas where adhesive will be applied. Mark off areas
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to receive adhesive, and allow an additional 1/4 inch on each side of the adhesive
area to provide for misalignment when mating the parts. It is preferable to leave
some unsealed areas rather than risk weakening the joint by accidental overlap of
the sealer into the bonded areas. Wherever possible, apply sealer to the margins
after the adhesive has cured. As an example, the lower skin of a wing bay would be
installed first, leaving access from above to apply sealer. All low spots (where
moisture would collect) are well sealed. The top skin would be installed last, so
that the only unsealed margins would be on upper surfaces where moisture is least
likely to collect.
 An alternative to the previous paragraph is to use an approved epoxy coating
and compatible epoxy adhesive. Apply the coating, allowing 1/4 inch margins as in
the previous paragraph. After the coating has cured, apply epoxy adhesive to joint
surfaces, and overlap the adhesive onto the sealer. Close joint and clamp. The
epoxy adhesive will bond satisfactorily to the coating and ensure a complete
coverage of the wood surfaces. Use only approved and compatible adhesives and
coatings for this method.
Finishing of Interior Surfaces

Finish repaired ribs, spars, interior of plywood skin, and other internal members, including
areas of contact between metal and wood, by applying one thinned coat (for penetration into
wood grain) of varnish or other acceptable finish, followed by two full coats. Protect built-up
box spars and similar closed structures on the interior in the same way. Where better
protection is required, as on the surfaces of wheel wells and the bottoms of hulls below the
floor boards, an additional coat of aluminized sealer consisting of 12 to 16 ounces of
aluminum paste per gallon of sealer, may be applied.
Finishing of Exterior Surfaces

Exterior surfaces require more protection than interior areas due to the effects of abrasion,
weather, and sunlight. Tests have shown that the interior temperature of wooden aircraft
structures can reach 185 °F when the aircraft is finished in a dark color and parked outdoors
on a hot, still day. Exposure to prolonged high temperature is detrimental to wood, adhesives,
and finishes. Wood loses approximately 25 percent of its strength at 125 °F.
For this reason, the mechanic should consider temperature effects when selecting finish
colors or looking for areas of likely deterioration. The lowest temperatures are found when
the aircraft is finished in white or very light colors, while darker colors produce higher
temperatures. A general trend toward higher temperatures may be seen when exterior colors
are yellow, pink, light blue, aluminum, purple, blue, light green, orange, tan, red, green,
brown, and black. A lighter shade of a particular color helps to reduce temperatures.
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Finishing of End Grain Surfaces

End grain portions of wooden members are much more absorbent than side grain. Because of
this extreme vulnerability to moisture entry, it is necessary to take extra precautions to seal
end grain.
 Apply at least one thinned coat of acceptable sealer to ensure maximum
penetration, and then follow with as many full strength coats as necessary to
achieve a smooth, glossy coating. Depending on the type wood to be finished, two
to four full coats will be required. A final coat of aluminized varnish may be
applied to end grain surfaces. If the surfaces are to be finished with dope or
lacquer, a dope-proof sealer, similar to Federal Specification TT-V-109, or epoxy
sealer should be used.
 Exposed end grain includes such surfaces as spar butts, skin edges, areas around
vent holes, inspection holes, fittings, and exposed scarfed or tapered surfaces.
Finishing with Fabric or Tape. A number of systems for exterior finishing have STC
approval and are manufactured under a PMA. Follow the product manufacturer's instructions
for the system used.
 If the finish surrounding the repair is a traditional dope system, seal the wood
grain with a suitable solvent resistant one -part varnish, commonly described as
“dope proof,” or a two-part epoxy varnish. Follow with two coats of clear dope,
and allow sufficient drying time between coats.
 Apply a third coat of clear dope and lay a piece of pinked-edge airplane cloth into
the wet film. All air bubbles should be worked out by brushing to ensure maximum
adhesion. When dry, apply one brush coat, to ensure proper penetration, and at
least one spray coat of clear dope. The dried spray coat may be sanded with fine
sandpaper to obtain a smoother finish. Complete the refinishing of the surface by
application of a topcoat as required to match the adjacent area.
Sealing of Bolt Holes. Bolt holes in wooden structure provide a vulnerable entry point for
moisture. Variations in moisture content around bolt holes can lead to decay or splitting. In
addition, excessive moisture at bolt holes promotes corrosion of the bolts. Sealing of the
wood surfaces in bolt holes can be accomplished by application of varnish or other acceptable
sealer into the open hole. The sealer must be allowed to dry or cure thoroughly prior to bolt
installation.
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6.3.4. FABRIC COVERING
Cotton and Irish linen fabrics were the airframe coverings of choice from WWI through the
1950’s. However, increases in cost and the short lifespan of natural fabrics became the
driving factors which resulted in almost 100 percent replacement of original airframe fabrics
by man- made, STC-approved, polyester, and glass filament fabric.
Problem Areas
Deterioration. Polyester fabric deteriorates only by exposure to ultraviolet radiation as used
in an aircraft covering environment. When coatings completely protect the fabric its service
life is infinite. Therefore, it is very important to thoroughly protect the structure from
deterioration before covering and provide adequate inspection access to all areas of fabric-
covered components to allow inspection for corrosion, wood rot, and mice infestation.
Multiple drain holes in the lower ends of all fabric-covered sections also provide needed
ventilation to remove condensation.
Tension. Polyester fabric obtains maximum tension on an airframe at 350 °F, and will not be
excessive on aircraft originally covered with natural fabric and 12 coats of Nitrate or Butyrate
Dope. However, dope applied over full heat-tauted fabric can develop excess tension after
aging and damage light aircraft structures. Coatings other than dope will not increase fabric
tension after aging. The heat-tauting instructions given in the manual of each STC-approved
covering process should be followed.
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Minimum Minimum
Minimum Tearing
Tensile Thread
Tensile Strength Count
Materials Specification Strength Use and
Strength New Remarks
Deteriorat Per
New (undoped)
ed Inch
(undoped) (ASTM D
1424) (undoped)
For use on all

TSO-C15d, as aircraft.
amended, Required on
Airplane references aircraft with
cloth 80 pounds 80 min.,
Society 5 pounds 56 wing loading
mercerized per inch 84 max.
Automotive warp and pounds of 9 PSF or
cotton warp and warp and
Engineers fill. per inch. greater or
(Grade fill. fill.
“A”). AMS 3806d, placard never
as amended or exceed speed
MIL-C- 5646 of 160 m.p.h.
or greater
TSO-C14b, as For use on

amended, aircraft with
Airplane references 65 pounds 80 min., wing loading
4 pounds 46
cloth Society per inch 94 max. less than 9 PSF
warp and pounds
mercerized Automotive warp and fill. per inch. warp and and never
cotton. Engineers fill. fill. exceed speed
AMS-3804c, of less than
as amended. 160 m.p.h.
For use on
gliders with
Society wing loading
Airplane
Automotive 50 pounds 3 pounds 35 110 max. of 8 PSF or
cloth
Engineers per inch warp and pounds warp and less, provided
mercerized
AMS 3802, as war and fill. fill. per inch. fill. the placarded
cotton.
amended. never- exceed
speed is 135
m.p.h. or less.
This material
Aircraft meets the
British 7F1. minimum
linen.
strength
Requirement
Table 3.4: Cotton and Linen Fabrics
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Synthetic Fabric
STC-Approved Covering Materials

There is a wide selection of STC-approved covering materials available which utilize
synthetic fabric falling within the generic class “Polyester” an d may vary in characteristics.
Difference in the fabric may be denier, tenacity, thread count, weight, shrink, tension, and
weave style.
Polyester Filaments. Polyester Filaments are manufactured by polymerization of various

select acids and alcohols, then extruding the resulting molten polymers through spinnerets to
form filaments. The filaments are heat stretched to reduce to the desired denier or size. It is
the heat stretching that imparts a memory in the filaments causing them to try and return to
their original shorter length when reheated at a controlled temperature. Overheating will
cancel the memory and melt the filaments.
Covering Procedures. Coating types, covering accessories, and covering procedures also
may vary; therefore, the covering procedures given in the pertinent manuals must be followed
to comply with the STC. The approved installation takes precedence over instructions in this
advisory circular.
Installation. Initial installation of polyester fabric is similar to natural fabric. The fabric is
installed with as little slack as possible, considering fittings and other protrusions. It may be
sewn into an envelope, installed as a blanket, or installed by cementing to the airframe with a
fabric cement. Each STC may differ in the cement seam overlap, type of sewn seam, heat
shrinking procedures, and temperature.
Natural Fabric
Physical specifications and minimum strength requirements for natural fiber fabric, cotton
and linen, used to recover or repair components of an aircraft, are listed in table 3.4. Tear
resistance is an important factor when considering aircraft fabric. A test method such as
ASTM D 1424 is recommended. Technical Standard Order TSO-C15d, entitled Aircraft
Fabric, Grade A (AMS 3806D); and TSO-C14b, Aircraft Fabric, Intermediate Grade (AMS
3804C) current edition, respectively, describe the minimum standards that all fabric must
meet to qualify as aircraft covering material.
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Fabric Covering Methods
Recovering Aircraft. Recover or repair aircraft with a fabric of equal quality and strength to
that used by the original aircraft manufacturer. It is recommended that fabric conforming to
TSO- C15d or TSO-C14b be used to recover aircraft originally covered with lower strength
fabric conforming to AMS 3802, current edition.
NOTE: Recovering or repairing aircraft with any type fabric and/or coating other than the
type used by the original aircraft manufacturer is considered a major alteration. Obtain
approval from the FAA on fabric and installation data. Cotton and linen rib lacing cord,
machine and hand-sewing thread, and finishing tapes should not be used with polyester
and glass fabric covering.
 Reinforcing tape minimum tensile strength is listed in table 3.5. Reinforcing tape
meeting specification MIL-T-5661, Type I, current edition, is acceptable.
Reinforcing tape should have a minimum 40 lb. resistance without failure when
static tested in shear against a single rib lace, or a pull-through resistance when
tested against a single-wire clip, rivet, screw, or any other type of fabric-to-rib
attachment. Reinforcing tape is used over the rib cab on top of the fabric and for
inter-rib bracing.
 Finishing Tape, sometimes referred to as surface tape, should have the same
properties as the fabric used to cover the aircraft.
 Lacing Cord shall have a minimum breaking strength of 40 lb. Lacing cord
meeting the specifications listed in table 3.5 is acceptable. Rib lace cord should
have a microcrystalline fungicidal wax, paraffin-free wax, or beeswax coating, or
other approved treatment to prevent wearing and fraying when pulling through the
structure.
 Machine Thread shall have a minimum breaking strength of 5 lb. Thread meeting
the specifications listed in table 3.5 is acceptable.
 Hand-Sewing Thread shall have a minimum breaking strength of 14 lb. Thread
meeting the specifications listed in table 3.5, is acceptable. When covering with
STC-approved fabric covering material, use the type of sewing thread approved by
the STC and manufactured under the specific PMA.
 Flutter Precautions. When re-covering or repairing control surfaces, especially on
high performance airplanes, make sure that dynamic and static balances are not
adversely affected. Weight distribution and mass balance must be considered to
preclude to possibility of induced flutter.
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Minimum Yards
Materials Specification Yarn Size Tensile Per Use and Remarks
Pound
Strength
Used as reinforcing
MIL-T-566 1
E. tape on fabric and
150 pounds
Reinforcing under rib lacing cord
Type 1 per 1/2 inch
tape, cotton. Strength of other
MIL-Y- width.
1140H widths approx. in
proportion.
Lacing fabric to
Lacing cord, structures Unless
prewaxed Federal T-C- 40 pounds. 310
57 1F minimum. already waxed, must be
braided
cotton. lightly waxed before
using.
Lacing fabric to
Lacing cord, structures Uni ess
MIL-C- 80 pounds. 170
braided 5648A minimum. already waxed, must be
cotton. lightly waxed before
using.
Lacing fabric c to
Lacing cord
structures Unless
thread, high MIL-T-5660B Ticket No. 62 pounds. 430
minimum. already waxed, must be
tenacity 10
lightly waxed before
cotton
using.
Machine Federal V-T- 20/4 ply 5 pounds. 5,000 Use for all machine
thread cotton 276H nominal. sewing.
Federal V-T- Use for all hand-

Hand-Sewing 8/4 ply 14 pounds. 1,650
276H Type III nominal. sewing. Use fully
thread cotton
B waxed thread.
Use over seams,

Finishing leading edges, trailing
Same as Same as
(Surface) tape edges, outer edges and
fabric used. fabric used.
cotton. ribs, pinked, raveled or
straight edges
Table 3.5: Reinforcing tapes and cords
Preparation of the Structure for Covering. One of the most important items when covering
aircraft is the proper preparation of the structure. Before covering, the airframe must be
inspected and approved by a certified mechanic or repair station.
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 Battery Box Treatment. An asphaltic, rubber-based acid-proof coating should be

applied to the structure in the area of a battery box, by brush, for additional
protection from battery acid. Control cables routed in the area of the battery box
should be coated with paralketone.
 Worn Holes. Oversized screw holes or worn size 4 self-tapping screw holes
through ribs and other structures used to attach fabric may be redrilled a minimum
1-1/2 hole diameter distance from the original hole location with a # 44 (0.086)
drill bit. Size 6 screws, drill bit size # 36 (0.1065), may be installed in stripped or
worn holes drilled for size 4 screws, usually without redrilling. Worn holes for
wire clips and wire barbs should be redrilled a minimum 1-1/2 hole distance from
the original locations using a drill jig to ensure correct spacing, with the
appropriate size drill bit. Drill bit size # 30 (0.128) may be used to redrill oversize
holes for 1/8-inch diameter blind rivets a minimum 1-1/2 hole diameter distance
from the original location.
 Fairing Precautions. Aluminum leading edge replacement fairings installed in
short sections may telescope during normal spar bending loads or from thermal
expansion and contraction. This action may cause a wrinkle to form in the fabric,
at the edge of the lap joint. Leading edge fairing sections may be fastened together
with rivets or screws to prevent telescoping after installation. Trailing edges should
be adequately secured to prevent movement and wrinkles.
 Dope Protection. Solvents found in nitrate and butyrate dope will penetrate,
wrinkle, lift, or dissolve most one-part wood varnishes and one-part metal primers.
All wood surfaces that come in contact with doped fabric should be treated with a
protective coating such as aluminum foil, cellulose tape, or dope-proof paint to
protect them against the action of the solvents in the dope. This can also be
accomplished by recoating with a suitable, solvent resistant two-part epoxy
varnish, which will be impervious to solvent penetration and damage after curing.
Clad aluminum and stainless steel parts need not be dope- proofed.
(1) A solvent-sensitive primer on ferrous metal and aluminum alloy components
which will be in contact with fabric may be protected from solvent damage by
overcoating with a two-part epoxy primer. Epoxy primer meeting MIL-P-
53022B is acceptable.
(2) Small metal or wood surfaces, such as rib caps, to which fabric will not be
dope bonded as a part of the particular fabric attachment procedure may be
protected from dope damage by cellophane tape or aluminum foil.
 Chafe Protection. Fabric and finishing tape is often cut through with sandpaper
over sharp edges during the coating and finishing procedure and later polishing. All
sharp metal edges or protruding screws, nails, rivets, and bolt heads should be
covered with an anti-chafe tape to prevent cutting and wearing through the fabric
after installation. Use appropriate non-bleeding cotton adhesive coated tape,
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finishing tape, or strips of fabric, cut from the fabric being used to cover the
aircraft, doped in place.
(1) Small holes cut through the fabric to accommodate flying wires, control
cables, and fittings, must be reinforced with finishing tape or fabric patches
cut from the same fabric used for the covering.
(2) Areas needing additional chafe protection such as control cables routed firm
against the fabric surface should be protected with patches cut from cotton
duck, leather, or plastic. These patches may be sewn, doped, or cemented in
place, as appropriate.
(3) Any drag and anti-drag wires in the wings should be protected from chafing at
cross points.
 Inter-Rib Bracing. Use a woven fabric tape of the same quality and width as that
used for the rib lace reinforcing, where so incorporated in the wing design by the
original aircraft manufacturer. When the original routing for the inter rib bracing is
not known, the tape will be routed diagonally, alternating between the top and
bottom of each rib cap on each successive rib, if a single pair, half way between the
front and rear spars. The number of tape pairs will duplicate the original aircraft
manufacturer’s installation. Tapes will be routed continuously from the wing butt
to the wingtip bow, with one turn of tape around each intermediate rib cap strip.
Care should be given to position the tape so as not to interfere with control cables,
bellcranks or push-pull rods.
 Preparation of Plywood Surfaces for Covering. Prior to covering plywood
surfaces, prepare the surface by sanding, cleaning, and applying sealer and dope.
When plywood surfaces are to be covered with light weight glass fiber deck cloth
instead of fabric, no sealer or dope should be applied to the plywood as it would
inhibit penetration of epoxy resin.
(1) Sand plywood surfaces as needed to remove old loose dope or varnish residue
to provide a clean bonding surface. Remove any oil, grease, or other
contamination with a suitable solvent such as naphtha. Small, rough areas and
irregularities in the plywood surface and around any plywood repairs may be
filled and smoothed with an appropriate commercial grade wood filler. Filling
large warp depressions on plywood surfaces with a wood filler for cosmetic
purposes is not acceptable.
(2) After cleaning and sanding all plywood surfaces, seal the wood grain with a
suitable solvent resistant two-part epoxy varnish. After the varnish has
thoroughly dried, apply two brush or spray coats of clear dope, allowing
sufficient drying time between coats.
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Fabric Seams. Seams parallel to the line of flight are preferable; however, spanwise seams
are acceptable.
Sewn Seams
• (Machine-sewn seams should be double stitched using any of the styles illustrated in
figure 3.48 A, B, C, or D. A machine-sewn seam used to close an envelope at a wingtip,
wing trailing edge, empennage and control surface trailing edge, and a fuselage longeron
may be made with a single stitch when the seam will be positioned over a structure. (See
figure 3.481 E.) The envelope size should accommodate fittings or other small protrusions
with minimum excess for installation. Thick or protruding leading edge sewn seams
should be avoided on thin airfoils with a sharp leading edge radius because they may act
as a stall strip.
• Hand sew, with plain overthrow or baseball stitches at a minimum of four stitches per
inch, or permanent tacking, to the point where uncut fabric or a machine-sewn seam is
reached. Lock hand sewing at a maximum of 10 stitch intervals with a double half hitch,
and tie off the end stitch with a double half hitch. At the point where the hand-sewing or
permanent tacking is necessary, cut the fabric so that it can be doubled under a minimum
of 3/8 inch before sewing or permanent tacking is performed. (See figure 3.49.)
• After hand sewing is complete, any temporary tacks used to secure the fabric
overwood structures may be removed.
• Cover a sewn spanwise seam on a wing’s leading edge with a minimum 4-inch wide
pinked-edged surface tape with the tape centered on the seam.
 Cover a spanwise-sewn seam at the wing trailing edge with pinked-edge surface tape that
is at least 3 inches wide. For aircraft with never-exceed speeds in excess of 200 mph, cut
V notches at least 1 inch in depth and 1/4 inch in width in both edges of the surface tape
when used to cover spanwise seams on trailing edges of control surfaces. Space notches at
intervals not exceeding 6 inches. On tape less than 3 inches wide, the notches should be
1/3 the tape width. In the event the surface tape begins to separate because of poor
adhesion or other causes, the tape will tear at a notched section, thus preventing
progressive loosening of the entire length of the tape which could seriously affect the
controllability of the aircraft. A loose tape acts as a trim tab only on a movable surface. It
becomes a spoiler on a fixed surface and has no effect at the trailing edge other than drag.
 Make spanwise-sewn seams on the wing’s upper or lower surfaces in a manner that will
minimize any protrusions. Cover the seams with finishing tape at least 3 inches wide,
centering the tape on the seam.
 Sewn seams parallel to the line of flight (chordwise) may be located over ribs. However,
careful attention must be given to avoid damage to the seam threads by rib lace needles,
screws, rivets, or wire clips that are used to attach the fabric to the rib. Cover chordwise
seams with a finishing tape at least 3 inches wide with the tape centered on the seam.
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Figure 3.48:
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Doped Seams
 For an overlapped and doped spanwise seam on a wing’s leading edge, overlap the
fabric at least 4 inches and cover with finishing tape at least 4 inches wide, with the
tape centered at the outside edge of the overlap seam.
 For an overlapped and doped spanwise seam at the trailing edge, lap the fabric at least
3 inches and cover with pinked-edge surface tape at least 4 inches wide, with the tape
centered on the outside edge of the overlap seam.
 For an overlapped and doped seam on wingtips, wing butts, perimeters of wing
control surfaces, perimeters of empennage surfaces, and all fuselage areas, overlap the
fabric 2 inches and cover with a finishing tape that is at least 3 inches wide, centered
on the outside edge of the overlap seam.
 For an overlapped and doped seam on a wing’s leading edge, on aircraft with a
velocity never exceed (Vne) speed up to and including 150 mph, overlap the fabric 2
inches and cover with a finishing tape that is at least 3 inches wide, with the tape
centered on the outside edge of the overlap seam.
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Figure 3.49
 For an overlapped and doped seam on the perimeter of a wing (except a leading edge),
perimeters of wing control surfaces, perimeters of empennage surfaces, and all areas
of a fuselage, on aircraft with a Vne speed up to and including 150 mph, overlap the
fabric 1 inch and cover with a finishing tape that is at least 3 inches wide, centered on
the outside edge of the overlap seam.
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Covering Methods. The method of fabric attachment should be identical, as far as strength
and reliability are concerned, to the method used by the manufacturer of the airplane being
recovered or repaired. Carefully remove the old fabric from the airframe, noting the location
of inspection covers, drain grommets, and method of attachment. Cotton or linen fabric may
be applied so that either the warp or fill-threads are parallel to the line of flight. Either the
envelope method or blanket method of covering is acceptable.
 The Envelope Method. A wing envelope may be developed by two methods.

Machine sew together, side by side multiple fabric sections, cut to reach chordwise
around the wing, starting and ending at the trailing edge with a minimum of 1 inch
excess length.
The sewn envelope is then positioned around the wing and secured with closely
spaced T-Head pins at the wingtip and trailing edge. Excess material may then be
trimmed. Carefully remove the envelope and complete by machine sewing at the
wingtip and along the trailing edge, except where the geometry of the wing (aileron
and flap cut out) would prevent the sewn envelope from being reinstalled. After
reinstalling the envelope, the unsewn sections and butt end are then closed by hand -
sewn or overlapped and doped seams in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed.
(1) An alternative method, when fabric of sufficient width is available, is to sew
together, side-by-side, two sections of fabric, placing the seams spanwise on
the leading edge, then fit and sew the wingtip and trailing edge in the same
manner as the multiple piece chordwise envelope.
(2) An envelope may be developed for the fuselage in the same manner, with a
final closing along a longeron by hand-sewn or overlapped and doped seams
in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed.
 The Blanket Method. A blanket is developed by sewing together, side-by-side,

multiple sections of fabric with the seams chordwise or two wide sections of fabric,
side-by-side, placing the seam spanwise on the leading edge, the same as an envelope.
Close the three remaining sides with a hand-sewn seam or overlapped and doped
seams in accordance with the aircraft Vne speed. Small components may be covered
by wrapping one piece of fabric over a straight leading or trailing edge, then closing
three sides with hand-stitched or overlapped and doped seams in accordance with the
aircraft Vne speed.
NOTE: All overlapped and doped seams will be made only over underlying
supporting structures extending the full width of the seam.
 Machine -sewn alternate. An alternate to machine-sewn seams on a wing envelope

or blanket is to use two sections of wide fabric spanwise. Attach the fabric with
overlapped and doped seams at the leading and trailing edge, wingtip and wing butt,
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in accordance with the aircraft Vne speeds. Smaller components may be covered in
the same manner.
The fuselage may be covered with multiple fabric sections with overlapped and doped
seams on the longerons or other wide fabric-forming structures in accordance with the
aircraft Vne speed.
 Holes in Fabric. Never cut any holes in the fabric for inspection panels, spar fittings,
or drain grommets; or attach the fabric to the airframe with rib lacing screws, rivets,
clips, or rib stitch cord until the fabric has been semi-tauted and stabilized with
several coats of dope.
Reinforcing Tape
 Reinforcing tape should be securely bonded to the fabric surface with dope before
cord lacing or installation of hardware. Where multiple attachments are in close
proximity, such as on a wing rib, continuous reinforcing tape should be installed,
extending at least 1 inch past the last attachment at each end. Random or wide
spacing, such as on fuselage stringers or empennage surfaces, may be reinforced with
2-inch lengths of reinforcing tape centered on the attachment location.
 Reinforcing tapes should be of the appropriate width for hardware attachment
such as screws, rivets, wire clips, etc., which pierce the center of the tape. Reinforcing
tape under cord lacing should be the same width as the rib to which the fabric is laced
and may be comprised of multiple widths positioned side-by-side to achieve the
required width.
 When the aircraft Vne speed is over 250 mph, anti-tear strips, cut from the same
quality fabric used to cover the aircraft, are recommended for use under reinforcing
tape on the entire top surface of the wing and on the portion of the wing’s bottom
surface in the propeller slipstream. The propeller slipstream is considered to be the
propeller diameter plus one outboard rib. The anti-tear strip should be installed
completely around the wing, beginning and ending at the trailing edge in the propeller
slipstream, and installed from the trailing edge over the leading edge and back under
to the front spar on the balance of the ribs. Anti-tear strips should extend 1/2 inch past
the wing rib cap edges and be thoroughly bonded to the fabric with dope before the
reinforcing tape is installed. (See figure 3.50.)
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Figure 3.50
Figure 3.51: Starting stitch for rib lace
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Lacing
Fabric should be attached to aircraft components to prevent ballooning due to aerodynamic

forces, in the identical manner and locations as used by the original aircraft manufacturer.
Any deviation from the original method(s) of attachment, such as screws, rivets, wire clips,
lacing cord, etc., are considered a major alteration and in conflict with the aircraft type design
data. Obtain approval on any deviation.
NOTE: When the type of rib lace knot used by the original aircraft manufacturer is
not known, the modified seine knot shown in figure 3.52 through figure 3.57c will
be used.
 During the installation of lacing

cord through a wing or any other
component, special attention
should be given to avoid
interference with the routing of
any control cable, bellcrank, or
any other movable item. To
prevent chafing and cutting of the
lacing cord, control cables or any
other movable items should be
tensioned or positioned to their
normal alignment before rib
lacing and checked afterwards to
ensure adequate clearance. When
a lace cord will be chafed by a
moving component, a blind-
stitch may be made around the
top and bottom rib caps as
illustrated in figure 3.59.
 Stationary structures
interfering with needle routing
may be circumvented by aligning
the needle forward or aft adjacent
to the rib cap. Pull the needle
through the wing and then return
through the same hole and exit at
the desired adjacent location.
Figure 3.52: Standard external modified seine
knot used for single and double rib lacing.
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NOTE: The first lace on a wing rib should be spaced from the leading edge fairing
no more than 1/2 the required lace spacing for the balance of the rib.
 Both surfaces of fabric covering on wings and control surfaces must be securely
fastened to the ribs by lacing cord or any other method originally approved for the
aircraft. Care must be taken to insure that all sharp edges against which the lacing
cord may bear are protected by tape in order to prevent abrasion of the cord. Separate
lengths of lacing cord may be joined by the splice knot shown in figure 3.58 or tied
off. The first loop is tied with a square knot as illustrated in figure 3.53 and figure
3.57a, and the knot secured with a half hitch on each side after the lacing is pulled
tight around the rib. The needle is then routed through the wing and around the rib cap
at the
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Figure 3.53: Starting stitch for rib lacing
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Figure 3.54: Standard single loop lacing
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Figure 3.55: Standard knot for double-loop lacing
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Figure 3.56: Standard double -loop lacing (optional).
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Figure 3.57a: Alternate sequence to tie a modified seine knot for rib lacing.
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Figure 3.57b: Alternate sequence to tie a modified seine knot for rib lacing.
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Figure 3.57c: Alternate sequence to tie a modified seine knot for rib lacing.
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next rib lace location with the cord and knot remaining on top of the fabric surface as
illustrated in figure 3.53, figure 3.54, and figure 3.56. An alternate method is to route the
needle under the fabric and out through the next lace location, then back down through the
wing as illustrated in figure 3.57a through figure 3.57c. A modified seine knot is then tied
as illustrated in figure 3.52 through figure 3.57c.
(1) Rotate each lace loop to place the knot at the side of the rib cap to reduce the
protrusion and aerodynamic interference before moving to the next lace
location, or the cord routed under the fabric to the next lace location as
illustrated in figure 3.57a through figure 3.57c. The end cord is then cut off
leaving a minimum of 1/4 inch stub. Lacing tension should be uniform.
(2) Repeated pulling of long lengths of lacing cord may remove wax coating from
the cord and cause fraying. Convenient lengths of rib lacing cord may be used
to lace long or thick ribs. The end of each length is tied off with a half hitch as
illustrated in figure 3.57c, or if needed, separate lengths of lacing cord may be
joined by using the splice knot illustrated in figure 3.58.
(3) Lacing is installed through other components, where applicable, in the same
manner as a wing. Single, wide space lace attachments, usually used on
empennage surfaces, are tied with a square knot and half hitch on each side,
the same as a starting wing rib lace illustrated in figure 3.57a, steps 1 and 2.
The lace may be rotated to place the knot under the fabric before cutting the
cord.
 Blind lacing on a fuselage, wing rib caps above and below a fuel tank, and any other
component, when used by the original aircraft manufacturer, should be reinstalled in
the same location and spacing as installed by the original aircraft manufacturer. The
lace cord is routed around the stringer, rib cap, or other structure using an appropriate
length, single or double pointed, curved needle as illustrated in figure 3.58. Blind
laces are tied with a square knot, then pulled tight and secured with a half hitch at
each side. The lace may be rotated to place the knot under the fabric surface before
cutting the cord.
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Figure 3.58: Splice knot
Stitch Spacing
 Rib lace spacing on wings, formerly referred to as stitch spacing, should be no greater
than the spacing used by the original aircraft manufacturer. When the original spacing
cannot be determined the maximum spacing illustrated in figure 3.60 should be used
on the wings and wing control surfaces.
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Figure 3.59: Blind-stitch lacing - square knot secured with half hitches.
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Figure 3.60: Fabric attachment spacing
 When the original lace spacing on the empennage surfaces and fuselage, is not
known, a maximum spacing of two times the spacing shown in figure 3.60 for the
slipstream area (prop wash) on the wings may be used.
 The installations of fabric attachments such as screws, rivets, wire clips, and rib
lacing should be delayed until the fabric is stabilized and pulled taut with dope. This
action is delayed to avoid pulling wing ribs and other structures out of alignment or
tearing the fabric at attachment points as the fabric becomes taut. All lacing should be
installed adjacent to the structure to which the fabric is being laced, to avoid tearing
the fabric and/or creating slack in the cord loop when a load is applied. Where plastic
washers were used by the aircraft manufacturer to provide increased pull-through
resistance, under the heads of rivets or screws, the same diameter aluminum washer
may be used as replacement. Aluminum washers are used because they are not
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affected by solvents found in adhesives or dopes, nor do they become brittle because
of age or cold weather.
Fasteners
Several light aircraft designs employ screws, rivets, or single-wire metal clips to secure the
fabric to the wing.
 Screws holding the old fabric can be removed after spinning a small sharpened
tube around each screw or using a razor blade to cut and peel away the finishing
tape. Care must be taken not to mark or scribe the underlying metal or wood
structure. Blind rivets through ribs can be removed by drilling in the center to
undercut the head.
 Single-wire clips may be removed without damage to the rib by inserting a wide,
thin screwdriver blade under the clip and carefully twisting. Apply a lifting force at
the clip end to pull it up through the hole.

NOTE: It is important that any damage found to ribs, such as oversize rivet or screw holes,
and cracks or breaks in the rib cap, should be tagged immediately for easy location and
repair later.
 When repairs are made to fabric surfaces attached by special mechanical methods,
duplicate the original type of fastener. When self-tapping screws are used for the
attachment of fabric to the rib structure, observe the following procedure:
(1) Redrill the holes where necessary due to wear, distortion, etc., and in such
cases, use a screw one size larger as a replacement.
(2) Extend the length of the screw beyond the rib cap-strip at least two threads.
(3) Install a thin washer, preferably aluminum, under the heads of screws and
dope pinked-edge tape over each screw head.
Finishing Tape
 Finishing tape (surface tape) is installed after the fabric has been pulled taut with the
initial dope application. This procedure is performed to prevent ripples from forming
in fabric panels adjacent to newly applied tapes. Ripple formation is caused by the
inability of the combined tape and fabric to tighten uniformly with adjacent fabric
when additional dope is applied.
 In addition to the tape widths required to be installed over fabric seams, finishing
tape should be installed as weather protection over all rib lacing, screws, rivets, wire
clips, or other devices used to secure fabric. This includes wings, control surface ribs,
empennage surface ribs, and fuselage stringers, where so installed by the original
aircraft manufacturer.
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Tape minimum of 3/8 inch on each side of all fabric attachments. Two inch width tape
is normally used. Tapes over wing rib lacing should extend a minimum of 1/2 inch
past each end of any reinforcing tapes. Random or widely-spaced attachments may be
covered by individual sections of fabric or finishing tape.
 Installation of finishing tapes for additional wear resistance is recommended over
the edges of all fabric-forming structures. This includes fuselage stringers, longerons,
leading and trailing edges, false or nose ribs, control surfaces, and empennage ribs not
already covered and protected by a finishing tape that is required to be on a fabric
seam or fabric attached to the structure. Compound surfaces, such as wingtip bow and
empennage surfaces, are more conveniently taped using bias cut finishing tape, which
easily conforms to the compound contour, rather than notching linear cut tape to fit
the surface. Bias cut tape will be reduced to approximately two thirds the original cut
width when pulled tight around a wingtip bow and should be considered when
selecting the width of tape for the various locations.
 Finishing tapes are applied by coating the fabric surface over which the tape will be
applied with dope, applying the tape over the wet dope film, then brushing the tape
firmly onto the fabric surface. This action will assure a good bond by thoroughly
saturating and wetting the finishing tape.
Inspection Rings and Drain Grommets

 Inspection Rings. Inspection access is provided adjacent to or over every control
bellcrank, drag-wire junction, cable guide, pulley, wing fitting, or any other
component throughout the aircraft which will be inspected or serviced annually. They
are installed only on the bottom side of the wings except where installed on the top
surface by the original manufacturer.
(1) Cutting the holes may be delayed until needed; however, all covers should be
finished in matching colors with any trim lines and stored until needed.
Spraying matching colors a year later is expensive and time consuming.
(2) The 3-9/16 inch inside diameter cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) plastic
inspection access rings have become popular and bond satisfactorily with
Nitrate Dope or Fabric Cement. Any metal inspection hole reinforcements of a
particular shape or special design or size, installed by the original
manufacturer, should be reinstalled after cleaning.
(3) Tapes or patches over aluminum reinforcements are optional, but
recommended in the prop-wash areas on the wings and forward fuselage
bottom.
(4) Fabric patches over plastic rings are strongly recommended because plastic is
not a stable material, becomes brittle at low temperatures, and fatigues and
cracks from prop blast vibration. Plastic rings are often cracked during
removal and installation of spring, clip-held covers. Patches with a minimum
1-inch overlap, should be installed with dope.
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 Drain Grommets. Atmospheric temperature changes cause the humidity in the air to
condense on the inside of aircraft surfaces and pool in all low areas. Rainwater enters
through openings in the sides and top, and when flying, everywhere throughout the
structure. Taxiing on wet runways also splashes water up through any bottom holes.
Therefore, provisions must be made to drain water from the lowest point in each
fabric panel or plywood component throughout the airframe while in a stored attitude.
Drain holes also provide needed ventilation.
(1) Install drain grommets on the under side of all components, at the lowest point
in each fabric panel, when the aircraft is in stored attitude. Seaplane
grommets, which feature a protruding lip to prevent water splashes through the
drain hole, are recommended over drain holes subject to water splashing on
land planes as well as seaplanes. The appropriate-size holes must be cut
through the fabric before installing seaplane grommets. Plastic drain grommets
may be doped directly to the fabric surface or mounted on fabric patches then
doped to the covering. Installing a small fabric patch over flat grommets to
ensure security is optional. Alternate brass grommets are mounted on fabric
patches, then doped to the fabric.
(2) After all coating applications and sanding are completed, open all holes
through flat drain grommets by cutting through the fabric with a small-blade
knife. Do not attempt to open drain holes by punching with a sharp object
because the drain hole will not remain open.
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Application of Dope
General Nitrate dope and butyrate dope are manufactured by treating cellulose, derived from
wood pulp or cotton linter with select acids, then dissolving in a blend of solvents and adding
plasticizers for flexibility. After a brush or spray application on fabric, the film develops
tension and strength as the solvents evaporate. The tension and strength will increase in
proportion to the total film thickness. The fabric functions as a film former and carries no
load until a crack develops in the dope film. An excessively-thick dope film will develop too
much tension and may warp or damage a light airframe.
 Viscosity adjustments for brush or spray applications may also vary between brands.
When the viscosity adjustment ratio is not provided or is unclear, the product
manufacturer should be contacted for detailed instructions. If instructions cannot be
obtained or the source of the dope is unknown, the dope should be considered suspect
and its use is not advised.
 Dope, which has been stored for an extended period of time or under adverse
conditions, should be suspected of becoming acidic and should be tested before being
used on cotton or linen fabric. In some cases, fresh production dope has also been
found to have a high acid content and will begin to deteriorate cotton or linen in a
period of a few months. The acid content of nitrate or butyrate dope should not exceed
0.06 percent, calculated as acidic acid. An acidity test can be performed by most
testing laboratories if high acid content is suspected.
 Butyrate dope is superior to nitrate dope in weather exposure tests. However, nitrate
dope provides better adhesion to natural fiber than butyrate dope. The adhesion of
butyrate dope to natural fibers is adequate; it is not necessary to use nitrate dope for
the first application and butyrate dope for all other applications. The presence of
naphtha in nitrate dope, manufactured in accordance with canceled Mil Specs
formulas, causes nitrate dope to be incompatible with butyrate dope; therefore, nitrate
dope should not be applied over butyrate dope for repairs or refinishing; however,
butyrate dope may be applied over nitrate dope.
NOTE: Nitrate or butyrate dope thinners and retarders should not be substituted for
each other, nor should automotive coating-type thinners be used.
 Clear dope produces the most tension and strength. Aluminum-pigmented dope will
weigh slightly more than clear dope and develop less tension and strength for the
same film thickness. Pigmented color finishes will produce the least tension and
strength due to the higher ratio of plasticizers.
 During the coating-buildup procedure, solvents released from each succeeding coat
will penetrate and be absorbed into the previous dope film, temporarily releasing the
tension and increasing the drying time between coats as the dope film becomes
thicker. If elapsed time between coats exceeds several weeks at temperatures above
70 F, it is recommended that several spray coats of an appropriate dope thinner or
dope with retarder and/or rejuvenator added be applied to the lightly-sanded, dried
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dope film to open the surface and provide cohesion for the next coat. This will reduce
the possibility of surface cracks caused by dissimilar tension between the old and new
dope film.
 All dope coats through the final finish may be applied with a brush; however, brush
marks will be noticeable in the finish. With increasing environmental concerns, high
pressure airless and high-volume low-pressure (HVLP) paint spray equipment is
recommended over conventional siphon and pressure pot spraying equipment. High
pressure airless and HVLP paint spraying equipment will greatly reduce paint
overspray and fogging. A spray gun, single coat is applied by overlapping each
consecutive pass 50 percent of the fan width. A double coat is applied by repeating
the coating application in the same direction, or at a 90o angle to the first coat (cross
coat) before the first coat has flashed off or dried dust free.
Safety Tips.
 Always ground the aircraft structure while sanding and painting.

 Do not use an electric drill as a dope/paint mixer.
 Wear leather-soled shoes in the dope/painting area.
 Have an adequate, approved ventilation system.
 Wear cotton clothes when doping or painting.
 Wear an approved face mask or respirator when spraying
 Follow all the manufacturer’s instructions.
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Helpful Tips for Doping.

 Limits for optimum application of dope: relative humidity 20 to
60%; temperature range 65° to 75°F.
 Drying time will vary with temperature, humidity, amount of
thinner used, and whether or not retarder was added to the
mixture.
 Do not recoat until the surface is completely dry and all active
solvents have left the dope film.
 Spray all coats except the first three or four clear coats, to avoid
brush marks.
 Over thinning is preferred to under thinning.
 Addition of retarder will produce a smoother coat, but drying
time between coats will be extended.
 To get a clean line for the trim colors, apply a light coat of clear
dope directly on the masking tape prior to painting. This will
help eliminate the trim colour from running under the masking
tape.
 Remember to always bring the dope to room temperature before
using.
 Rubbing compound and wax polish may be applied after all
solvents have escaped (usually 2 weeks, depending upon the
weather).
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Dope Application Procedure (Natural Fabrics).

 Step 1. After the cotton or linen fabric is installed, the fabric is wetted with distilled
water to remove wrinkles and fold creases, which will show in a gloss finish. Water
may be applied by rubbing with a clean sponge or rag, or by using a paint spray gun.
Do not use tap water. It may contain minerals which will contaminate the fabric.
(1) As water is absorbed by the fibers, the threads swell, resulting in temporary
tauting of the fabric panel. The fabric should be allowed to dry before dope
application, otherwise the water in the fibers will interfere with the dope
penetration and adhesion.
(2) After the fabric has dried, the first coat of dope is applied, brushing in one
direction to set the nap with a clean, non-shedding, 2-to 6-inch wide, semi-
soft, long bristle paint brush.
(3) To offset the deteriorating effect of mildew or other fungus on natural fibers,
especially in damp climates, it is recommended that a fungicide be added to
the first coat of dope. The preferred fungicide is zinc dimethyldithiocarbamate
powder, which should be prepared per the manufacturer’s instructions. If no
manufacturer’s instructions are available the zinc powder may be stirred in at a
ratio of 4 ounces, to one gallon of un-thinned nitrate or butyrate dope, after the
powder is wetted to a paste with a 50/50 ratio of dope and thinner.
(4) Pre-mixed fungicidal dope, manufactured in accordance with the formula
specified in MIL-D-7850, will have a transparent purple tint to indicate the
fungicide additive. Dope manufactured with other colors to identify the
manufacturers’ products sold under proprietary trade names may or may not
have a fungicidal additive.
(5) The viscosity of the dope should be adjusted to uniformly wet the fabric,
indicated by the fabric becoming translucent so that it penetrates through the
fabric but does not drip or run down the opposite side. Any dope-runs or
pooling on the opposite side will shrink and distort the fabric, and may be
visible on the finished surface.
(6) The ideal temperature for application of dope or other coatings is 65 to 75oF
and the humidity should be less than 65 percent. As a general rule, each 10 F
increase or decrease in ambient temperature will increase or decrease drying
time by 100 percent. Dope should be allowed to warm to room temperature
prior to attempting to adjust the viscosity.
 Step 2. Depending upon the quality of the dope and the ratio of thinning, the fabric
should start to become taut after the first brushed coat of dope has dried
approximately 1 hour at 70 °F. A second, heavier coat is applied by cross brushing at
90nFnto the first coat. Viscosity should be adjusted only as necessary to brush out a
heavy uniform coat.
If the fabric is not taut, with all sag removed, after the second coat has dried
approximately 2 hours, a third coat may be applied.
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 Step 3. After the fabric has become semitaut and stabilized with the initial dope
application, and the rib lacing and other fabric attachments are completed, it is ready
for “dressing out”.
NOTE: “Dressing out” means applying all the finishing tapes, reinforcing patches,
inspection access ports, and drain grommets, etc.
 Step 4. After the covering is a dressed out, one or more coats of clear dope are
brushed over all finishing tapes and fabric reinforcing patches. This will balance the
thickness of the dope film with the previously coated areas of the fabric. It is very
important that the porosity of the fabric be filled while brushing to avoid pinholes
showing in the finish.
 Step 5. After drying at least 2 hours at 70oF, a third heavy coat of clear dope is
applied over the entire surface, preferably with a paint spray gun if brush marks are to
be avoided. After the third coat of dope has dried at least 2 hours at 70oF, the fabric
should be taut and the dope film should show a gloss, depending upon the dope
quality and the ratio of thinner added. If not, a fourth coat of clear dope may be
applied, in the same manner as the third coat.
NOTE: Three to four clear coats of dope film showing a uniform gloss combined with
the aluminum-pigmented coats and finish coats is considered satisfactory for light
aircraft up to 9 lb. per square foot wing loading. Five to eight clear coats, depending
upon the quality of the dope and resulting film thickness, are recommended for higher
wing loading aircraft to assure the covering does not stretch and lose tension.
 Step 6. After the clear coats are found to be satisfactory, two heavy cross-coats of
aluminum- pigmented dope are applied with a spray gun to provide protection from
ultraviolet (UV) rays. Tests have shown that UV radiation will deteriorate cotton,
linen, and polyester fabric; however, polyester fabric deteriorates at a rate half that of
cotton or linen under identical exposure conditions. UV radiation does not deteriorate
glass fabric. Aluminum-pigmented dope blocks UV radiation and provides a sanding
base. A gauge of ultraviolet protection in the field is to block all visible light from
penetrating through the fabric. Drying time between the two coats should be at least 1
hour at 70oF.
(1) An option to premixed aluminum dope is to use aluminum-pigment paste.
Aluminum paste should be prepared per the manufacturer’s instructions. If no
manufacturer’s instructions are available, mix 3 ounces (by weight), of 325-
mesh aluminum-pigment paste, to 1 gallon of unthinned, clear dope. The
aluminum paste should first be mixed to a cream consistency with a 50/50
ratio of dope and thinner before mixing into the unthinned clear dope. A
higher ratio of aluminium-pigment added to the dope may cause a loss of
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primer-coat and finish-coat adhesion, and peeling may occur especially when
high tack tape is used to mask for the trim colors and registration numbers.
(2) The viscosity of the mixed aluminium-pigmented dope should be adjusted for
satisfactory spray gun application.
 Step 7. After two coats of aluminium-pigmented dope have dried at least 4 hours at
70 □ F, the surface may be wet sanded with # 280 grit (or finer) waterproof
sandpaper. The aluminum-pigmented dope should be sanded only to develop a
smooth surface, not sanded completely off to the clear dope undercoats. Do not sand
over screw-heads, rib lacing, or any structural sharp edges that will quickly cut
through fabric and require patching. Additional coats of aluminum- pigmented dope
may be applied and sanded, depending on the final finish desired. The last coat should
not be sanded to assure ultraviolet protection along the edges of the finishing tapes
and reinforcing patches is maintained.
 Step 8. Three coats of pigmented color finish are applied with a paint spray gun,
allowing adequate drying time between coats. The color finish may be wet sanded
between coats, if desired, with fine grit waterproof sandpaper. Adding blush retarder
to the final dope finish will improve the gloss. After drying several weeks, a rubbing
compound may be used to buff the finish and increase the gloss. A periodic
application of a wax polish will help protect the finish from the weather and
environmental pollution.
NOTE: Drain holes should be opened soon after all finishing is complete to insure
drainage and to aid ventilation of the structure.
(1) When exposed to the sun, dark colors absorb more sun energy and convert that
energy to heat more easily than light colors. High temperatures dry out wood
structures and deteriorate organic materials in an aircraft structure. Preferably
the lighter color shades are applied first and then overcoated with darker trim
and registration number colors.
(2) Only high-quality, solvent-resistant crepe paper or polypropylene masking
tape should be used to avoid finish bleed under the tape edge. Newspaper
printing ink may transfer to a fresh finish and should not be used for masking
paper. Plastic sheeting should not be used as a dust cover on a fresh finish due
to possible bonding and damage.
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Covering Over Plywood

Exposed, stressed plywood surfaces, such as wings, must be protected from weather
deterioration with fabric at least equal to that used by the original manufacturer. If the quality
is not known, intermediate-grade fabric, meeting TSO-C14b specification, is acceptable.
Fabric may be installed in sections with a 1/2 inch edge overlap without covering the overlap
with finishing tape. Fabric may also be installed with the edges butted together, and the seam
covered with a minimum 1-inch wide finishing tape. The seams may be oriented in any
direction, in reference to the line of flight. However, overlapped seams, not covered with a
finishing tape, should be oriented rearward. Fabric should be wrapped completely around a
wing’s leading and trailing edges and other components, where possible, to provide fabric-to-
fabric continuity around all edges to avoid a poorly-bonded fabric edge from peeling from the
plywood surface causing serious aerodynamic consequences.
 After the plywood surface is prepared, and the two pre-coats of clear dope have
dried, the fabric is pulled snug and bonded with clear dope around the perimeter of the
fabric section. The fabric is then wetted with distilled water to remove fold creases, in
the same manner described for fabric panel areas. After the water has evaporated, a
heavy coat of low-viscosity clear dope is brushed firmly through the fabric to soften
the underlying dope pre-coat, insuring a good bond. Brushing techniques should be
accomplished by moving the brush from one side across to the opposite side to
remove all air bubbles and thoroughly saturate the fabric. This is indicated by the
plywood grain being easily visible through the translucent fabric. Except for very
small imperfections or small dents in the plywood surface, voids are not permissible
between the fabric and plywood surfaces. Voids may allow the fabric to balloon from
the plywood surface, creating adverse handling characteristics.
 After the first dope coat has dried at least 1 hour at 70oF, a second heavy coat of
clear dope is applied by brush to fill the fabric weave and prevent pinholes. The
installation of finish tape around the perimeter of the plywood surfaces, leading edges,
and other wear points, is optional but recommended for wear and chafe protection.
The application of aluminium-pigmented dope coating, sanding, and finish coats will
be the same as that specified for fabric panel areas. Reinforcement grommets are not
required on drain holes through plywood surfaces.
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Coating Application Defects

 Blushing. The appearance of light shaded dull areas on the surface as dope dries is the
result of moisture in the atmosphere condensing on a surface due to the cooling effect
of the fast-evaporating components of dope thinner escaping from the coating.
Blushing can occur at any temperature when the humidity is above 65 percent. There
are several ways to remedy this problem. The drying time may be slowed by adding
up to 1 quart of blush retarder to 1 gallon of dope or by increasing the temperature of
the dope room and eliminating any cooling draft from blowing across the surface.
Blushed surfaces may be reworked by spraying several, closely-timed coats of a 50/50
blend of blush retarder and dope thinner to soften and return the dope surface to the
original liquid state. Blush retarder, mixed with dope, may delay the full drying time
by several days, but will eventually escape from the dope film if the room temperature
is maintained an average of 70°F.
 Pinholes. Voids between the fabric threads that are not filled with the first coats of
dope are called pinholes. They may be caused by fabric contamination, such as oil or
finger prints, but are usually the result of improper dope application. Pinholes are
usually found in a second layer of fabric such as finishing tapes and reinforcing
patches or over underlying, non-porous structures; such as leading edges, turtle decks,
and plywood surfaces. Any non-porous structure under fabric will act as a backstop
and will resist complete dope penetration into the fabric. Microscopic cavities
between the backstop and fabric collect escaping solvent vapors during the drying
process and balloon up through the surface leaving pinholes, or become pinholes
when the top of the balloon is sanded. Moisture, in the fabric or on the backstop
surface, also interferes with complete dope penetration, resulting in pinholes. The
remedy for pinholes, at any stage before the final finish coat, is to add blush retarder
to low viscosity dope and carefully brush over the affected surfaces to penetrate into
and fill the pinholes. Discontinue brushing after five or six strokes to avoid leaving
brush marks.
 Orange Peel. A rough spray gun-applied finish, similar to the texture of an orange
peel, may be caused by one or more of the following conditions:
 Viscosity of material being sprayed is too high.
 Air temperature is too high.
 Spraying in direct sunlight, onto a hot surface or in a drafty/windy condition,
which causes a fast solvent evaporation. o Spray gun, tip, cap, and/or needle
are not properly matched for the type material being sprayed.
 Volume of air available from the compressor not sufficient for spray gun. o
Wrong thinner used and drying too o fast.
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 Spray gun not properly adjusted. The spray gun should be adjusted to a
uniform spray pattern with the material atomized to deposit fine, wet particles
that merge and form a smooth film.
 Blisters. One or more of the following conditions my cause blisters:

 Freshly coated surface placed in hot sunlight or high temperature area to
accelerate drying time, causing the vapor from rapidly evaporating solvents to
be trapped.
 Excessive high air pressure used to spray heavy coats which “blasts” air
bubbles into the coating. Water or oil in air supply.
 Runs, Sags, and Curtains. These defects may be caused by one or more of the
following conditions:
 Viscosity of material being sprayed is too low.
 Coats applied too heavily.
 Insufficient drying time between coats.
 Spray gun held too close to work surface.
 Improperly adjusted spray gun.
 Spray Gun Laps and Streaks. These defects may be caused by one or more of the
following conditions:
 Spray gun not properly adjusted to spray a wet, smooth surface.
 Overspray on a partially-dried surface.
 Spray pattern not sufficiently overlapped on each pass.
 Viscosity of material being sprayed is too high.
 Metallic finishes sprayed too heavily allowing metallic pigments to move or
flow after deposit, causing a marbled appearance.
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Inspection and Testing
General. All components of the covering should be inspected for general condition. Loose
finishing tape and reinforcing patches; chafing under fairings; brittle, cracking, peeling, or
deteriorated coatings; fabric tears and rock damage; broken or missing rib lacing; and rodent
nests are unacceptable. The entire fabric covering should be uniformly taut with no loose or
wrinkled areas, or excess tension which can warp and damage the airframe.
 Excess Tension. There are no methods or specifications for measuring acceptable
fabric tension other than observation. Excess tension may warp critical components,
such as longerons, wing rib, and trailing edges out of position, weakening the airframe
structure.
 Excess tension with cotton, linen, and glass fiber fabric covering is usually caused
by excessive dope film on a new covering, or continuous shrinking of an
originally satisfactory dope film as the plasticizers migrate from the dope with
age. Heat from sun exposure accelerates plasticizer migration.
 Excess tension with polyester fabric, coated with dope, is usually caused by the
combined tension of the heat tautened polyester fabric and continuous shrinking
of the dope film as the plasticizers migrate from the dope with age.
 Loose Fabric. Fabric that flutters or ripples in the propeller slipstream, balloons, or is
depressed excessively in flight from the static position, is unacceptable.
 Loose or wrinkled cotton, linen, and glass fabric covering may be caused by
inadequate dope film; poor quality dope; fabric installed with excess slack; or by
a bent, broken, or warped structure.
 Loose or wrinkled polyester fabric covering, finished with coatings other than
dope, may be caused by inadequate or excessive heat application; excess slack
when the fabric was installed; or bent or warped structure. Polyester fabric which
does not meet aircraft quality specifications will very likely become loose after a
short period of time.
 Glass fabric covering should be tested with a large suction cup for rib lacing cord
failure and reinforcing tape failure caused by chafing on all wing ribs and other
structural attachments throughout the airframe. Particular attention should be
given to the area within the propeller slipstream. If failure is indicated by the
covering lifting from the static position, the rib lacing cord and reinforcing tape
must be reinstalled with double the number of original laces.
NOTE: Temporary wrinkles will develop in any fabric coated and finished with
dope, when moisture from rain, heavy fog, or dew is absorbed into a poor- quality
dope film, causing the film to expand. Temporary wrinkles may also develop with
any type of thick coatings, on any type of fabric, when an aircraft is moved from a
cold storage area to a warm hangar or parked in the warming sunshine, causing
rapid thermal expansion of the coating.
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 Coating Cracks. Fabric exposed through cracks in the coating may be initially tested
for deterioration by pressing firmly with a thumb to check the fabric’s strength.
Natural fibers deteriorate by exposure to ultraviolet radiation, mildew, fungus from
moisture, high acid- content rain, dew, fog, pollution, and age. Polyester filaments
will deteriorate by exposure to UV radiation.
 Glass fabric will not deteriorate from UV exposure, but will be deteriorated by
acid rain, dew fallout, and chaffing if loose in the prop blast area.
 Cotton, linen, and glass fabric coverings are dependent solely on the strength and
tautening characteristics of the dope film to carry the airloads. Dope coatings on
heat-tautened polyester fabric will also absorb all the airloads because the
elongation of polyester filaments are considerably higher than the dope film.
Polyester fabric that is coated with materials other than dope, is dependent solely
on the heat tautening and low elongation characteristics of the polyester filaments
to develop tension and transmit the airloads to the airframe without excess
distortion from a static position.
 Cracks in coatings will allow any type of exposed fabric to deteriorate. Cracks
should be closed by sealing or removing the coatings in the immediate area and
replace with new coatings, or recover the component.
Fabric Identification
Cotton Fabric meeting TSO-C15 or TSO-C14 can be identified by an off-white color and
thread count of 80 to 94 for TSO-C14b and 80 to 84 for TSO-C15d in both directions.
 Aircraft linen conforming to British specification 7F1 may be identified by a slightly
darker shade than cotton fabric and irregular thread spacing. The average thread count
will be about the same as Grade A fabric (TSO-C15d). The non-uniformity of the
linen thread size is also noticeable, with one thread half the size of the adjacent
thread. When viewed under a magnifying glass, the ends of the cotton and linen fiber
nap may be seen on the backside. The nap is also seen when the coating is removed
from the front or outside surface. A light-purple color showing on the back side of
cotton or linen fabric indicates a fungicide was present in the dope to resist
deterioration by fungus and mildew.
 Polyester fabric conforming to TSO-C14b or TSO-C15d is whiter in color than
cotton or linen. The fabric styles adapted for use as aircraft covering have a variety of
thread counts, up to ninety-four (94), depending on the manufacturing source, weight,
and breaking strength. Polyester is a monofilament and will not have any nap or
filament ends showing.
 Glass fabric is manufactured white in color, and one source is pre-coated with a blue-
tinted dope as a primer and to reduce weave distortion during handling. Thread count
will be approximately 36 threads per inch. Glass fabrics are monofilament and will
not have any nap or filament ends showing unless they are inadvertently broken.
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 When a small fabric sample can be removed from the aircraft and all the coatings
removed, a burn test will readily distinguish between natural fabric, polyester, and
glass fabric. Cotton and linen will burn to a dry ash, polyester filaments will melt to a
liquid and continue burning to a charred ash, and glass filaments, which do not
support combustion, will become incandescent over a flame.
Coating Identification
Nitrate or butyrate dope must be used to develop tension on cotton, linen, and glass fabrics.
When a small sample can be removed, burn tests will distinguish nitrate dope-coated fabric
from butyrate dope-coated fabric by its immediate ignition and accelerated combustion.
Butyrate dope will burn at less than one-half the rate of nitrate dope. Coating types other than
nitrate or butyrate dope may have been used as a finish over dope on cotton, linen, and glass
fiber fabric coverings.
 If the fabric type is determined to be polyester, coating identification should start
by reviewing the aircraft records and inspecting the inside of the wings and the
fuselage for the required fabric source identification stamps for covering materials
authorized under the STC. The manual, furnished by the holder of the STC-approved
fabric, should be reviewed to determine whether the coatings are those specified by
the STC.
 Coating types, other than those authorized by the original STC, may have been used
with prior approval, and this would be noted in the aircraft records. The presence of
dope on polyester can be detected by a sample burn test.
Strength Criteria For Aircraft Fabric. Minimum performance standards for new
intermediate- grade fabric are specified in TSO-C14b, which references AMS 3804C.
Minimum performance standards for new Grade A fabric are specified in TSO-C15d, which
references AMS 3806D.
 The condition of the fabric covering must be determined on every 100-hour and
annual inspection, because the strength of the fabric is a definite factor in the
airworthiness of an airplane. Fabric is considered to be airworthy until it deteriorates
to a breaking strength less than 70 percent of the strength of new fabric required for
the aircraft. For example, if grade-A cotton is used on an airplane that requires only
intermediate fabric, it can deteriorate to 46 pounds per inch width (70 percent of the
strength of intermediate fabric) before it must be replaced.
 Fabric installed on aircraft with a wing loading less than 9 lb. per square foot
(PSF), and a Vne less than 160 mph, will be considered unairworthy when the
breaking strength has deteriorated below 46 lb. per inch width, regardless of the fabric
grade. Fabric installed on aircraft with a wing loading of 9 lb. per square foot and
over, or a Vne of 160 mph and over, will be considered unairworthy when the
breaking strength has deteriorated below 56 lb. per inch width.
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 Fabric installed on a glider or sailplane with a wing loading of 8 lb. per square foot
and less, and a Vne of 135 mph or less, will be considered unairworthy when the
fabric breaking strength has deteriorated below 35 lb. per inch width, regardless of the
fabric grade.
Fabric Testing. Mechanical devices used to test fabric by pressing against or piercing the
finished fabric are not approved and are used at the discretion of the mechanic to base an
opinion on the general fabric condition. Punch test accuracy will depend on the individual
device calibration, total coating thickness, brittleness, and types of coatings and fabric.
Mechanical devices are not applicable to glass fiber fabric that will easily shear and indicate a
very low reading regardless of the true breaking strength. If the fabric tests in the lower
breaking strength range with the mechanical punch tester or if the overall fabric cover
conditions are poor, then more accurate field tests may be made. Cut a 1-1/4-inch wide by 4-
inch long sample from a top exposed surface, remove all coatings and ravel the edges to a 1-
inch width. Clamp each end between suitable clamps with one clamp anchored to a support
structure while a load is applied (see table 3.4) by adding sand in a suitable container
suspended a few inches above the floor. If the breaking strength is still in question, a sample
should be sent to a qualified testing laboratory and breaking strength tests made in
accordance with American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) publication D5035.
Rejuvenation of the Dope Film. If fabric loses its strength, there is nothing to do but remove
it and recover the aircraft. But if the fabric is good and the dope is cracked, it may be treated
with rejuvenator, a mixture of very potent solvents and plasticizers, to restore its resilience.
The surface of the fabric is cleaned and the rejuvenator sprayed on in a wet coat, and the
solvents soften the old finish so the plasticizers can become part of the film. When the
rejuvenator dries, the surface should be sprayed with two coats of aluminum-pigmented dope,
then sanded and a third coat of aluminum pigmented dope applied, followed with the colored-
dope finish. When repairing, rejuvenating, and refinishing covering materials approved under
an STC, instructions in the manual furnished by the material supplier should be followed.
Repairs to Fabric Covering

All materials used to make repairs to fabric covering must be of a quality at least equal to the
original materials. Workmanship and repair methods must be made in a manner that will
return the fabric covering to its original airworthy condition.
 Any combination of seams hand-sewn and overlapped and doped may be used to
make repairs and install new fabric sections.
 All pigmented dope coats, including aluminum-pigmented coats, should be removed
to the clear dope preliminary coats before installing a new fabric section or finishing
tape on the old fabric. The appropriate dope thinner may be applied with a brush to
soften the old dope. The softened coats can then be removed down to the clear dope
coats by scraping with a dull-bladed knife while supporting the fabric from the back
side. Removing the old dope by sanding is optional.
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 Avoid allowing dope to run down the back side of the fabric or drip through the
wing onto the back side of the opposite surface, which will cause cosmetic damage
and will show in a high gloss finish.
 Repairing a new fabric section over two adjacent wing ribs is considered a major
repair. A log book entry must be processed accordingly.
 All fabric patch edges not covered with a finishing tape should have a pinked edge
or a 1/4-inch raveled edge.
 Where the edge of a new fabric section will be located within 1 inch of a structural
member to which the fabric is attached by rib lacing or other methods, the new fabric
section should be extended 3 inches past the structural member.
NOTE: Before installing new finishing tape, duplicate the original rib lacing or other
attachments without removing the original rib lacing or attachment. Removing the
original finishing tape is optional.
 When repairing a covering material other than cotton or linen, which was
approved with the manufacturer’s type certificate (TC), or approved under the
authority of an STC, follow the repair instructions furnished by the aircraft
manufacturer or supplier of the STC-approved covering materials.
Repair of tears And Access Openings. When all the original fabric is intact, an opening
may be repaired by sewing the two sides together with a curved needle as illustrated in
figures 3.61 and 3.62. The fabric edges should be pulled together uniformly with no wrinkles.
Before sewing, remove the old dope coats down to the clear dope coats a distance of 2 inches
on each side of the opening. The hand-sewn thread quality should be at least equal to that
specified in table 3.5 and treated with wax (paraffin- free or beeswax) to prevent fraying, or
use the proper thread on the STC application. After sewing, apply a coat of clear dope over
the cleaned area and install a 3-inch wide finishing tape, centered over the stitches.
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Figure 3.61: Repair of tears in fabric
 Finishing tapes should be well saturated with dope and smoothed out with no voids
or wrinkles during installation. After drying for 1 hour at 70oF, additional coats of
clear dope followed with pigmented dope are applied.
 If the opening is more than 8 inches long but less than 16 inches long in any
direction, the finishing tape width should be increased to 4 inches.
 The finishing tape width should be increased to 6 inches if the opening is more than
16 inches long in any direction, is located on a wing top surface, or the aircraft Vne
speed is greater than 150 mph.
Sewn-Patch Repair. Openings that cannot be repaired by closing with stitches may be
repaired by sewing in a new fabric section. The edges of the fabric around the opening should
be trimmed straight on four sides to facilitate the installation of straight sections of finishing
tape over the stitches.
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 After cutting out the damaged section and

removing the coatings, the new fabric section
should be sized to allow folding both edges of
the fabric back 1/2-inch to increase the stitch
tear resistance. Temporarily attach the four
corners in position with thread.
Start with a double thread with a square knot at
the end (see figure 3.62) and continue stitching
in the manner described in figures 3.61 and
3.62. When the stitching is complete, wet the
new fabric section to remove any creases. After
drying, apply one coat of clear dope on the new
fabric. When the first coat of dope has dried 1
hour at 70oF, apply a 3-inch wide finishing
tape, centered over the stitches. The finishing
tape should be well saturated with dope and
smoothed out with no voids or wrinkles.
Additional coats of clear dope and pigmented
dope are then applied to obtain the desired
tautness and finish.
 If the opening is more than 8 inches but less
than 16 inches long in any direction, the
finishing tape should be 4 inches wide.
 The finishing tape width should be 6 inches
wide if the opening is over 16 inches long in
any direction, is located on a wing top surface,
or the aircraft Vne speed is greater than 150
mph.
Figure 3.62: Hand stitch detail
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Doped-On Patch Repair. An opening not over 8 inches in length in any direction, on an
aircraft with a Vne speed less than 150 mph, may be repaired with a 2-inch overlapped and
doped patch. The opening should be trimmed to eliminate any irregular edges and old
pigmented dope coats removed.
 When installing a fabric patch over a small opening, the loose edge of the fabric
around the opening may be secured by extending a series of small threads, from the
edge across the opening, to the opposite side. After the patch is completed, the
threads may be clipped and removed through an access port or left in place.
 The fabric patch is installed by applying a coat of clear dope around the opening,
then positioning the patch over the opening. Brush out any void or wrinkles while
saturating only the fabric overlap area. After the first coat of clear dope around the
edge has dried 1 hour at 70oF, wet the fabric patch to remove any creases. After
drying, apply additional coats of clear dope and pigmented dope over the entire
patch.
 If the opening is less than 8 inches in length in any direction and the aircraft Vne
speed is greater than 150 mph, a 2-inch wide finishing tape should be installed on all
sides, centered on the edge of the 2-inch overlap patch.
 If the opening is more than 8 inches but less than 16 inches in length, in any
direction on an aircraft with a Vne speed less than 150 mph, it may be repaired with
a doped patch, which is overlapped 1/4 of the opening maximum dimension. The
maximum overlap should not exceed 4 inches.
 If the opening is more than 8 inches but less than 16 inches in length in any
direction, the repair is located on a wing top surface, and the aircraft Vne speed is
greater than 150 mph, the patch overlap should be 4 inches and a 2-inch wide
finishing tape installed on all sides, centered on the edge of the patch.
 If the opening is more than 16 inches in length in any direction and the Vne speed
is less than 150 mph, the patch overlap should be 4 inches and the finishing tape
should be 4 inches in width, centered on the edge of the patch.
 If the opening is more than 16 inches in length in any direction and the Vne speed
is greater than 150 mph, the patch overlap should be 4 inches and the finishing tape
should be 6 inches in width, centered on the edge of the patch.
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6.4 CORROSION
6.4.1. INTRODUCTION
Many aircraft structures are made of metal, and the most insidious form of damage to those
structures is corrosion. From the moment the metal is manufactured, it must be protected
from the deleterious effects of the environment that surrounds it. This protection can be the
introduction of certain elements into the base metal, creating a corrosion resistant alloy, or the
addition of a surface coating of a chemical conversion coating, metal or paint. While in use,
additional moisture barriers, such as viscous lubricants and protectantsmay be added to the
surface.
Metal corrosion is the deterioration of the metal by chemical or electrochemical attack. This
type of damage can take place internally as well as on the surface. As in the rotting of wood,
this deterioration may change the smooth surface, weaken the interior, or damage or loosen
adjacent parts. Water or water vapor containing salt combines with oxygen in the atmosphere
to produce the main source of corrosion in aircraft. Aircraft operating in a marine
environment, or in areas where the atmosphere contains industrial fumes that are corrosive,
are particularly susceptible to corrosive attacks. If left unchecked, corrosion can cause
eventual structural failure.
The appearance of corrosion varies with the metal. On the surface of aluminum alloys and
magnesium, it appears as pitting and etching, and is often combined with a gray or white
powdery deposit. On copper and copper alloys, the corrosion forms a greenish film; on steel,
a reddish corrosion byproduct commonly referred to as rust. When the gray, white, green, or
reddish deposits are removed, each of the surfaces may appear etched and pitted, depending
upon the length of exposure and severity of attack. If these surface pits are not too deep, they
may not significantly alter the strength of the metal; however, the pits may become sites for
crack development, particularly if the part is highly stressed. Some types ofcorrosion burrow
between the inside of surface coatings and the metal surface, and can spread until the part
fails.
Reactions, between metals and their environments, can occur in either of two (often
simultaneous) ways:
• chemical (oxidation)
• electrochemical (galvanic)
In both cases, the metal is converted into metal compounds such as carbonates, hydroxides,
oxides or sulphates.
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The corrosion process involves two concurrent changes. The metal that is attacked, suffers an
Anodic change while the corrosive agent undergoes a Cathodic change. The result is that
material is lost from the Anode and gained by the Cathode, forming an ionic bond.
6.4.2. CHEMICAL CORROSION (OXIDATION)
In a strict chemical sense, oxidation occurs whenever a metal is converted to its ions. An ion
is a neutral atom that has gained or lost one or more of its electrons. The term oxidation is,
however, normally used to describe the direct combination of a metal with the oxygen of the
atmosphere. The phenomenon is essentially a ‘dry’ one, although water vapour, in the air,
does play a part in the oxidation of some metals. With the exception of gold and platinum, all
metals, in contact with air, form a very thin, visible oxide film.
Chemical corrosion can be caused by direct exposure, of the metal surface, to caustic liquids
or gaseous agents such as:
• Spilled battery acids or battery fumes. Spilled acids are less of a problem now that
Nickel Cadmium batteries are in common use.
• Flux deposits from inadequately cleaned joints. Flux residues are hygroscopic (readily
absorb moisture).
• Entrapped caustic cleaning compounds. Caustic cleaning solutions should be kept
capped when not in use. Many corrosion-removal solutions are, in fact, corrosive
agents and should be carefully removed after use.
Effect of Oxide Thickness
The oxide film that forms on metals,

generally tends to protect them from
further corrosive attack. The oxidation
rate normally falls sharply as the film
thickness increases so that, at some
time, there is virtually no further
increase in film thickness.
Metals that form this type of tenacious

and impervious film include pure
aluminium, titanium and chromium.
Figure 4.1: Aluminium produces a protective

oxide layer when exposed to the atmosphere
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Occasionally, there is a continuation of oxidation, due to the fact that oxides may react
chemically, or combine with, water to produce a film that is porous to the passage of further
oxygen through it. The oxide skin may also crack or flake and expose the metal surface to
further oxidation.
Effect of Temperature
The effect of an increase in temperature usually results in an increase in the rate of oxidation
of a metal.
6.4.3. ELECTROCHEMICAL (GALVANIC) CORROSION
A more complicated form of corrosion, which can occur not only on the surface of a metal,
but also within the granular structure of the metal (especially in alloys).
The Galvanic Cell
The mechanism of electrochemical corrosion (on single metal and at bimetallic surfaces) is
similar to that of a primary cell, which produces a low-voltage direct current.
A galvanic cell requires three components to exist:
• An anode (a metal from the ‘anodic’ end of the galvanic series)

• A cathode (a metal which is cathodic, compared to the anode)
• An electrolyte (a fluid that conducts electricity)
In its basic form, it consists of two dissimilar metals in the presence of an electrolyte, An
electrolyte is a chemical (or its solution in water), which is able to conduct an electric current,
due to the process of ionisation. This forms a simple electric cell in which the less ‘noble’
metal (the anode) is eaten away.
When, for example, iron and copper plates, are partially immersed in an electrolyte, of dilute
sulphuric acid, and are connected electrically (via a piece of external wire), the potential
difference between the plates, causes a current to flow (refer to figure 4.2).
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Figure 4.2: The anode - Iron (Fe) and cathode - copper, forming a galvanic cell when
immersed in an electrolyte
The iron (Fe) forms the anode of the cell, and is oxidized into ions (Fe++) that dissolve into
the acid. At the surface of the copper plate (the cathode), a balancing reaction occurs. The
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electrons, formed in the anode, are conducted around the circuit and meet with positively
charged hydrogen ions at the cathode, to give off hydrogen gas. The driving force of this cell
is the difference in galvanic potential between the two metals (iron and copper). The metal of
lower potential (the anode) in such a cell is oxidized or corroded. The ‘products’ of that
corrosion is Iron Hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) more commonly known as ‘rust’.
Similar electrochemical corrosion processes, with balancing anodic and cathodic reactions,
occur in neutral (non-acidic) electrolytes such as water. The anodic reaction will involve
oxidation (corrosion) of the metal with the lower galvanic potential, but the cathodic reaction
will, usually, be the reduction of oxygen dissolved in the electrolyte.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Corrosion in a Galvanic Cell.
The onset of corrosion (and its severity) will depend upon several factors:
 Conductivity of the Solution: - Should the resistance of the solution increase, then
the rate of current flow will decrease. This explains why little corrosion occurs in pure
water (which has a high resistance), whilst quite severe corrosion occurs in salt water
which conducts electricity quite well. Adding various chemicals to the electrolyte can
change the resistance and, therefore, the reaction of the galvanic cell. Adding sodium
chloride (salt) to the solution, lowers the resistance of the circuit and, hence, increases
the current. An acid, such as hydrochloric acid, added to the solution, will remove the
oxide film from the plate, which will also lower the resistance, and increase the
current flow.
 Potential Difference between the Metals: - The galvanic potentials of metals and
alloys, can be measured and typical values found in solutions of seawater, or water
with 3.5% salt dissolved in it. Table 6 shows, in any combination of two metals, that
one will be the anode, and one the cathode. It will NOT, however, predict the severity
of the corrosion, as this depends on the type of electrolyte present.
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Extract from the Galvanic Series

(Based on Hydrogen at 25°C (298 K))
Potential in Volts Material
-2.71 Sodium Anodic (less ‘noble’)
-2.38 Magnesium
-1.66 Aluminium
-1.63 Titanium
-0.76 Zinc
-0.74 Chromium
-0.44 Iron
-0.40 Cadmium
-0.25 Nickel
-0.14 Tin
-0.13 Lead
0 Hydrogen
+0.34 Copper
+0.80 Silver
+1.2 Platinum
Cathodic (more ‘noble’)
+1.43 Gold
 Electrical Resistance: - As the corrosion products build up between two metals in

contact, and with an electrolyte present, the products can, in some instances, increase
the resistance of the action. This will result in slowing or even halting the reaction.
Alternatively, the products can bridge any insulation, which has been placed between
the metals, and start an electrolytic action.
 Ratios of Areas: - If the ratio of the anode to cathode area is not unity, then the rate
of corrosion can be much faster (or slower), than would be obtained if they were of
equal areas. If the cathode area is small, relative to the anode area, then the rate of
corrosion is slow. If the cathode area is much larger than the anode area, then the
corrosion can be quite severe.
 Single Metal Cells: - Corrosion can happen within alloys or metallic mixtures and
can occur between metal grains and their grain boundaries, as well as in several other
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places. It can also occur if small metallic impurities are present within a pure metal,
even if the amount of impurity is merely a fraction of one percent. The removal of
impurities from metals, at the manufacturing stage, can greatly improve their
corrosion resistance.
 Oxygen Concentration (Differential Aeration): - Corrosion can occur when the

composition of the electrolyte varies at different parts of the contact area. For
example, if the electrolyte is in contact with the air, the oxygen can be absorbed,
giving a high ‘dissolved oxygen’ level, whilst the electrolyte elsewhere (in a crevice
perhaps), will below in dissolved oxygen. The effect of this is to make the metal,
close to the highly oxygenated part, a cathode and that in contact with lower
oxygenated part, an anode and so corrosion will begin and, consequently, the crevice
(pitting) increases in depth.
 Non-Uniform Temperature: - Differences in temperature at varying points will also

have the effect of producing different potentials at these points. This can result in
severe corrosion in components such as radiators and heat-exchangers.
6.4.4. TYPES OF CORROSION
There are many forms of corrosion. The form may depend on the metals involved, their
function, atmospheric conditions and corrosive agents present. The following are the more
common found on aircraft structures.
• Dissimilar Metal
• Surface
• Intergranular
• Stress
• Crevice
• Pitting
• Microbiological
• Exfoliation
• Fretting
• Filiform
• Corrosion Fatigue
• Hydrogen Embrittlement
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6.4.5. GALVANIC CORROSION
A generic form of corrosion which occurs whenever a galvanic cell (see above) is allowed to
form.
Also known as dissimilar metal corrosion
Typical problem areas are rivets or bolts made form a different material to that of the sheet
metal to which they are located. An electrolyte presence in the form of water, especially with
impurities such as salt or toilet products, is likely to set-up such a cell.
Figure 4.3: Galvanic corrosion
Figure 4.4: Photograph of galvanic corrosion at the

interface of two dissimilar metals
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6.4.6. SURFACE CORROSION
General roughening, etching or pitting of the metal surface, frequently accompanied by a

powdery deposit of corrosion products, may be caused by direct chemical or electrochemical
attack. Corrosion can spread under the surface coating unnoticed, until the paint or plating is
lifted off the surface by the corrosion products or forms blisters.
Surface corrosion is a fairly

uniform corrosion attack, which
slowly reduces the cross-section
of the metal. It is, possibly, the
least damaging form of corrosion.
A mild attack may result in only
general etching of an area, whilst a
heavier attack may produce
deposits which depend on the type
of metal that is being attacked.
‘Pure’ aluminium, stainless steel

and copper have more resistance
to surface corrosion than
aluminium alloy, magnesium alloy
and non-stainless steels. This type
of corrosion only becomes serious
over a period of time and gives a
warning of worse corrosion to
follow.
Figure 4.5: Photograph of surface corrosion on aluminium alloy
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6.4.7. INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
This corrosion is also known as Intercrystalline corrosion, and results from micro-galvanic
cells at the grain boundaries in the metal (refer to Fig.34).
Figure 4.6: Intergranular corrosion
Corrosion progresses from the

metal surface, in narrow
pathways, along grain boundaries,
often penetrating quite deeply and
having a serious, mechanical
weakening effect. The amount of
metal corroded is small, relative to
the volume of metal affected.
Indications of the damage may

NOT be visible to the naked eye.
Intergranular corrosion may often
be detected by ultrasonic, eddy
current or radiographic inspection
procedures.
Figure 4.7: Photograph of intergranular corrosion

(x-rayed and magnified)
Poor or incorrect heat treatment is often a cause.
This type of corrosion is one of the most insidious, and rectification is usually by replacement
of the part.
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6.4.8. EXFOLIATION CORROSION
Exfoliation (or layer) corrosion, of certain wrought aluminium alloys, is a form of

intergranular corrosion in which the attack occurs in layers parallel to the surface. The
wedging action, of the corrosion products, occupies a larger volume than the alloy, and will
cause lifting of the metal surface, causing it to ‘exfoliate’. This occurs at an early stage, when
the corrosion is on, or just below, the surface.
Figure 4.8: Exfoliation corrosion
Exfoliation corrosion often attacks

7000 series aluminium alloys
(those with an appreciable amount
of Zinc). When the corrosion
occurs well below the surface,
extensive damage can occur
before the surface deformation is
apparent.
It is often a result of intergranular

corrosion, which has been allowed
to progress.
Figure 4.9: Photograph of exfoliation corrosion in aluminium alloy
The separation of layers of the metal is as a result of the corrosion products requiring more
volume than the metal from which it originated.
Spars, stringers and other high-strength parts, which are extruded or hot rolled, are often
(because the grains tend to form in layers) susceptible to this kind of corrosion if they have
been poorly heat-treated.
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6.4.9. STRESS CORROSION
Stress corrosion cracking is a cracking process, caused by the combined action of a sustained
tensile stress and a corrosive environment. Only certain combinations of alloys and
environments result in stress corrosion cracking, although this type of failure may occur at
stresses well below the yield strength of the alloys. Many of the high-strength structural
alloys, used in aircraft, are prone to stress corrosion cracking in a wide range of environments
and they are particularly susceptible in marine environments.
Figure 4.10: Stress corrosion
In aircraft alloys, the principalstresses,

causing this stress corrosion cracking,
are not the applied service loads, but the
stresses developed within the metal
during manufacture and during
assembly. For example, internal stresses
can arise from quenching after heat-
treatment, from ‘force fits’, from badly
mating parts, or from welding
procedures. Service stresses are only
significant when they act in the same
direction as internal or assembly
stresses.
Figure 4.11: Photo of stress corrosion in aluminium alloy
Stress corrosion cracking has three distinct phases in that there is an initial ‘Incubation’
period, (when a stress corrosion crack starts from pitting or film breakdown). The incubation
is followed by a period of ‘Slow Growth’ of the stress concentrations and culminates in a
short, ‘Rapid Crack-Growth’ rate.
In highly stressed parts (e.g. landing gear components), cracks may originate from a stress
raiser such as a scratch or surface corrosion. This problem is characteristic of aluminium,
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copper, stainless steels and high-strength alloy steels and may occur along lines of cold
working. Signs of stress corrosion are given by minute cracks radiating from areas of the
greatest stress concentration. Likely areas for this type of corrosion are shock absorbers,
bellcranks with pressed-in bushes, or other areas where parts are a force fit, highly stressed or
have residual stresses induced during the forming process
6.4.10. FREETING CORROSION
Fretting corrosion is the result of rubbing movement between two heavily loaded surfaces,
one, or both, of which are metallic. The rubbing action destroys any natural protective film
and also removes particles of metal from the surface. In its early stages, the debris of this
corrosion forms a black powder (sometimes called ‘cocoa powder’). These particles form an
abrasive compound, which aggravates the effect of the rubbing action and the surface is
continually removed to expose fresh metal to the corrosive attack. This form of attack can
eventually cause cracking and fatigue failure.
Figure 4.12: Fretting corrosion
The most likely areas affected are gears,

screw jacks, loose panels, splined hydraulic
pump drives and rivets (when they become
loose). , It may be serious enough to cause
cracking and fatigue failure.
Figure 4.13: Cocoa powder trails - evidence

of fretting corrosion
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6.4.11. CREVICE CORROSION
Crevices are liable to preferential attack, usually by a differential aeration form of corrosion,
intensified by the high ratio of cathode to anode area involved. The attack is more severe
where crevices collect dust and moisture.
Figure 4.14: Crevice corrosion
Severe localised corrosion occurs

at narrow openings or gaps
between metal components, often
due to flexing. Corrosive agents
are able to penetrate into the
joint.
Figure 4.15: Crevice corrosion

under heads of fasteners
6.4.12. FILIFORM CORROSION
Filiform corrosion occurs beneath thin, protective coatings, on aluminium and steel alloys,
with the paint or coating often bulging or blistering. On aircraft structures, the attack often
starts at fasteners and extends as thread-like lines of corrosion under the paint. It may not be
readily visible until it has become quite severe. The damage tends to be very shallow and is
not, usually, structurally dangerous.
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Figure 4.16: Filiform corrosion
The thread-like bulges appearing under paint surfaces, usually originating at a fastener, are
often referred to as ‘worm-casts’.
Figure 4.17: Worm casts - evidence of filiform corrosion
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6.4.13. PITTING CORROSION
Pitting corrosion can occur on aircraft materials when the protective film, whether applied or
natural, breaks down locally and this may also lead to intergranular corrosion. The corrosion
often stems from the screening effect of silt, scale or corrosion deposits that reduce the
oxygen concentration at local points on the metal surface, which establishes differential
concentration cells.
Figure 4.18: Pitting corrosion
Local rough spots, inclusions, contaminations and lack of homogeneity in the alloy or metal
are also possible causes of pitting. In size and depth, the pits are widely variable and a large
number of pits can give a surface a ‘blotchy’ appearance.
Aluminium and magnesium alloys, chromium-plated and stainless steels (including nitrided
surfaces), are all particularly susceptible to this form of corrosion. Pitting corrosion of an
aluminium alloy component can be detected by the appearance of white powder on the
surface of the metal.
Figure 4.19: Corrosion pits
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6.4.14. CORROSION FATIGUE
Corrosion fatigue is fatigue in a corrosive environment. It is the combined effect of corrosion

and fatigue, which can cause failure of a structural component far quicker than either of those
components if they were working alone. It is the mechanical degradation of a material under
the joint action of corrosion and cyclic loading. Nearly all engineering structures experience
some form of alternating stress and are exposed to harmful environments during their service
life. The environment plays a significant role in the fatigue of high strength structural
materials like steels, aluminium alloys and titanium alloys. Materials with high specific
strength are being developed to meet the requirements of advancing technology. However,
their usefulness depends to a large extent on the extent to which they resist corrosion fatigue.
In normal fatigue testing of smooth specimens, about 90% of the life is spent in crack
nucleation and only the remaining 10 % in crack propagation. However, in corrosion fatigue,
crack nucleation is facilitated by corrosion and typically about 10 % of life is sufficient for
this stage. The rest, 90 % of life is spent in crack propagation. Thus it is much more
informative to evaluate the crack propagation behaviour during corrosion fatigue.
Figure 4.20: A propeller blade – broken by corrosion fatigue.

Evidence is the classic ‘beach marks’ of the fatigue crack
propagation, and the staining of corrosion
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Figure 4.21: The aloha 737 incident caused by corrosion fatigue
6.4.15. MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION
This is caused, directly or indirectly (and in one or more ways), by micro-organisms which
are not only able to produce corrosive substances (such as hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and
inorganic acids), but can also act as depolarizers or catalysts in corrosion reactions. Local
depletion of oxygen and water, held in contact with a metal surface, by matted fungi and
micro¬organisms, all contribute towards establishing corrosive environments.
Figure 4.22: Fungus spores causing corrosion
The commonest form of microbiological corrosion in aircraft, is that, which is caused by

contamination of fuel tanks (unless the fuel has an additive to protect against it). The growth
of the fungi depends on several conditions, but a high ambient temperature can drastically
increase the rate of growth, and especially so when the temperature is above 30°C with a high
relative humidity. This microbiological growth is sometimes called Cladosporium Resinae.
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Figure 4.23: Fungal attack
Where fungal growth has formed, there is a probability that corrosion of the tank will occur.
The organisms, resembling a mucous, can cause problems with filters and with the fuel
contents gauge units. The roots of the fungus, penetrating the internal sealing and protective
coatings of fuel tanks can cause further problems.
In well-developed contaminations, a dense mat of fungus forms on the floor of the tank,
retaining water and preventing free flow to the water drain-valve. In integral fuel tanks, this
can result in serious corrosion of the aircraft structure such that penetration of the bottom
wing skin has been known to occur.
Spillage, of organic materials, from around galley and toilet areas, provides a further source
of microbial contamination.
There is evidence that such spillage can be more corrosive than its chemical composition
(acidity and chloride content) possibly due to fermentation by yeast and bacteria
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6.4.16. HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT OF STEELS
Many of the standard surface protection treatments, including cleaning and electroplating, are
liable to introduce hydrogen into steel. To avoid embrittlement, the steels must be ‘baked’, at
a temperature of around 200°C, following the treatments. The duration of the baking is
dependent on the strength of the steel. High-tensile steels are much more susceptible to
hydrogen embrittlement than are other metals.
The mechanism begins with

hydrogen atoms diffusing through
the metal. When these hydrogen
atoms re-combine in minuscule
voids of the metal matrix to
hydrogen molecules, they create
pressure from inside the cavity
they are in. This pressure can
increase to levels where the metal
has reduced ductility and tensile
strength, up to where it can crack
open, in which case it would be
called Hydrogen Induced
Cracking (HIC). High-strength
and low-alloy steels are most
susceptible, however aluminium,
and titanium alloys can also suffer
from hydrogen embrittlement.
Figure 4.24: Hydrogen embrittlement crack initiated by

corrosion of a AISI 9623 alloy in service. The
microstructure is case hardened, quenched and
tempered martensite
Hydrogen embrittlement shows itself in slow strain-rate mechanical tests and not by fast rate
tests such as in impact testing. These steels can show a sudden failure after many weeks of
loading at well below their normal yield strength.
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6.4.17. FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION
Many factors will affect the cause, type, speed of attack, and seriousness of metal corrosion.
Some are beyond the control of the aircraft designer or maintenance engineer while some of
them can be controlled.
Climatic
The environmental conditions under which the aircraft is operated and maintained cannot
normally be controlled. The following factors will effect the rate at which corrosion will
occur.
 Marine environments (exposure to salt water) will increase rate of corrosion.

 Moisture laden atmosphere as against a dry atmosphere. The USA store hundreds of
aircraft in a desert (dry) atmosphere for emergency war use.
 Temperature considerations i.e. Hot climate against cold climate. High temperatures
will increase the rate of corrosion (all chemical reactions occur faster at higher
temperatures).
The worst conditions would exist in a hot, wet, maritime environment.
Size and Type of Metal
Some metals corrode more easily than others. Magnesium corrodes readily, whilst Titanium
is extremely corrosion-resistant because it oxidises readily. Thick structural sections are also
more susceptible than thin sections, because variations in physical characteristics are greater.
Such sections are also likely to have been cold worked and are, therefore, more susceptible to
stress corrosion.
Corrosive Agents
Foreign materials, that may adhere to metal surfaces, and, consequently result in corrosion,
can include:
 Soil and atmospheric dust

 Oil, grease and engine exhaust residues
 Salt water and salt moisture condensation
 Spilled battery acids and caustic cleaning solutions
 Welding and brazing flux residues
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6.4.18. COMMON METALS AND CORROSION PRODUCTS
One of the problems involved in corrosion control, is the recognition of corrosion products
whenever they occur. The following brief descriptions are of typical corrosion products,
common to materials used in aircraft construction.
Iron and Steel
The most common, and easily-recognizable, form of corrosion is red rust. The initial oxide
film, formed on freshly exposed steel, is very thin and invisible. In the presence of water, or
in a damp atmosphere, especially if sulphur dioxide (industrial atmosphere) or salt (marine
environment) is present, thick layers of hydrated oxide develop. These layers vary in colour
from brown to black. Rust promotes further corrosion by retaining salts and water. Mill scale
(a type of oxide formed at high temperatures), also promotes rusting, by forming an
electrolytic cell with the underlying steel. Heavy deposits of rust can be removed only by
abrasive blasting or by immersion in rust-removing solutions.
Surface rust can develop on steel nuts, bolts and other fasteners and may not adversely affect
the operational integrity of the equipment. Its appearance is an indication that adequate
maintenance procedures have not been followed.
Aluminium Alloys
The corrosion of aluminium and its alloys, takes a number of different forms. It may vary
from general etching of the surface, to the localized, intergranular-attack, characteristics of
some strong alloys in certain states of heat-treatment. The corrosion products are white to
grey and are powdery when dry. Superficial corrosion can be removed by scouring, light
abrasive blasting, or by chemical methods.
In general, pure aluminium sheet and ‘Alclad’ surfaces have good corrosion resistance,
except in marine environments. In these areas, aluminium and its alloys need protection and
high- strength aluminium alloys are always given a substantial protective treatment.
Magnesium Alloys
Figure 4.25: Corrosion on magnesium alloy Titanium
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Magnesium corrosion products are white and voluminous, compared to the base metal. When
the failure of protective coatings on magnesium alloys occurs, the corrosive attack tends to be
severe in the exposed areas, and may penetrate totally through a magnesium structure in a very
short time.
Any corrosion, on magnesium alloys, therefore requires prompt attention. In contrast to high-
strength aluminium alloys, the strong magnesium alloys, used in aircraft, do not suffer
intergranular attack. Corrosion is readily visible on the surfaces of Magnesium Alloys.
Titanium
Titanium is highly corrosion-resistant, but should be insulated from other metals to avoid
dissimilar metal corrosion of the adjacent material. Titanium alloys can suffer stress
corrosion at temperatures above 300°C when in the presence of salt and fatigue cracks can
develop more quickly in a saline atmosphere.
Cadmium can penetrate the surface of titanium alloys and embrittle them at all temperatures
above ambient (as can Lead, Tin and Zinc at temperatures higher than approximately
120°C)). Embrittlement can occur if the cadmium is plated onto the titanium or if cadmium-
plated steel parts (and cadmium-contaminated spanners) are used with titanium. Great care
must be taken to ensure that these conditions never occur if at all possible.
Copper Alloys
Copper and its alloys are relatively resistant to

corrosion. Tarnishing has no serious consequences
in most applications (apart from electrical
resistance increase). Long-term exposure to
industrial or marine atmospheres gives rise to the
formation of the blue-green patina (aerugo or
verdigris) on copper surfaces, while brasses can
suffer selective removal of zinc (de-zincification).
In aircraft construction, copper-based alloys are
frequently cadmium- plated, to prevent dissimilar
metal corrosion.
Figure 4.26: Copper ‘verdigris’
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Cadmium and Zinc
Cadmium and zinc are used as coatings, to protect the parts to which they are applied. Both
confer sacrificial protection on the underlying metal. Cadmium is normally chosen for use in
the aircraft industry, as it is more durable under severe corrosive conditions such as in marine
and tropical environments. Both metals produce white corrosion products.
Nickel and Chromium
Electroplated nickel is used as a heat-resistant coating, while chromium is used for its wear-
resistance. Both metals protect steel only by excluding the corrosive atmosphere. The degree
of protection is proportional to the thickness of the coating. Once the underlying steel is
exposed (through loss of the coating, due to abrasion or other damage), then the coatings
actually accelerate the rusting, due to the fact that the steel is more anodic than the protective
coating.
Chromium is also highly resistant to corrosion, whilst Nickel corrodes slowly in industrial
and marine atmospheres, to give a blue-green corrosion product.
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6.4.19. CORROSION REMOVAL
General treatments for corrosion removal include:
 Cleaning and stripping of the protective coating in the corroded area.

 Removal of as much of the corrosion products as possible.
 Neutralisation of the remaining residue.
 Checking if damage is within limits
 Restoration of protective surface films
 Application of temporary or permanent coatings or paint finishes.
Cleaning and Paint Removal
It is essential that the complete suspect area be cleaned of all grease, dirt or preservatives.
This will aid in determining the extent of corrosive spread. The selection of cleaning
materials will depend on the type of matter to be removed.
Solvents such as trichloroethylene (example trade name ‘Genklene’) may be used for oil,
grease or soft compounds, while heavy-duty removal of thick or dried compounds may need
solvent/emulsion-type cleaners.
General purpose, water-removable stripper is recommended for most paint stripping.

Adequate ventilation should be provided and synthetic rubber surfaces such as tyres, fabric
and acrylics should be protected (remover will also soften sealants). Rubber gloves, acid-
repellent aprons and goggles, should be worn by personnel involved with paint removal
operations. The following is the general paint stripping procedure:
 Brush the area with stripper, to a depth of approximately 0.8 mm - 1.6 mm (0.03 in -
0.06 in). Ensure that the brush is only used for paint stripping.
 Allow stripper to remain on the surface long enough for the paint to wrinkle. This
may take from 10 minutes to several hours.
 Re-apply the stripper to those areas which have not stripped. Non-metallic scrapers
may be used.
 Remove the loosened paint and residual stripper by washing and scrubbing the surface
with water and a broom or brush. Water spray may assist, or the use of steam cleaning
equipment may be necessary.
Note. Strippers can damage composite resins and plastics, so every effort should be made to
'mask' these vulnerable areas.
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Ferrous Metals
Atmospheric oxidation of iron or steel surfaces causes ferrous oxide rust to be deposited.
Some metal oxides protect the underlying base metal, but rust promotes additional attack by
attracting moisture and must be removed.
Rust shows on bolt heads, nuts or any un-protected hardware. Its presence is not immediately
dangerous, but it will indicate a need for maintenance and will suggest possible further
corrosive attack on more critical areas. The most practical means of controlling the corrosion
of steel is the complete removal of corrosion products by mechanical means.
Abrasive papers, power buffers, wire brushes and steel wool are all acceptable methods of
removing rust on lightly stressed areas. Residual rust usually remains in pits and crevices.
Some (dilute) phosphoric acid solutions may be used to neutralise oxidation and to convert
active rust to phosphates, but they are not particularly effective on installed components.
High-Stressed Steel Components
Corrosion on these components may be dangerous and should be removed carefully with
mild abrasive papers or fine buffing compounds. Care should be taken not to overheat parts
during corrosion removal. Protective finishes should be re-applied immediately.
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
Corrosion attack, on aluminium surfaces, gives obvious indications, since the products are
white and voluminous. Even in its early stages, aluminium corrosion is evident as general
etching, pitting or roughness.
Aluminium alloys form a smooth surface oxidation, which provides a hard shell, that, in turn,
may form a barrier to corrosive elements. This must not be confused with the more serious
forms of corrosion.
General surface attack penetrates slowly, but is speeded up in the presence of dissolved salts.
Considerable attack can take place before serious loss of strength occurs. Three forms of
attack, which are particularly serious, are:
 Penetrating pit-type corrosion through the walls of tubing.

 Stress corrosion cracking under sustained stress.
 Intergranular attack characteristic of certain improperly heat treated alloys.
Treatment involves mechanical or chemical removal of as much of the corrosion products as

possible and the inhibition of residual materials by chemical means. This, again, should be
followed by restoration of permanent surface coatings.
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Alclad
Obviously great care must be taken, not to remove too much of the protective aluminium
layer by mechanical methods, as the core alloy metal may be exposed, therefore, where heavy
corrosion is found, on clad aluminium alloys, it must be removed by chemical methods
wherever possible.
Corrosion-free areas must be masked off and the appropriate remover (usually a phosphoric-
acid based fluid) applied, normally with the use of a stiff bristled brush, to the corroded
surface, until all corrosion products have been removed.
Figure 4.27: Caustic soda test and its neutralization
Copious amounts of clean water should, next, be used to flood the area and remove all traces
of the acid, then the surface should be dried thoroughly.
Note: A method of checking that the protective aluminium coating remains intact is
by the application of one drop of diluted caustic soda to the cleaned area. If the
Alclad has been removed, the aluminium alloy core will show as a black stain,
whereas, if the cladding is intact, the caustic soda will cause a white stain.
Since the caustic soda is corrosive, and will promote corrosion, it must be neutralised with a
solution of water and chromic anhydride.
The surface must be protected by applying a chromate conversion coating (such as Alocrom
1200 or similar) to the surface.
Further surface protection may be given by a coat of suitable primer, followed by the
approved top coat of paint.
Magnesium Alloys
The corrosion products are removed from magnesium alloys by the use of chromic/sulphuric
acid solutions (not the phosphoric acid types), brushed well into the affected areas. Clean,
cold water is employed to flush the solution away and the dried area can, again, be protected,
by the use of Alocrom 1200 or a similar, approved, compound.
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6.4.20. ACID SPILLAGE
An acid spillage, on aircraft components, can cause severe damage. Acids will corrode most
metals used in the construction of aircraft. They will also destroy wood and most other
fabrics. Correct Health and Safety procedures must be followed when working with such
spillages.
Aircraft batteries, of the lead/acid type, give off acidic fumes and battery bays should be well
ventilated, while surfaces in the area should be treated with anti-acid paint. Vigilance is
required of everyone working in the vicinity of batteries, to detect (as early as possible) the
signs of acid spillage. The correct procedure to be taken, in the event of an acid spillage, is as
follows:
 Mop up as much of the spilled acid using wet rags or paper wipes. Try not to spread
the acid.
 If possible, flood the area with large quantities of clean water, taking care that
electrical equipment is suitably protected from the water.
 If flooding is not practical, neutralise the area with a 10% (by weight) solution of
bicarbonate of soda (sodium bicarbonate) with water.
 Wash the area using this mixture and rinse with cold water.
 Test the area, using universal indicating paper (or litmus paper),to check if acid has
been cleaned up.
 Dry the area completely and examine the area for signs of damaged paint or plated
finish and signs of corrosion, especially where the paint may have been damaged.
 Remove corrosion, repair damage and restore surface protection as appropriate.
Alkali Spillage
This is most likely to occur from the alternative Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) or Nickel-Iron (Ni-
Fe) type of batteries, containing an electrolyte of Potassium Hydroxide (or Potassium
Hydrate). The compartments of these batteries should also be painted with anti-corrosive
paint and adequate ventilation is as important as with the lead/acid type of batteries. Proper
Health and Safety procedures are, again, imperative.
Removal of the alkali spillage, and subsequent protective treatment, follows the same basic
steps as outlined in acid spillage, with the exception that the alkali is neutralised with a
solution of 5% (by weight) of chromic acid crystals in water.
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6.4.21. MERCURRY SPILLAGE
WARNING: Mercury (and its vapour) is extremely toxic. Instances of mercury

poisoning must, by law, be reported to the health and safety executive. All safety
precautions relating to the safe handling of mercury must be strictly followed.
Mercury contamination is far more serious than any of the battery spillages and prompt action
is required to ensure the integrity of the aircraft structure.
While contamination from mercury is extremely rare on passenger aircraft, sources of

mercury spillage result from the breakage of (or leakage from) containers, instruments,
switches and certain test equipment. The spilled mercury can, quickly, separate into small
globules, which have the capability of flowing (hence its name ‘Quick Silver’) into the tiniest
of crevices, to create damage.
Mercury can rapidly attack bare light alloys (it forms an amalgam with metals), causing
intergranular penetration and embrittlement which can start cracks and accelerate powder
propagation, resulting in a potentially catastrophic weakening of the aircraft structure.
Signs of mercury attack on aluminium alloys are greyish powder, whiskery growths, or fuzzy
deposits. If mercury corrosion is found, or suspected, then it must be assumed that
intergranular penetration has occurred and the structural strength is impaired. The metal in
that area should be removed and the area repaired in accordance with manufacturer’s
instructions.
Ensure that toxic vapour precautions are observed at all times during the following operation:
 Do not move aircraft after finding spillage. This may prevent spreading.
 Remove spillage carefully by one of the following mechanical methods:
 Capillary brush method (using nickel-plated carbon fibre brushes).
 Heavy-duty vacuum with collector trap.
 Adhesive tape, pressed (carefully) onto globules may pick them up
 Foam collector pads (also pressed, carefully, onto globules).
Alternative, chemical methods, of mercury recovery entail the use of:
 Calcium polysulphide paste.

 Brushes, made from bare strands of fine copper wire
 Neutralise the spillage area, using ‘Flowers of Sulphur’.
 Try to remove evidence of corrosion.
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 The area should be further checked, using radiography, to establish that all globules
have been removed and to check extent of corrosion damage.
 Examine area for corrosion using a magnifier. Any parts found contaminated should
be removed and replaced.
Note: Twist drills (which may be used to separate riveted panels, in an attempt to clean
contaminated surfaces) must be discarded after use.
Further, periodic checks, using radiography, will be necessary on any airframe that has
suffered mercury contamination.
6.4.22. PERMANENT ANTI-CORROSION TREATMENTS
These are intended to remain intact throughout the life of the component, as distinct from
coatings, which may be renewed as a routine servicing operation. They give better adhesion
for paint and most resist corrosive attack better than the metal to which they are applied.
Electroplating
There are two categories of electroplating, which consist of:
 Coatings less noble than the basic metal.

Here the coating is anodic and so, if base
metal is exposed, the coating will corrode in
preference to the base metal. Commonly
called sacrificial protection, an example is
found in the cadmium (or zinc) plating of
steel.
 Coatings more noble (e.g. nickel or
chromium on steel) than the base metal. The
nobler metals do not corrode easily in air or
water and are resistant to acid attack. If,
however, the basic metal is exposed, it will
corrode locally through electrolytic action.
The attack may result in pitting corrosion of
the base metal or the corrosion may spread
beneath the coating.
Figure 4.28: An example of the electroplating

process. A spoon being silver plated
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Most metal coatings can be

applied by spraying, but only
aluminium and zinc are used
on aircraft. Aluminium,
sprayed on steel, is frequently
used for high- temperature
areas. The process
(aluminising), produces a film
about 0.1 mm (0.004 in)
thick, which prevents
oxidation of the underlying
metal.
Figure 4.29: Aluminium spray coating of a steel part
Cladding
The hot rolling of pure aluminium onto

aluminium alloy (Alclad) has already
been discussed, as has the problem
associated with the cladding becoming
damaged, exposing the core, and the
resulting corrosion of the core alloy.
Figure 4.30: The cladding process
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Surface Conversion Coatings
These are produced by chemical action. The treatment changes the immediate surface layer
into a film of metal oxide, which has better corrosion resistance than the metal.
Among those widely used on aircraft are:
 Anodising of aluminium
alloys, by an electrolytic
process, which thickens the
natural, oxide film on the
aluminium. The film is hard
and inert.
 Chromating of magnesium
alloys, to produce a brown
to black surface film of
chromates, which form a
protective layer. Some trade
names include Alocrom 100,
Alocrom 1200 (dip),
Walterisation ‘L’ Process,
Aloclene 300, Bonderite
710, Tridure ‘AL’ Process,
Alchromate process,
Kenvert 40.
 Passivation of zinc and
cadmium by immersion in a
chromate solution.
Figure 4.31: The surface conversion process
Other surface conversion coatings are produced for special purposes, notably the phosphating
of steel. There are numerous proprietary processes, each known by its trade name (e.g.
Bonderising, Parkerising, or Walterising).
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6.4.23. LOCATIONS OF CORROSION IN AIRCRAFT
Certain locations in aircraft are more prone to corrosion than others. The rate of deterioration
varies widely with aircraft design, build, operational use and environment. External surfaces
are open to inspection and are usually protected by paint. Magnesium and aluminium alloy
surfaces are particularly susceptible to corrosion along rivet lines, lap joints, fasteners, faying
surfaces and where protective coatings have been damaged or neglected.
Exhaust Areas
Fairings, located in the path of the exhaust gases of gas turbine and piston engines, are
subject to highly corrosive influences. This is particularly so where exhaust deposits may be
trapped in fissures, crevices, seams or hinges. Such deposits are difficult to remove by
ordinary cleaning methods.
During maintenance, the fairings in critical areas should be removed for cleaning and
examination. All fairings, in other exhaust areas, should also be thoroughly cleaned and
inspected. In some situations, a chemical barrier can be applied to critical areas, to facilitate
easier removal of deposits at a later date, and to reduce the corrosive effects of these deposits.
Engine Intakes and Cooling Air Vents
The protective finish, on engine frontal areas, is abraded by dust and eroded by rain. Heat-
exchanger cores and cooling fins may also be vulnerable to corrosion.
Special attention should be given, particularly in a corrosive environment, to obstructions and

crevices in the path of cooling air. These must be treated as soon as is practical.
Landing Gear
Landing gear bays are exposed to flying debris, such as water and gravel, and require
frequent cleaning and touching-up. Careful inspection should be given to crevices, ribs and
lower-skin surfaces, where debris can lodge. Landing gear assemblies should be examined,
paying particular attention to magnesium alloy wheels, paintwork, bearings, exposed
switches and electrical equipment.
Frequent cleaning, water-dispersing treatment and re-lubrication will be required, whilst

ensuring that bearings are not contaminated, either with the cleaning water or with the water-
dispersing fluids, used when re-lubricating.
Bilge and Water Entrapment Areas
Although specifications call for drains wherever water is likely to collect, these drains can
become blocked by debris, such as sealant or grease. Inspection of these drains must be
frequent. Any areas beneath galleys and toilet/wash-rooms must be very carefully inspected
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for corrosion, as these are usually the worst places in the whole airframe for severe corrosion.
The protection in these areas must also be carefully inspected and renewed if necessary.
Recesses in Flaps and Hinges
Potential corrosion areas are found at flap and speed-brake recesses, where water and dirt
may collect and go unnoticed, because the moveable parts are normally in the ‘closed’
position. If these items are left ‘open’, when the aircraft is parked, they may collect salt, from
the atmosphere, or debris, which may be blowing about on the airfield. Thorough inspection
of the components and their associated stowage bays, is required at regular intervals.
The hinges, in these areas, are also vulnerable to dissimilar metal corrosion, between the steel
pins and the aluminium tangs. Seizure can also occur, at the hinges of access doors and
panels that are seldom used.
Magnesium Alloy Skins
These give little trouble, providing the protective surface finishes are undamaged and well
maintained. Following maintenance work, such as riveting and drilling, it is impossible to
completely protect the skin to the original specification. All magnesium alloy skin areas must
be thoroughly and regularly inspected, with special emphasis on edge locations, fasteners and
paint finishes.
Aluminium Alloy Skins
The most vulnerable skins are those which have been integrally machined, usually in main-
plane structures. Due to the alloys and to the manufacturing processes used, they can be
susceptible to intergranular and exfoliation corrosion. Small bumps or raised areas under the
paint sometimes indicate exfoliation of the actual metal. Treatment requires removal of all
exfoliated metal followed by blending and restoration of the finish.
Spot-Welded Skins and Sandwich Constructions
Corrosive agents may become trapped between the metal layers of spot-welded skins and
moisture, entering the seams, may set up electrolytic corrosion that eventually corrodes the
spot-welds, or causes the skin to bulge. Generally, spot-welding is not considered good
practice on aircraft structures.
Cavities, gaps, punctures or damaged places in honeycomb sandwich panels should be sealed
to exclude water or dirt. Water should not be permitted to accumulate in the structure
adjacent to sandwich panels. Inspection of honeycomb sandwich panels and box structures is
difficult and generally requires that the structure be dismantled.
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Electrical Equipment
Sealing, venting and protective paint cannot wholly obviate the corrosion in battery
compartments. Spray, from electrolyte, spreads to adjacent cavities and causes rapid attack on
unprotected surfaces. Inspection should also be extended to all vent systems associated with
battery bays.
Circuit-breakers, contacts and switches are extremely sensitive to the effects of corrosion and
need close inspection.
Miscellaneous Items
Loss of protective coatings, on carbon steel control cables can, over a period of time, lead to
mechanical problems and system failure. Corrosion-resistant cables, can also be affected by
corrosive, marine environments.
Any corrosion found on the outside of a control cable should result in a thorough inspection
of the internal strands and, if any damage is found, the cable should be rejected.
Cables should be carefully inspected, in the vicinity of bell-cranks, sheaves and in other
places where the cables flex, as there is more chance of corrosion getting inside the cables
when the strands are moving around (or being moved by) these items
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6.5.FASTENERS
6.5.1. SCREW THREADS
Various types of fastening devices allow quick dismantling or replacement of aircraft parts
that must be taken apart and put back together at frequent intervals. Riveting or welding these
parts each time they are serviced would soon weaken or ruin the joint. Furthermore, some
joints require greater tensile strength and stiffness than rivets can provide. Bolts and screws
are two types of fastening devices which give the required security of attachment and rigidity.
Generally, bolts are used where great strength is required, and screws are used where strength
is not the deciding factor. Bolts and screws are similar in many ways. They are both used for
fastening or holding, and each has a head on one end and screw threads on the other.
Regardless of these similarities, there are several distinct differences between the two types
of fasteners. The threaded end of a bolt is always blunt while that of a screw may be either
blunt or pointed.
The threaded end of a bolt usually has a nut screwed onto it to complete the assembly. The
threaded end of a screw may fit into a female receptacle, or it may fit directly into the
material being secured. A bolt has a fairly short threaded section and a comparatively long
grip length or unthreaded portion; whereas a screw has a longer threaded section and may
have no clearly defined grip length. A bolt assembly is generally tightened by turning the nut
on the bolt; the head of the bolt may or may not be designed for turning. A screw is always
tightened by turning its head. When it becomes necessary to replace aircraft fasteners, a
duplicate of the original fastener should be used if at all possible. If duplicate fasteners are
not available, extreme care and caution must be used in selecting substitutes.
Standards
Threaded fasteners allow parts to be fastened together with all of the strength that unthreaded
fasteners provide. However, unlike rivets and pins, threaded fasteners may be disassembled
and reassembled an almost infinite number of times.
Due to the large range of different available fasteners, great care must be always be taken to
select the correct fastener for each particular installation.
Aircraft, bolts, nuts, screws and studs are manufactured to the many, different, International
Standards and in a variety of different thread forms, as can be seen in Table 7.
Most aircraft now use unified or metric threads but, however, some older aircraft use obsolete
British Association (BA), British Standard Fine (BSF) or Whitworth (BSW) thread forms.
None of these are compatible with the unified (or metric) thread forms.
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International Standard Common

Abbreviation
American National Coarse ANC
American National Fine ANF
Unified National Coarse UNC
Unified National Fine UNF
British Association BA
British Standard Fine BSF
ISO Metric M
The Inclined Plane and the Helix
The value of the inclined plane as a means of transmitting motion is well known.
For a constant effort applied in driving a wedge, a smaller angle of inclination between the
planes will cause a greater force to be exerted through a shorter distance. Conversely, a larger
angle will cause less force to be exerted through a greater distance.
Figure 5.1: The inclined plane formed into a helix
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Whilst the inclined plane is generally used as a means of transmitting motion, it must be
remembered that the action may be reversed and the inclined plane can be caused to move
when a force is applied to the inclined surfaces.
This is readily appreciated when the angle is large (and the larger the angle of inclination
becomes, then, the more readily is the motion reversed), but, no matter how small the angle
may be, the resultant of forces applied will still tend to produce movement. Friction between
the surfaces, may however prevent movement from actually occurring.
When a continuous inclined plane is cut around the outside (or the inside) of a cylinder, then
a spiral (also known as a ‘helix’) is produced (refer to figure 5.1). The helix angle is
important in screw threads, because it dictates the number of threads, which can be cut, per
axial linear increment (millimetres or inches) on, or in, the cylinder.
In a similar manner to the previously mentioned wedges, a thread with a small helix angle (a
fine thread), will exert a greater force than one with a larger helix angle (a coarse thread) for
a given cylinder diameter.
Fine threads are, normally, associated with small and delicate instruments or in equipment,
where secure holding power is often required of miniature-sized fasteners. The greater
‘wedging action’ of fine threads also makes them much more dependable in situations where
vibration (or a change of temperature) has the tendency to loosen threaded joints.
Most aircraft components are assembled using fine threads on the various bolts, nuts, screws
and studs, which are then often further secured by some other mechanical process, to
reinforce their resistance to the effects of temperature changes and vibration.
Screw Thread Terminology

It is often disputed as to the difference between a bolt and a screw, but generally Screws
differ from bolts in being made from a lower strength material, having a looser fit (class 2A
thread instead of class 3A) and having a slotted or a cruciform-recessed head, for rotation by
a suitably-shaped screwdriver. The thread is usually continued up to the head, but the shank
of ‘structural’ screws has a plain portion and may be used in locations where shear loading is
present.
Because there are so many variations in terminology, with the numerous manufactures, the
only safe way of describing a threaded (or any other) fastener is to use the correct
terminology, found in the relevant IPC, when ordering replacement items.
Screw threads are usually formed with a ‘clockwise’ turning groove and are referred to as
‘right-hand’ threads, but there are occasions where the thread is formed with the groove
spiralling in an ‘anti-clockwise’ direction and in this instance, they are designated as ‘left-
hand’ threads.
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Figure 5.2: Right-hand and left-hand threads
While a traditional thread shape can be used to illustrate the terminologies associated with
screw threads (refer to figure 5.3), the actual profile of any thread will be determined by the
Standard or specification to which it is manufactured. This of course, will also be influenced
by the use to which the threaded item is to be put.
The following terms are used to define the characteristics of a threaded item:
 Screw Thread: A ridge or uniform section in the form of a helix on the external or
internal surface of a cylinder, or in the form of a conical spiral on the external or
internal surface of a cone.
 External Thread: An external thread is a thread on the outside of a member.
 Internal Thread: An internal thread is a thread on the inside of a member.
Figure 5.3: External and Internal threads
 Major Diameter: The largest diameter of the thread of the screw or nut. The term
"major diameter" replaces the term "outside diameter" as applied to the thread of a
screw and also the term "full diameter" as applied to the thread of a nut.
 Minor Diameter: The smallest diameter of the thread, measured at right angles to
the axis.
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Figure 5.4: Screw thread terminology
 Pitch: The distance from the centre of one crest to the centre of the next, measured
parallel to the axis.
 Depth of Thread: The distance between the root and crest, measured at right angles
to the axis.
 Half Angle of Thread: The angle included between a side of the thread and the
normal to the axis, measured in an axial plane.
 Angle of Thread: The angle included between the sides of the thread measured in
an axial plane.
 Helix Angle: The angle made by the helix, or conical spiral, of the thread at a pitch
diameter with a plane perpendicular to the axis.
 Crest: The surface of the thread corresponding to the major diameter of the screw
and the minor diameter of the nut.
 Lead: The distance a screw thread advances axially in one turn. On a single threaded
screw the lead and pitch are identical; on a double threaded screw the lead is two
times the pitch; on a triple headed screw the lead is three times the pitch, etc.
 Root: The surface of the thread corresponding to the minor diameter of the screw
and the major diameter of the nut.
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 Side or Flank: The surface of the thread which connects the crest with the root.
 Axis of a Screw: The longitudinal central line through the screw.
 Base of Thread: The bottom section of the thread; the greatest section between the
two adjacent roots.
 Depth of Thread: The distance between the crest and the base of the thread
measured normal to the axis.
 Number of Threads: The number of threads in one inch of length.
 Length of Engagement: The length of contact between two mated threaded parts
measured axially.
 Depth of Engagement: The depth of thread contact of two mated parts, measured
radially.
 Lead: The distance a screw moves axially in one complete turn. In the case of multi-
start threads, the lead is equal to the pitch multiplied by the number of starts.
 Single Start Thread: Term used when there is only one screw thread cut in the
material.
 Multi-Start Thread: Consists of two or more separate, parallel threads cut into the
material carrying the thread. This method is used in order to achieve a quick-acting
motion between two threaded items.
 Run-out: The part of the thread where the minor diameter increases until it equals
the major diameter and merges with the plain portion of the shank. The run-out
cannot be used and any nut, rotated onto the run-out, would become ‘thread-bound’.
Note that Lead (L) = Pitch (P) x Starts
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Figure 5.5: Lead and pitch
Screw Thread Forms
The form of a screw thread will depend upon the function for which it is to be used.
Where the thread is used to join components together (nuts, bolts, screws and studs) then the
conventional, truncated ‘V’-shaped threads, similar to the ISO Metric thread, will be found.
Turnbuckles and similar devices, (which are employed as adjusters of either the tension or of
the distance between components), may also use ‘V’-shaped threads, while the Acme,
Buttress and Square threads are utilised to transmit movement or power (as may be seen in
lathes, vices and flap actuators).
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Figure 5.6a: ISO Metric thread form
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Figure 5.6b: BA thread form
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Figure 5.6c: BSW thread form
Figure 5.6d: BSF thread form
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Figure 5.6e: BSP thread form
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Figure 5.6f: UNC thread form
Figure 5.6g: UNF thread form
Thread forms have developed over the years, from the early standardisation on the BSW
thread (with its rather coarse thread, which was prone to slackening when subjected to
vibration), to the modern, finer threads which are more suitable for use on aerospace
components and structures.
In an attempt to provide a common standard, Canada, the United States of America, and the
United Kingdom adopted the Unified system of threads.
The International Standard Organisation (ISO), later, recommended that the Unified system
be used internationally, in parallel with a system using Metric units of measurement, but with
a similar form of thread profile and standards of tolerances
Unified Coarse (UNC) and Unified Fine (UNF) threads may be found wherever their use is
appropriate, but special threads, such as UNS (for high-temperature applications) and UNJ
(increased fatigue strength) have become more common.
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Several Unified thread types exist:
 U.N.C. Unified National Coarse

 (U.N.F. Unified National Fine
 U.N.E.F. Unified Extra Fine
 U.N. Unified with constant pitch regardless of diameter
 U.N.S. Unified with special pitch/diameter combination
 U.N.J.F. Unified Fatigue - Resistant Fine Thread.
Screw threads may be formed, by such processes as tapping, dieing, and machine cutting
or (where maximum fatigue resistance is required of a bolt), by rolling.
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Other Thread Forms
In the United States, a parallel but differing group of thread systems is used. The four main
systems are ANC, ANF (also referred to as AF), UNC and UNF, with the NC and NF having
a finer thread than the UNC and UNF.
Some specialist threads are used whenever force needs to be transmitted (such as in a lathe
lead-screw or a vice). These include the following:
Figure 5.7a: Square thread
Figure 5.67b: Acme thread form
Figure 5.7c: Buttress thread form
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Classes of Fit
In addition to being identified as either coarse or fine, the threads are also classified by their
class of fit, as can be seen in Table 8.
The different thread classes have differing amounts of tolerance and allowance. Classes 1A,
2A, 3A etc. apply to external threads; Classes 1B, 2B, 3B etc. apply to internal threads
Class of Fit Type of Fit
1 Loose
2 Free
3 Medium
4 Close
5 Tight
Table 5.1: Classes of fit
A Class 1 fit can be tightened, all the way down, by hand (such as with a wing- nut), whilst a
Class 4 or 5 fit requires a spanner throughout the tightening operation.
The Class 3 fit is the type mostly employed on aircraft, and would be typical of a thread
which is designed for use in a high-temperature environment and may require the application
of an anti-seize compound before installation.
By comparison, a fastener which is going to be subjected to the high tension or shear loads,
associated with the securing of aircraft engine parts, would need to be a Close tolerance type
of fit.
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Measuring Screw Threads
It is not considered a normal operation to measure a screw thread, as its identification can be
found in the IPC and supplied under a manufacturer’s part number. Whilst this is true and the
manuals should always be used, there are other ways of identifying screw threads.
One method is to identify the screw by means of various marks, normally found on the head
of the screw. These marks may give a clue as to which type of thread the screw has (AF,
BSF, or Metric etc.). A measurement across the thread crests, using a micrometer, would give
the diameter of the screw in question. Finally, the identifying head markings would also give
the material from which the screw is made.
Two useful tools (refer to figures 5.8 and 5.9) may be used for different stages of thread
measurement.
The profile gauge can be used to ensure that the tool, which is cutting the thread, is of the
correct type.
The pitch gauge can be used to find the thread size by simply fitting the various blades of the
gauge against the screw thread until a match is achieved
Figure 5.8: Profile gauge
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Figure 5.9: Pitch gauge and its use
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6.5.2. BOLTS, STUDS AND SCREWS
American Bolts
American aircraft bolts and nuts are threaded in the NC (American National Coarse), the NF
(American National Fine), the UNC (Unified National Coarse), and the UNF (Unified
National Fine) thread series. The item is often coded to give the diameter of the threaded
portion and the number of threads per inch (TPI).
Aircraft bolts may be made from HTS, Corrosion-Resistant Steel or Aluminium Alloy. Head
types may be hexagonal, clevis, eyebolt, internal wrenching and countersunk (refer to figure
43) and head markings may be used to indicate other features such as close tolerance,
aluminium alloy, CRS or other types of steel.
Figure 5.12: aSome American bolt types
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AN Bolts
‘AN’ bolts come in three head styles, Hexagon Head, Clevis and Eyebolts and Table 5.5
provides an indication of the various code numbers in use.
‘AN’ TYPE MATERIAL PROCESS THREAD THREAD

NO. SIZE TYPE
3 – Bolt, hex. Steel Cadmium No. 10 to UNF

20 Head Plated 1¼”
CRS Nil
Al. Al Anodised
21 – Bolt, Steel Cadmium No. 6 to 1” UNF

36 Clevis Plated
42 – Bolt, Eye Steel Cadmium No. 10 to UNF
36 Plated 9/16”
73 – Bolt, hex. Steel Cadmium No. 10 to UNF or
81 Drilled Plated ¾” UNC
head
173 – Bolt, Steel Cadmium No. 10 to 1” UNF

186 close - Plated
tolerance thread
and head
CRS Nil
Al. Al. Anodised
Table 5.5: Examples of ‘AN’ Standard Bolts (Early Series)
CRS = Corrosion Resistant Steel
Note: The later series uses a different number system
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Figure 5.13: American Bolt head markings
Figure 5.14: American Bolt types – drilled and non-drilled
For identification purposes the ‘AN’ number is used to indicate the type of bolt and its
diameter. In addition a code is used to indicate the material, length and presence of a split pin
or locking wire hole as follows:
 Diameter: The last figure, or last two figures, of the ‘AN’ number indicates thread
diameter, 1 = No. 6, 2 = No.8, 3 = No.10, and 4 = ¼” with subsequent numbers
indicating the diameter in 1/16” increments.
Thus an AN4 is a hexagon headed bolt of ¼” diameter and an AN14 is a hexagon

headed bolt of 7/8” (14/16”) diameter.
 Lengths: The length of a bolt, in the case of a hexagonal headed bolt, is measured
from under the head to the first full thread (see to figure 5.13) and is quoted in 1/8”
increments as a dash number.
The last figure of the dash number represents eighths and the first figure inches, so
that an AN4 – 12 is a ¼” diameter hexagon headed bolt, 1½ ” long.
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 Position of Drilled Hole: Bolts are normally supplied with a hole drilled in the
threaded part of the shank, but different arrangements may be obtained:
Drilled shank = normal coding e.g. AN24 – 15
Un-drilled shank = A added after dash No. e.g. AN24 – 15A
Drilled head only = H added before dash No.

(replacing dash) A added e.g. AN25H15A
after dash No.
Drilled head and shank = H added before dash No. e.g. AN25H15
 Material: The standard coding applies to a non-corrosion-resistant, cadmium-plated

steel bolt. Where the bolt is supplied in other materials, letters are placed after the AN
number as follows:
 C = Corrosion Resistance Steel C.R.S. e.g. AN25C15
 DD = Aluminium Alloy e.g. AN25DD15
 Thread: Where the bolt is supplied as either UNF or UNC threads, a UNC thread is
indicated by placing an A in place of the dash, e.g. AN24A15
There are several classes of ‘AN’ bolts, and in some instances their part numbers reveal
slightly different types of information. However, most ‘AN’ numbers contain the same type
of information. Figure 5.15 shows a breakdown of a typical ‘AN’ bolt part number. It starts
with the letters AN. Next, notice that a number follows the letters. This number usually
consists of two digits. The first digit (or absence of it) shows the class of the bolt. For
instance, in figure 5.15, the series number has only one digit, and the absence of one digit
shows that this part number represents a general-purpose hex-head bolt. However, the part
numbers for some bolts of this class have two digits. In fact, general-purpose hex-head bolts
include all part numbers beginning with AN3, AN4, and so on, through AN20. Other series
numbers and the classes of bolts that they represent are as follows:
 AN21 through AN36 - clevis bolts

 AN42 through AN49 - eyebolts
The series number shows another type of information other than bolt class. With a few
exceptions, it indicates bolt diameter in sixteenths of
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Figure 5.15: AN bolt part number breakdown
an inch. For instance, in figure 5.15, the last digit of the series number is 4; therefore, this
bolt is 4/16 of an inch (1/4 of an inch) in diameter. In the case of a series number ending in 0,
for instance AN30, the 0 stands for 10, and the bolt has a diameter of 10/16 of an inch (5/8 of
an inch). Refer again to figure 5.15, and observe that a dash follows the series number.
When used in the part numbers for general-purpose AN bolts, clevis bolts, and eyebolts, this
dash indicates that the bolt is made of carbon steel. With these types of bolts, the letter C,
used in place of the dash, means corrosion-resistant steel. The letter D means 2017
aluminium alloy.
The letters DD stand for 2024 aluminium alloy. For some bolts of this type, a letter H is used
with these letters or with the dash. If it is so used, the letter H shows that the bolt has been
drilled for safetying. Next, observe the number 20 that follows the dash. This is called the
dash number. It represents the bolt’s grip (as taken from special tables).
In this instance the number 20 stands for a bolt that is 2 ½ inches long. The last character in
the AN number shown in figure 5.15 is the letter A. This signifies that the bolt is not drilled
for cotter pin safetying. If no letter were used after the dash number, the bolt shank would be
drilled for safetying.
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NAS Bolts
Another series of bolts used in aircraft construction is the NAS. See figure 5.16. In
considering the NAS 144-25 bolt (special internal-wrenching type), observe that the bolt
identification code starts with the letters NAS. Next, the series has a three-digit number, 144,
The first two digits (14) show the class of the bolt. The next number (4) indicates the bolt
diameter in sixteenths of an inch. The dash number (25) indicates bolt grip in sixteenths of an
inch.
Figure 5.16: NAS bolt part number breakdown
MS Bolts
MS is another series of bolts used in aircraft construction. In the part number shown in figure
5.17, the MS indicates that the bolt is a Military Standard bolt. The series number (20004)
indicates the bolt class and diameter in sixteenths of an inch (internal-wrenching, 1/4-inch
diameter). The letter H before the dash number indicates that the bolt has a drilled head for
safetying. The dash number (9) indicates the bolt grip in sixteenths of an inch.
Figure 5.17: MS bolt part number breakdown
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Special Bolts
The hexagon headed aircraft bolt AN3 – AN20 (refer to Fig.45), is an all purpose structural
bolt used for applications involving tension or shear loads where a light drive fit is
permissible.
Alloy steel bolts, smaller than 3/16” diameter, and aluminium alloy bolts smaller than ¼” are
not used on primary structure. Other bolts may be used as follows:
 Close Tolerance Bolts: These bolts are machined more accurately than the standard
bolt. They may be hexagon headed (AN173 – AN186) or have a 100º countersunk
head (NAS80 – NAS86). They are used in applications where a tight drive fit is
required (the bolt requires the use of a 340g - 400g (12oz – 14 oz) hammer to drive it
into position.
 Internal Wrenching Bolts: (MS 20024 or NAS 495) these are fabricated from high-
strength steel and are suitable for tensile or shear applications. The head is recessed to
allow the insertion of a hexagonal key used for installing or removing the bolt. In
Dural-type material, a heat-treated washer must be used to provide an adequate
bearing surface for the head.
 Clevis Bolts: The head of a clevis bolt is round and either slotted, for a standard
screwdriver, or recessed, for a cross-pointed screwdriver. This type of bolt is used
only for shear loads and never in tension. It is often inserted as a mechanical pin in a
control system.
Figure 5.14: Examples of special bolts
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 Eyebolt: The eye is designed for the attachment of cable shackles or turnbuckles and
the bolt is used for tensile loads. The threaded end may be drilled for ‘safetying’.
Seven additional types of bolt heads are shown in figure 5.15. Notice that view A shows an
eyebolt, often used in flight control systems. View B shows a countersunk-head, close-
tolerance bolt. View C shows an internal-wrenching bolt. Both the countersunk-head bolt and
the internal-wrenching bolt have hexagonal recesses (six-sided holes) in their heads. They are
tightened and loosened by use of appropriate sized Allen wrenches. View D shows a clevis
bolt with its characteristic round head. This head may be slotted, as shown, to receive a
common screwdriver or recessed to receive a Reed-and-Prince or a Phillips screwdriver.
View E shows a torque-set wrenching recess that has four driving wings, each one offset
from the one opposite it. There is no taper in the walls of the recess. This permits higher
torque to be applied with less tendency for the driver to slip or cam out of the slots. View F
shows an external-wrenching head that has a washer face under the head to provide an
increased bearing surface. The 12-point head gives a greater wrench gripping surface. View
G shows a hi-torque style driving slot. This single slot is narrower at the centre than at the
outer portions. This and the centre dimple provide the slot with a bow tie appearance. The
recess is also undercut in a taper from the centre to the outer ends, producing an inverted
keystone shape. These bolts must be installed with a special hi-torque driver adapter. They
must also be driven with some type of torque-limiting or torque-measuring device. Each
diameter of bolt requires the proper size of driver for that particular bolt. The bolts are
available in standard and reduced 100-degree flush heads. The reduced head requires a driver
one size smaller than the standard head.
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Figure 5.15: Different bolt heads
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British Bolts
An extensive range of bolts and screws is provided for, in the specifications drawn up by the
Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC). The following abbreviations (some of
which have alread, been discussed, are in common use:
AGS Aircraft General Standard
AS Aircraft Standards
Al. Al. Aluminium Alloy
BA British Association
BSF. British Standard Fine
HTS. High Tensile steel
HTSS. High Tensile Stainless Steel
LTS. Low Tensile Steel
SS Stainless Steel
UNC. Unified National Coarse
UNF. Unified National Fine.
Identification of BS Unified Bolts
British Standard Unified (BS Unified) bolts are identified by the use of an alpha-numeric
code, which provides information relating to the type, material, surface finish, length,
diameter and any other important characteristics of the threaded device
Table 5.2 shows a (very small) selection of aircraft standard bolts and screws with a
(shortened) description of the type of device and the materials from which it is made.
Reference to the table shows that the code A102 signifies a hexagonal-headed bolt which is
made of high-tensile steel, while the code A175 represents a 100° countersunk-headed bolt,
made from an aluminium alloy.
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Standard Description Material

No.
A102 Hex. Headed Bolt HTS.
A104 Hex. Headed Bolt SS
A111 Hex. Close Tolerance. Bolt HTS
A112 Shear Bolt HTS
A174 100º Countersunk. Head. Bolt SS
A175 100º Countersunk. Head. Bolt Al. Al.
A204 100º Countersunk. Head. Screw HTS
A205 Pan Head. Screw HTS
Table 5.2: British bolt types
Other methods of indicating that an item has a Unified thread are:
 Three contiguous (touching) circles marked in a convenient position (machine items).
 Note: Due to the difficulty in applying the identifying marks to individual items, it is
planned to merely mark the packets in which the threaded devices are marketed, so
that some, or all, of the identification marks will not be seen on the items (particularly
screws). Great care must, therefore, be taken to ensure that the items being used are
correctly identified and to the approved standard.
 A shallow recess in the head of a bolt, equal to the nominal diameter of the thread
(cold forged items).
 A ‘dog point’ (small protrusion) on the threaded shank end (usually applies to
screws).
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Figure 5.10: Unified thread markings
Further numbers and letters are added to the identifying code, to provide information relating
to the length (usually of the plain shank or gripping portion) and to the diameter of the items.
The length is given by a number, which signifies increments of tenths of an inch, so that a 5
would represent a bolt with a plain shank of 0.5 in, while the number 12 would signify the
plain shank as being 1.2 in long
Reference to Table 5.3, will show how the diameter of an item is designated by the addition
of another letter to the system, so that a bolt, with the code marking of A102 9 E, would
signify a Unified-threaded, hexagon-headed bolt, made from high-tensile steel, with a plain
shank length of 0.9 in, and a diameter of ¼ in.
Code Diameter Code Diameter
Y 0-80 UNF J 3/8" UNF (UNJF)
Z 2-64 UNF L 7/16" UNF (UNJF)
A 4-40 UNC N 1/2" UNF (UNJF)
B 6-32 UNC P 9/16" UNF (UNJF)
C 8-32 UNC Q 5/8" UNF (UNJF)
D 10-32 UNF UNJF) S 3/4" UNF (UNJF)
E 1/4" UNF (UNJF) U 7/8" UNF (UNJF)
G 5/16" UNF (UNJF) W 1" UNF (UNJF)
Table 5.3: British bolt letter designations
Note: In the earlier UK system (which may be encountered on older, or home-

constructed, light aircraft), bolts more than ¼ inch diameter are normally BSF, whilst
bolts less than ¼ inch diameter (and most screws) are BA. Both of these items also use
a number to represent their nominal length and a letter code (as can be seen in Table
5.3) to identify their diameter.
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Figure 5.11: British bolt length
Other bolts of this era may have nicks at the corners of the head (High Tensile Steel) or
a raised ring on the bolt head (Cold Rolled) to assist differentiation of their particular
designations.
Code Size Code Size
A 6 BA P 9/16" BSF
B 4 BA Q 5/8” BSF
C 2 BA S 3/4" BSF
E 1/4” BSF U 7/8" BSF
G 5/16" BSF W 1" BSF
J 3/ 8" BSF X 12 BA
L 7/16" BSF Y 10 BA
N 1/2" BSF Z 8 BA
Table 5.4: Examples of BA And BSF Bolt and Screw Codes
Metric Bolts
The identification of a Metric bolt is by the use of the diameter in millimetres, immediately
after the capital letter ‘M’. In this way, M6 represents a 6 mm-diameter bolt. The length is
also shown in millimetres, so the bolt M6-15 will be a 6 mm- diameter bolt, which is 15 mm
long. The basic terminology, for identifying bolts of the Metric system, involves the nominal
length, the grip length and diameter (refer to figure 5.16).
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Figure 5.16: Metric bolt dimensions
Nuts
Aerospace standard nuts are made in a variety of shapes and sizes. They can be made of
cadmium-plated carbon steel, stainless steel or anodised 2024–T aluminium alloy and can
have right- or left-hand threads (refer to figure 5.17).
As a general rule, nuts are manufactured from the same material as the bolt or screw to which
they are attached, with the exception of high-tensile steel bolts, with which, mild steel nuts
are used.
Figure 5.17: Nut types
As they do not have any identifying marks or lettering, they are usually identified by their
colour and their constructional features. Familiar types of nuts include:
 Castle Nuts: which are used with drilled shank hexagon-headed bolts or studs, eye-
bolts and clevis bolts. They are fairly rugged and can withstand large tensile loads.
The slots (castellations) are designed to accommodate a split (cotter) pin.
 Slotted Nuts: are similar in construction to the castle nuts and are used in similar
applications, except that they are normally used for engine use only.
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 Plain Hexagon Nuts: are of rugged construction and suitable for large tensile loads.
Since they require an auxiliary locking device, their use on aircraft is limited.
 Light Hexagon Nuts: are a much lighter nut, used for miscellaneous light tensile
requirements.
 Plain Check (or Lock) Nuts: are employed as locking devices for plain nuts, for
threaded rod ends and for other devices.
 Wing Nuts: are used where the desired tightness can be obtained merely with using
the fingers and where the assembly is frequently removed.
Stiffnuts and Anchor Nuts
An ordinary standard nut will depend upon friction between the engaging threads to ensure its
tightness. The enemy of this system is vibration, which can cause the nut to slacken off, and
in extreme cases, unwind itself completely from the bolt or screw.
In areas where this might occur, locking devices are used. These either increase the frictional
resistance between the threads, or take the form of positive securities that prevent any
movement of the nut once they have been applied.
Stiffnuts and anchor nuts (refer to figure 5.18) employ various means of increasing the
friction forces between the threaded devices and common types include:
 Nyloc: This looks like a standard hexagonal nut, but has a plastic insert in the counter-
bored end. This insert is initially unthreaded and has an internal diameter slightly
smaller than the nut thread, so that, as the nut is screwed on the bolt, the plastic insert
is displaced and a high degree of friction is created. Another type of plastic ‘stop’ nut
is named the ‘Capnut’. This type is completely sealed and is used in pressurised
compartments and fuel and oil tanks etc.
Note: As the insert is nylon, this type of stiffnut should not be used in high or low
temperature areas. A typical maximum temperature would be 120ºC. A similar type
of stiffnut has a fibre insert instead of nylon, and is called a ‘fibrelock nut’.
 Oddie: The top of this nut has a slotted end, consisting of six tongues, which form a
circle slightly smaller than the bolt or stud diameter. As the nut is turned, a friction
load is imparted onto the threaded device.
 Philidas: This nut has a circular crown which is slotted horizontally in two places The
thread on the slotted part is slightly ‘out of phase’ with the rest of the thread, so that
increased friction is achieved when the nut is turned.
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 Aerotight: Similar to the Philidas in appearance, except that the slots are vertical. Its
locking method is also similar.
 Lightweight: The locking section of this stiffnut is slightly oval in shape and so
causes increased friction when the thread passes through it.
Note: Metal hexagonal type stiffnuts may be re-used, provided they are not being
used in vital areas such as flying controls and they retain their friction effect. A
recognised rule for serviceability is that they are discarded when they can be
screwed all the way down, on a new bolt, using only the fingers.
 Anchor nuts and Stripnuts: Anchor nuts are supplied with single or double
attachment points and may be either fixed or floating in a cage.The anchor nut may be
a single unit stiffnut, integral with the base plate, or it may be an assembly,
comprising stiffnut, cage and base plate.
Single attachment types are used in corners or where space is limited and have two adjacent
fixing points. Double anchor nuts have a hole either side of the stiffnut. They are fitted to the
structure by riveting.
Where a number of anchor nuts are required, to secure panels etc. a number of stiffnuts may
be fitted into metal strips for ease of securing. Stripnuts are usually of the floating variety.
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Figure 5.18: Stiffnuts and Anchor Nuts
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Sheet Spring Nuts
These nuts are used with standard and sheet metal self-tapping screws to support line clamps,
conduit clamps, electrical equipment, and access doors. The most common types are the float,
the two-lug anchor, and the one-lug anchor. The nuts have an arched spring leek that prevents
the screw from working loose. They should be used only where originally used in the
fabrication of the aircraft. See figure 5.19.
Figure 5.19: Sheet spring nuts
Point-Wrenching Nuts
These nuts are generally used where a nut with a high tensile length is required. These nuts
are installed with a small socket wrench. They are usually self-locking.
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Shear Nuts
These nuts are designed for use with devices such as drilled clevis bolts and threaded taper
pins that are normally subjected to shearing stress only. They are usually self-locking.
Klincher Locknuts
Klincher locknuts are used to ensure a permanent and vibration proof, bolted connection that
holds solidly and resists thread wear. It will withstand extremely high or low temperatures
and exposure to lubricants, weather, and compounds without impairing the effectiveness of
the locking element. The nut is installed with the end that looks like a double washer toward
the metal being fastened. Notice in figure 5.20 that the end that looks like a double hexagon
is away from the metal being fastened.
Figure 5.20: Klincher nuts
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Screws
Screws are probably the most commonly used threaded fastener in aircraft construction. They
differ from bolts in that they are generally made from lower-strength materials. They can be
fastened by a variety of tools, including screwdrivers, spanners and Allen keys. Most screws
are threaded along their complete length, whilst some have a plain portion for part of their
length.
There are a number of different types of screw, which, can be used for a wide range of tasks.
It is common sense that great care must be taken to replace screws with the correct items, by
using the markings on the screw, the IPC and any other systems in current use within the
supply department, to protect against incorrect screws being installed.
Another point, requiring care, is the difference in terminology between the British and
American names for screw heads. What the British refer to as a ‘countersunk -headed’ screw,
the Americans call a ‘flat-head’ or ‘flush’ screw. Similarly, ‘mushroom-headed’ screws are
known as ‘truss-heads’ in the USA.
Machine Screws
Machine screws (refer to figure 5.21) are used extensively for attaching fairings, inspection
plates, fluid line clamps and other light structural parts. The main difference between aircraft
bolts and machine screws, is that the threads of a machine screw usually run the length of the
shank, whereas bolts usually have an unthreaded grip length.
The most common machine screw used in aviation is the fillister-head screw, which can be
wire-locked using the drilled hole in the head. The flat-head (countersunk-head) screw is
available with single or cross-point slotted heads. The round-head screw and the truss-head
(mushroom-head) screw, provide good holding properties on thin metal sheets.
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Figure 5.21: A Selection of Machine Screws
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Structural Screws
Structural screws are used for assembling structural parts. They are made of alloy steel and
are heat treated. Structural screws have a definite grip length and the same shear and tensile
strengths as the equivalent size bolt. They differ from structural bolts only in the type of head.
These screws are available in round-head, countersunk-head, and brazier-head types, either
slotted or recessed for the various types of screwdrivers. See figure 5.22.
Figure 5.22: Structural screws
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Machine Screws
The commonly used machine screws are the flush-head, round-head, fillister-head, socket-
head, pan-head and truss-head types.
 Flush-Head - Flush-head machine screws are used in countersunk holes where a flush
finish is desired. These screws are available in 82 and 100 degrees of head angle, and
have various types of recesses and slots for driving.
 Round-Head - Round-head machine screws are frequently used in assembling highly

stressed aircraft components.
 Fillister-Head - Fillister-head machine screws are used as general-purpose screws.

They may also be used as cap screws in light applications such as the attachment of
cast aluminium gearbox cover plates.
 Socket-Head - Socket-head machine screws are designed to be screwed into tapped

holes by internal wrenching. They are used in applications that require high-strength
precision products, compactness of the assembled parts, or sinking of the head into
holes.
 Pan- and Truss-Head - Pan-head and truss- head screws are general-purpose screws
used where head height is unimportant. These screws are available with cross-
recessed heads only.
Self-Tapping Screws
Self-tapping screws (refer to figure 5.23) have coarse threads and are used to hold thin sheets
of metal, plastic and plywood together. The type A screw has a gimlet (sharp) point, and the
type B has a blunt point with threads that are slightly finer than the type A.
There are four types of head in normal use:
 round head
 countersunk oval-head
 truss or mushroom-head
 flat countersunk-head.
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Figure 5.23: Four Types of Self-Tapping Screw Heads
Washers
Washers such as ball socket and seat washers, taper pin washers, and washers for internal-
wrenching nuts and bolts have been designed for special applications. See figure 5.24. Ball
socket and seat washers are used where a bolt is installed at an angle to the surface, or where
perfect alignment with the surface is required at all times. These washers are used together.
Taper pin washers are used in conjunction with threaded taper pins. They are installed under
the nut to effect adjustment where a plain washer would distort. Washers for internal-
wrenching nuts and bolts are used in conjunction with NAS internal-wrenching bolts. The
washer used under the head is countersunk to seat the bolt head or shank radius. A plain
washer is used under the nut
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Figure 5.24: Types of special washers
Studs
Studs are metal rods that are threaded at both ends. In general they are used where it is not
possible, or desirable for a bolt to be used. Like many screw types of fastener, most studs are
produced in a standard form, with variants used for special purposes. For example, where a
standard type is unsuitable, such as when being used in a soft metal, then a stepped stud
(which has a greater holding power) would be used. A stepped stud would also be used where
a damaged thread had been removed, the hole drilled out and re-tapped.
It will be appreciated that the security of a stud depends upon the friction between its thread
and that of the tapped hole (the ‘metal’ thread) into which it is inserted. If this friction fails to
hold the stud, it will work loose and all precautions to prevent the nut from slackening will be
negated.
 Standard Studs - By far the most widely used stud is the standard (plain, or parallel)
type, in which the diameter of the whole stud, along its length, is constant. Standard
studs are classified by the thread type, diameter and overall length. The ‘metal’ thread
is, usually, finished very slightly oversize to give a tight fit into the tapped hole.
Other variants of the standard stud are available for use in circumstances that require
special consideration.
To meet special requirements, the various types of standard studs may also be
supplied with non-standard lengths of plain portion and ‘metal’ end. A simple method
of fitting and removing a stud is by running two plain nuts down the ‘nut’ end of the
stud and cinching (locking) them together using two spanners. The stud can then be
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screwed into or removed from the material. Breaking the cinch then separating and
removing the nuts completes the operation.
Figure 5.25: Standard stud
 Waisted Studs - Waisted studs are used where reduction of weight, without the loss
of strength, is of paramount importance. The diameter of the plain portion of the stud
is reduced to the minor diameter of the end threads, thus lightening the stud without
impairing its effective strength.
Figure 5.26: Waisted stud
 Stepped Studs - This type affords a stronger anchorage than the standard type, if the
‘metal’ end of the stud has to be housed in soft metal. The thread of the ‘metal’ end is
one size larger than that of the ‘nut’ end. For example, a ¼ inch BSF stepped stud has
a plain portion of ¼ inch thread on the ‘nut’ end and a 3/16-inch thread on the ‘metal’
end.
Stepped studs are also used as replacements for standard studs when the tapped stud-
hole has to be re-drilled and tapped with a larger thread, due to damage.
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Figure 5.27: Stepped stud
 Shouldered Studs - This type is used where maximum rigidity of assembly is of

prime importance. The stud is machined from oversize bar and a projecting shoulder
is left between the ‘metal’ end of the thread and the normal diameter plain portion.
This shoulder seats firmly on the surface of the ‘metal’ and gives additional resistance
to sideways stresses. The clearance hole in the second component, through which the
‘nut’ end and plain portion of the stud passes, must be machined at the inner end to
give clearance to the stud shoulder.
Figure 5.28: Shouldered stud
Thread Inserts
Thread inserts are a means of providing a stronger anchorage, for bolts, screws or studs, in
the comparatively softer metal alloys (aluminium, magnesium, bronze), wood, plastics or
composite materials. They may also be used when it is necessary to do a repair to a threaded
hole that has suffered damage.
There are two basic types of thread insert (Wire and Thin Wall), but the designs of each type
will vary according to the many manufacturers or to the environment in which the fastener
must operate.
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Wire Thread Inserts
There are two types of wire thread inserts. See figure 5.29. One is the plain insert, made with
a tang that forms a portion of the bottom coil offset, and is used to drive the insert. This tang
is left on the insert after installation, except when its removal is necessary to provide
clearance for the end of the bolt. The tang is notched to break off from the body of the insert,
thereby providing full penetration for the fastener.
Wire thread inserts consist of a very accurately formed helical coil of wire, which has a
diamond (rather than a round) cross-section and is usually made from corrosion-resistant steel
or heat-resistant nickel alloy. Specifically sized drills, taps and thread gauges (provided by
the insert manufacturer) are required to form the tapped holes for the inserts and another
special tool is necessary to insert the wire coils correctly into their prepared holes.
Figure 5.29: Wire thread inserts
The second type of insert used is the self-locking, mid-grip insert, which has a specially
formed grip coil midway on the insert. This produces a gripping effect on the engaging
screw. For quick identification, the self-locking, mid-grip inserts are dyed red.
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Figure 5.30: A self-locking wire thread insert
Thin Wall Inserts
Thin wall inserts appear in a variety of designs, materials and surface finishes and consist of a
thin tube, which is threaded internally and may, or may not, be threaded externally. Similarly,
special tools are required from the manufacturer to prepare the holes for the inserts and
various methods are adopted to secure each particular type of thin wall insert into its hole.
Thin Wall inserts include:
 Key-Locked Inserts: Key-Iocked inserts are threaded both internally and externally
and, after being screwed into the prepared hole, are (as their name implies), locked
into their holes by tiny wedges or keys. The keys are then pressed (or hammered) into
place between the insert and the wall of the hole.
 Swaged Inserts: Swaged inserts are also threaded internally and externally and are,
again, screwed into the hole before a tool is used to deform (swage) the insert so that
it is locked into the hole.
 Ring-Locked Inserts: Ring-Iocked inserts, with internal and external threads, are
screwed into holes which are counter bored, to allow a special lock-ring to be
installed, (after the insert) and yet another special tool is used to complete the locking
action of the lock-ring.
 Bonded Inserts: Bonded inserts are, usually, only internally threaded (to hold the
bolt, screw, stud etc) and are secured in the prepared hole by the use of adhesives.
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Obviously, from this information, it can be seen that great care must be taken to ensure that
only the approved types of inserts are used in aerospace components and that the procedures
for their installation and removal (laid out in the relevant Manuals) are carefully followed.
Dowels and Pins
Dowels and pins used in aircraft can include the Roll Pin, Clevis Pin, Split (Cotter) Pin, and
Taper Pin.
Dowels
While not usually used as fasteners, dowels are rods or pins of the appropriate material which
are fixed (often permanently) in one of the components of a joint such that the protruding
shank of the dowel locates with a corresponding hole in the item being attached, thus
ensuring accurate assembly.
Two examples of the use of

dowels may be found where a
Propeller Control Unit is
attached to an engine casing and
there is a requirement for
absolute accuracy in the
alignment of the oil tubes and,
again, where the segments of an
engine compressor need to be
joined with precision so that the
rotating members do not foul the
stationary parts.
Figure 5.31: A selection of different sized dowels
Roll Pins
Roll pins (refer to figure 5.32) are often used to secure a pulley to a shaft or to provide a pivot
for a joint where the pin is unlikely to be removed.
A roll pin is normally made from flat spring steel that is rolled into an incomplete cylindrical
shape that allows the pin to compress when it is pressed into the hole, and creates a spring
action that holds the pin tight within the bore of the hole. To remove a roll pin it must be
driven from the hole with a correct-sized punch.
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Figure 5.32: Roll pin
Clevis Pins
Clevis or flat-head pins (refer to figure 54) are used for hinge pins in some aircraft control
systems. They are made of cadmium-plated steel and have grip lengths in 1/16-inch
increments. When a clevis pin is installed, a plain washer is usually placed over the end of the
shank and a cotter (split) pin is inserted, through the pre-drilled hole in the clevis pin, to lock
it in place.
Figure 5.33: Clevis pin
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Taper Pins
Taper pins are used in joints that carry

shear loads and where the absence of
clearance is essential. See figure 5.34. The
threaded taper pin is used with a taper pin
washer and a shear nut if the taper pin is
drilled, or with a self-locking nut if
undrilled. When a shear nut is used with
the threaded taper pin and washer, the nut
is secured with a cotter pin.
Both the plain and threaded taper pins have

a taper of 1 in 48 and are used in various
locations during aircraft construction. They
are designed to carry shear loads and are
manufactured from high-tensile steel. The
pins do not allow any loose motion or play
and are used for joining tubes and attaching
collars to shafts.
Figure 5.34: Plain and threaded taper pins
The plain taper pin is forced into the hole, which is reamed to the specified size with a Taper
Pin Reamer, and is held in place by friction alone. To ensure security, it can also be wire
locked in place, by passing the lock wire through the pre-drilled hole in the pin then securing
the wire around the shaft.
Plain taper pins, which have no lock wire holes, may have their smaller ends peened, after
being installed, to secure them in their holes.
The Threaded Pin is similar to the plain pin except that its small end is threaded to accept
either a self-locking shear nut or a shear castle nut with split pin.
Some taper pins can be found with a split small end, which can be spread much like a split
pin, to prevent it loosening. These pins are sometimes referred to as bifurcated taper pins.
All taper pins are measured by the diameter of their small end and their overall length.
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Figure 5.35: Plain and threaded taper pins
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6.5.3. LOCKING DEVICES
The problems associated with threaded devices, and the effects of vibration on their security,
were discussed previously, when the use of stiffnuts and anchor nuts was considered.
In addition to using methods which increase the friction between threads, there are several
other ways in which the integrity of a threaded joint can be assured.
Spring Washers
These washers are available in a variety of forms (refer to figure 5.36). In some instances
(particularly with light alloy assemblies), spring washers are assembled with plain facing
washers between the spring washer and the component. This is done to prevent damage to the
surface finish when the spring washer is compressed although, with steel assemblies, the
plain washer is usually omitted.
It is good practice to renew spring washers during overhaul or repair. This procedure is most
essential in engines and engine components as well as where units have reciprocating parts;
such as in compressors or pumps.
In normal circumstances, however, spring washers can be re-used if they have retained their
‘springiness’ and ‘sharpness’. Types of spring washers include:
 Single and Double Coil Washers: Manufactured from rectangular-sectioned steel

sheet and formed into a portion of a helix, the single and double coil are the most
common types of spring washer to be found on aircraft components
 Crinkle Washers: Crinkle washers are usually manufactured from either copper alloy
or corrosion- resistant steel. They are often used in lightly loaded applications such as
instruments and electrical installations.
 Cup Washers: Cup (or Belleville) washers are manufactured from spring steel and
are ‘dished’ to form a spring of high rating. The flattening of the washer, during
tightening, exerts an axial load to the nut, which will resist any tendency of the nut to
lose torque. Assembly should always be in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.
Figure 5.36: Types of spring washer
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Shake-Proof Washers
Flat washers of this type (refer to figure 5.37), are manufactured from steel or phosphor
bronze and are used in place of spring washers. In some circumstances conical shake-proof
washers are used for locking countersunk screws.
Either the internal or the external diameters can be serrated, the serration being designed to
bite into the component and nut to prevent rotation.
All shake-proof washers should be used only ONCE. It is rare for these washers to be
specified in assemblies where an anti-corrosion treatment of the components has been
specified, as this could damage the treatment.
Figure 5.37: Types of shake-proof washers
Tab Washers
Tab washers (refer to figure 5.38), are normally used on plain nuts. The washers are
manufactured from thin metallic sheet material and have two or more tabs projecting from the
external diameter. They can also be designed for locking two or more nuts.
When the washer is installed, one tab is bent against the component or inserted into a hole
provided, whilst a second tab is bent against the flat (or flats), of the nut, after it has been
torqued down correctly.
Note: Multi-tab washers can be re-used until all tabs have been used once.
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Figure 5.38: Types of tab washers
Lock Plates
In certain circumstances, the torque applied, the thread, or the type of nut, being used may not
guarantee that the nut would not unwind in use (such as during vibration). Lock plates (refer
to figure 5.39) are used where positive retention of a nut is required.
The nut is torque loaded and then (only if necessary) turned a small amount, (< 1/12
revolution) until its flats to align with the hole in the lock plate. The plate usually has 12
faces to allow for this adjustment. The plate is then placed over the nut and the small setscrew
fastened into the tapped hole adjacent to the nut. Removal of the nut simply involves
removing the setscrew, lifting off the plate and unwinding the nut.
Note: A Tab washer could be used to do the same task. The lock plate is used where the
nut is frequently removed – the plate can be used indefinitely providing it retains a
good fit with the nut.
Figure 5.39: A typical lock plate
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Split (Cotter) Pins
These pins (refer to figure 5.40) are usually manufactured from either cadmium-plated carbon
steel or from corrosion-resistant steel. Their primary purpose is to lock slotted and castellated
nuts as well as for securing clevis pins. The nuts are locked onto their bolts by passing the pin
through the hole in the bolt and the nut castellations. The legs of the pin are spread in one of
two methods.
Whilst either of these methods will secure the nut to the bolt, different airworthiness
authorities prefer one method to the other.
The pins are measured by diameter and length. It must be noted that the nuts must never be
over-torqued to get the holes into line. The nut must either be backed-off, if this is permitted,
or washers added under the nut.
Often a stated torque value will be over a small range rather than a set figure. This allows
very small movement of the nut to facilitate alignment of the locking pins. Details of the
correct method for each task will be in the AMM.
Figure 5.40: Two Methods of Securing Split Pins
Locking Wire
Wire-locking (or ‘Safetying’ as it is known in the USA), is the commonest form of locking in
use throughout the aircraft industry. The wire is usually made of corrosion-resistant steel or
heat-resistant nickel alloy. Fine copper wire is also used for some special locking operations.
The wire is normally classified by its diameter in increments of ‘Standard Wire Gauge’
(SWG) or ‘American Wire Gauge’ (AWG). The most usual gauge used is 22 SWG (or its
American equivalent), although great care must be taken to check the correct wire gauge for
each particular application.
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Wire-locking is a positive method of securing items such as bolts, pipe unions, turnbuckles
and nuts. Components designed to be wire-locked have holes in the appropriate positions to
enable the lock wire to pass through.
When installing the wire it should not span a distance of more than 75 mm (3 in) without
being supported. The wire is also positioned so that the item being locked will be restrained
from turning in a loosening direction.
There should be approximately eight turns to every 25.4 mm (1 in) length of wire and no
length of more than 9.5 mm (3/8 in) should be left untwisted. The angle of pull, or approach
(refer to figure 5.41), should be not less than 450 to the rotational axis.
When the wire has been passed through the last hole, the wire must be pulled tight and the
twisting continued for at least 12 mm – 13 mm (½ in). The wire is then cut and the end
doubled under, to prevent personnel getting ‘snagged’ or badly cut.
Figure 5.41: Locking wire – angle of approach
Some forms of wire-locking are done with a single strand of the specified wire, especially in
cases of where a complete ring or similar formation of nuts is found (refer to figure 5.42).
The wire is passed in sequence, through the holes in their respective nuts and bolts (or
screws), until the wire ends meet.
Again the wire must be threaded so that any tendency, of a nut or bolt, to attempt to slacken
off, will add tension to the wire.
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Figure 5.42: Single strand locking
Use of Locking Wire with Turnbuckles
As with any threaded fastener, turnbuckles must be locked to prevent them from coming
loose and jeopardising the control runs they are connecting.
There are a number of different types of wire-locking used on turnbuckles and the AMM
must be consulted to find which method is specified. Methods used include the single wrap
and single wrap spiral as well as the double wrap and double wrap spiral.
The single wrap and single wrap spiral use a single strand of the appropriate wire that passes
through the hole in the centre of the turnbuckle, finishing up wrapped around each end. The
single wrap spiral also uses a single piece of wire that is spiralled around the turnbuckle
barrel and passed through the centre hole twice.
Two pieces of wire are used in the double wrap method, which are basically two single
wraps, one in each direction. A double wrap spiral consists of two single wrap spirals, again
one in each direction.
Use of Locking Wire with Locking Tabs.
When locking tabs are used, they should be installed in such a way that the tabs and the wire
are in complete alignment (refer to figure 5.43). Whenever possible, the closed end of the
wire should be in the tab and the twisted end at the component to be locked, although the
exact method may be found in the AMM.
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Figure 5.43: Correct and incorrect locking procedures when using locking tab
Thin Copper Wire
Thin copper wire is used to hold some switches and levers in a ‘set’ position and, thus,
prevents the accidental operation of those switches which control certain critical systems such
as emergency circuits.
When the switch is required to be operated, then a deliberate movement is made, which will
break the copper wire and permit movement of the switch.
A secondary purpose of copper wire is as an indicator or ‘witness’, where a broken wire

indicates that the switch or control has been operated. This method is employed on systems
where it is necessary to know when a system has been operated (such as in a Fire Protection
system).
Quick-Release Fasteners
Special fasteners have been designed to hold fairings, cowlings and inspection panels in
position and to allow their rapid removal and replacement during servicing.
Dzus Fastener
DZUS fasteners are available in two types. A light-duty type is used on box -covers, access
hole covers, and lightweight fairings. The heavy-duty type is used on cowling and heavy
fairings. The main difference between the two Dzus fasteners is a grommet, which is only
used on stud assembly. See figure 5.44. The receptacle is an aluminium alloy forging
mounted in a stamped sheet metal base.
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The receptacle assembly is riveted to the access door frame, which is attached to the structure
of the aircraft. The grommet is a sheet metal ring held in the access panel with the retaining
ring. Grommets are furnished in two types: the flush type and the protruding type. Besides
serving as a grommet for the hole in the access panel, it also holds the stud assembly. The
stud assembly consists of a stud, a cross pin, a spring, and a spring cup. The assembly is
designed so it can be quickly inserted into the grommet by compressing the spring. Once
installed in the grommet, the stud assembly cannot be removed unless the spring is again
compressed.
Figure 5.44: Dzus fastener
Oddie Fasteners
Oddie fasteners (refer to figure 5.45) have a central stud, which is held in position in the
panel with a rubber washer or a coiled spring. A two-legged clip is fastened to the fixed
component (usually with rivets). The stud is bullet-shaped and has two recesses opposite each
other at the joint end.
The fastener is locked by positioning the recess in line with the legs of the spring, and then
pressing the stud home. This is achieved by ensuring the screwdriver slot is in line with
marks on the panel. There should be a definite click as the fastener engages. A quarter turn of
the stud will release it from the spring, and free the panel.
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Figure 5.45: Oddie fastener
Camloc Fasteners
Camloc fasteners (refer to figure 5.46) consist of a spring-loaded stud assembly and a
receptacle. The stud assembly is fastened to the removable panel whilst the receptacle is
fastened to the airframe.
To lock the fastener, the stud is pushed against its spring with a screwdriver and given a
quarter of a turn clock-wise. As a result, the cross-pin, on the stud, rides up a cam in the
receptacle and draws the two components together.
Finally the stud spring pulls the cross pin into a locking groove at the end of the cam. The
fastener is unlocked by a quarter turn anti-clockwise when the stud spring causes the stud to
snap outwards.
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Figure 5.46: Camloc fastener
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Airloc Fasteners
Airloc fasteners (refer to figure 5.47) consist of a stud with a cross-pin in the removable
cowling or door, and a sheet spring-steel receptacle in the structure.
The fastener is locked by turning the stud through a quarter turn. The pin drops into an
indentation in the receptacle and holds the fastener locked.
Figure 5.47: Airloc fasteners
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Pip-Pins
Quick-release ‘Pip-pins’ are used in assemblies where it is necessary to rapidly remove or

reposition components. They usually take the place of more permanent bolts.
The ‘pip-pin’ quick-release fastener (refer to figure 5.48) operates on a push-pull principle. It
consists of a hollow body containing a spring-loaded plunger. When the pin is pushed into a
hole, two steel locking balls, held in the shank of the pin, move into a recess in the plunger.
When the pin is fully home, and the pushing pressure is released, the balls are forced to
protrude from the shank, as the spring around the plunger expands, and so lock the pin in
position.
A pip-pin is removed by a simple pull on the ring. This action aligns the groove in the
plunger with the two locking balls that retract to allow the pin to be withdrawn.
Pip-pins will be found in many places where two components have to be separated at regular
intervals and also require a hinging action. An example of where pip-pins would be required
is on engine cowlings. These have to be opened daily to allow for engine inspection, and are
removed completely for engine changes.
Figure 5.48: Pip pin
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Circlips and Locking Rings
Circlips and locking rings (refer to figure 5.49) are manufactured from spring sheet metal or
spring steel wire, They may also be specially designed for a particular purpose. Hardened and
tempered to give either and ‘inward’ or ‘outward’ spring, they can be used for locking several
parts together, locating components within bores or for locating components onto shafts.
Spring sheet circlips have holes in the ends to allow circlip pliers to be inserted, enabling the
circlip to be removed or installed as required. Spring wire rings usually have one bent end
that is inserted into a radial hole, drilled through the component, which matches an inner or
outer ring.
All circlips are subject to some damage at times and it will usually be a requirement, after
they have been removed, to inspect them thoroughly. Any that show damage or corrosion
should be discarded, although it is usual practice to discard the wire type circlips whenever
they are removed
Figure 5.49: Circlip types
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Keys and Keyways
These items can be found where chain-wheels or pulleys are located on shafts.
A key, with its associated keyways (the name given to the channel, which is cut into the
respective components, to receive the key), is used to transmit the driving force from one part
to the other.
Figure 5.50: Key types
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Peening
Peening (refer to figure 5.51) is a method of preventing a threaded device (bolt, nut or screw),
becoming loose by distorting the end of the thread, after installing the device. The distortion
is normally achieved (using a centre punch) by striking the thread of the bolt or screw where
it emerges from the threaded device, thus jamming and effectively locking the threaded
device and preventing it from loosening.
When using a nut and bolt combination, then one and a half threads of the bolt must protrude
from the nut in order to create an effective peening.
The disadvantage of peening (and the distortion of the thread) means that, once the joint is
dismantled, then the threaded device is useless and can only be discarded.
Figure 5.51: Types of peen
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Glue/Adhesive Bonded Joints
As was previously discussed (in the section on Composite and Non-Metallic Materials), these
are permanent joints in which an adhesive is used to join two, or more, materials together.
The materials can be any of the large variety of fabrics found in the aerospace industry
(metal, paper, plastic, rubber or wood).
Some advantages of using adhesives, to make joints, are that the materials being joined may
or may not be similar and the joints can be made proof against the leakage of gases and
liquids.
Adhesives are normally good electrical insulators, which can greatly reduce dissimilar
corrosion on metal joints, and are not, normally, affected by temperature changes.
Joining with adhesives not only saves the weight (and costs) associated with threaded
fasteners (and rivets), but also eliminates the need to make holes in the structure, for those
fasteners, which avoids the possibility of potential stress raisers.
The absence of fasteners in an aircraft’s skin results in a smoother airflow around the aircraft,
and thus contributes to its aerodynamic efficiency.
Adhesive bonded joints also provide greater stiffening to the structure, compared to that
achieved with mechanical fastenings.
There are, however, some disadvantages in that the surfaces, of the items to be stuck together
(the adherends), must be free from grease, oil or dust, and the type of adhesive must be
suitable for the conditions or environment in which it is intended to be placed.
Fumes from adhesives can be narcotic, toxic and extremely flammable, so that great care
must be taken when applying adhesives. This entails working in well-ventilated conditions,
wearing the appropriate personal protective equipment and observing the relevant safety
precautions to prevent (and, if necessary, fight) the outbreak of fire.
Locking by Adhesives
Applying Shellac, Araldite etc to DTD 900 specification, may be used to lock many small
components, particularly those in instruments, valves, switches etc. Adhesive is applied to the
outside of the nut face and the protruding screw thread, or to the component and screw head,
after tightening, and prevents movement between relevant parts.
It is good practice, when using Araldite, to mix a separate sample under similar conditions, to
check that it hardens within the specified time period.
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Loctite
Loctite is the trade name for a liquid sealant, used to lock metal threads. It is an approved,
proprietary material, which hardens in the screw threads after assembly. Loctite is supplied in
various grades to give a predetermined locking strength in a variety of applications from stud
locking to retaining bearing housings.
When using Loctite, it is advisable to degrease the parts to achieve maximum strength. If the
threads are not degreased, about 15% of the locking strength is normally lost. Loctite should
only be used when specified by the approved drawings or instructions, and applied in
accordance with the manufacturer’s directions
Synthetic Resin Adhesives
Synthetic resin adhesives are used extensively for joints in wooden structures, to avoid the
localised stresses and strains, which may be set up, following the use of mechanical methods
of attachment.
Synthetic resin adhesives, used for gluing aircraft structural assemblies, must comply with the
requirement prescribed in an acceptable specification
Synthetic resin adhesives usually consist of two separate parts, namely the resin and the
hardener. The resin develops its adhesive properties only as a result of a chemical reaction
between it and the hardener.
Testing of Adhesive Joining Techniques
Frequent tests would be made to ensure that joining techniques are satisfactory. Whenever
possible, tests should be done, using off-cuts of actual components from each batch. Where
off-cuts are not available, tests should be done on representative test pieces.
Metal-to-Metal Bonded Joints
Metal-to-metal joints involve the use of heat, to raise the temperature of the metals to a point
where, either by the use of hammering, by the application of pressure, or by a chemical
reaction between the metals being joined, the metals fuse together and thus create the
required bond.
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Welding
Welding is the fusing together, by heating the point or edge of contact of two or more pieces
of metal (and applying a filler rod if required), making one continuous piece.
Welded joints are normally considered to be part of an aircraft’s permanent structure and they
would not be dismantled during routine maintenance.
Only a trained welder, authorised by the CAA, may weld component parts of a British-
registered civil aircraft and that person is required to submit, to the CAA, a series of test
welds, for examination, every twelve months. It is, therefore, beyond the scope of these
course notes to consider the various forms of electric arc, gas, resistance, seam or spot
welding techniques.
Soft Soldering
Soft soldering is the permanent joining of metals, using a filler metal that melts at a
temperature considerably lower than the metals being joined. The filler metal is an alloy
consisting, mainly, of lead and tin (with, possibly, antimony and bismuth), mixed in varying
proportions, depending on the use for which it is intended.
To ensure a satisfactory joint, the solder must form a metallic bond ('key') with the surfaces,
being joined and, to allow this to happen, the joint surfaces must be free of oil, grease, dust,
and corrosion.
It is also necessary to use of an approved substance (a ‘flux’), which is applied to the metals,
to prevent the formation of potentially corrosive oxide films while the metals are being
heated (usually by conduction of the heat from a soldering ‘iron’) and joined.
Hard Soldering
Hard soldering includes Silver Soldering and Brazing. In these processes, the fillers melt at
higher temperatures than soft solder and provide a much stronger joint, which is also capable
of operating at higher temperatures.
Silver Solder consists of an alloy of copper and silver (with a melting point almost twice that
of the soft solders) while Brazing uses a copper-zinc alloy with a melting point higher than
that of Silver Solder.
The source of heat used for hard soldering is, usually, a direct flame and a different flux is
also necessary to prevent oxidation of the joint.
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Hard soldered joints have their fillers drawn into them by capillary action, therefore the gap
between components must be kept uniform and closely controlled.
As with all soldered joints, the surfaces being joined must be clean and free of oil, grease,
corrosion, scale etc. Mechanical methods of cleaning can include emery cloth, wire brush or
filing.
6.5.4. AIRCRAFT RIVETS
British Solid Rivets
Standards for British Solid rivets are issued by the Society of British Aerospace SBAC (AS
series) or the British Standards Institute (SP series). The standards overlap to a certain extent,
with obsolete rivets, in the AS range, being replaced by SP rivets.
A standard number and a part number are used to identify rivets. The standard number
identifies the head shape, material and finish. This is followed by a three or four figure code,
the first one or two figures indicating the shank diameter in thirty-seconds of an inch and the
last two, the length in sixteenths of an inch.
Example:
A British rivet, with the identifying code AS 162-408, would be a 90°

countersunk, aluminium alloy (5% magnesium) rivet, of 1/8 inch diameter and
1/2 inch long. The AS 162 indicates the head type and material, while the ‘-4’
indicates that it has a 4/32 inch (1/8 inch) diameter and ‘08’ indicates it has a
length of 8/16 inch (1/2 inch).
Tables 5.6 and 5.7 give details on materials and identification marks for the various types of
AS rivets. Many of these rivets are obsolescent and have been superseded by rivets
conforming to SP standards.
Table 5.8 gives details of material and identification information for SP rivets with the
standard numbers shown in Table 5.9. SP rivets are also available in metric sizes.
Note: The colour coding (of both British systems) of solid rivets is generally the same as that
used for the similar material in the other system. For example (in both systems) pure
aluminium rivets are black, Hiduminium rivets are violet, Monel rivets are natural and 5%
magnesium rivets are green. This way of coding allows material types to be more easily
identified.
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Material Spec. Material Type Identification Finish

Marks
L37 Dural ‘D’ on shank end Natural
L58 Al. Alloy (5% Mg.) ‘X’ on shank end Dyed or Anodised Green
L86 Hiduminium ‘S’ on shank end Dyed Violet
DTD 204 Monel ‘M’ on shank end Natural or Cadmium

Plated
Table 5.6: Material Identification of ‘AS’ Rivets
Material Snap Mush 90º Csk 100º Csk 120º Csk 90º Close
Spec. Tol.
L37 AS156 AS158 AS161 - AS164 AS2918
L58 AS157 AS159 AS162 AS4716 AS165 -
L86 AS2227 AS2228 AS229 - AS2230 AS3362
DTD204 - - AS5462 - AS465 -
Table 5.7: Typical Specification Numbers of ‘AS’ Rivets
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Figure 5.53: ‘AS’ rivets
Material. Spec. Material Type Identification Marks Finish

(On shank end)
L36 Aluminium ‘I’ Black Anodic
L37 Dural ‘7’ Natural
L58 Al. Alloy (5% Mg.) ‘8’ Green Anodic
L86 Hiduminium ‘0’ Violet
BS1109 Steel - Cadmium
DTD204 Monel ‘M’ Natural or Cadmium
Table 5.8: Material Identification of ‘SP’ Rivets
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Material Spec. Snap Head Mushroom Head 100º Csk Head
L36 SP77 - SP68
L37 SP78 SP83 SP69
L58 SP79 SP84 SP70
L86 SP80 SP85 SP71
BS1109 SP76 - SP86
DTD204 SP81 - SP87
Table 5.9: Typical Specification Numbers of ‘SP’ Rivets
Figure 5.54: ‘SP’ Rivets
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American Solid Rivets
Solid rivets are classified by their head shape, by the material from which they are
manufactured, and by their size. Rivet head shapes and their identifying code numbers are
shown in figure 5.55. The prefix ‘MS’ identifies hardware that conforms to written military
standards. The prefix ‘AN’ identifies specifications that are developed and issued under the
joint authority of the Air Force and the Navy.
The rivet codes shown in figure 5.55 are sufficient to identify rivets only by head shape. To
be meaningful and precisely identify a rivet, certain other information is encoded and added
to the basic code.
Figure 5.55: American rivet head types
A letter or letters following the head-shaped code identify the material or alloy from which
the rivet was made. Table 5.10 includes a listing of the most common of these codes. The
alloy code is followed by two numbers separated by a dash. The first number is the numerator
of a fraction, which specifies the shank diameter in thirty-seconds of an inch. The second
number is the numerator of a fraction in sixteenths of an inch, and identifies the length of the
rivet. The rivet code is shown in figure 5.56. Rivet Composition Most of the rivets used in
aircraft construction are made of aluminium alloy. A few special-purpose rivets are made of
mild steel, Monel, titanium, and copper. Those aluminium alloy rivets made of 1100, 2117,
2017,2024, and 5056 are considered standard.
Alloy 1100 Rivets - Alloy 1100 rivets are supplied as fabricated (F) temper, and are driven in
this condition. No further treatment of the rivet is required before use, and the rivet’s
properties do not change with prolonged periods of storage. They are relatively soft and easy
to drive. The cold work resulting from driving increases their strength slightly. The 1100-F
rivets are used only for riveting non-structural parts. These rivets are identified by their plain
head, as shown in table 5.10.
Alloy 2117 Rivets - Like the 1100-F rivets, these rivets need no further treatment before use
and can be stored indefinitely. They are furnished in the solution-heat-treated (T4) temper,
but change to the solution-heat-treated and cold-worked (T3) temper after driving. The 2117-
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T4 rivet is in general use throughout aircraft structures, and is by far the most widely used
rivet, especially in repair work. In most cases the 2117-T4 rivet may be substituted for 2017-
T4 and 2024-T4 rivets for repair work by using a rivet with the next larger diameter. This is
desirable since both the 2017-T4 and 2024-T4 rivets must be heat treated before they are used
or kept in cold storage. The 2117-T4 rivets are identified by a dimple in the head.
Figure 5.56: MS rivet code
Alloy 2017 and 2024 Rivets - As mentioned in the preceding paragraph, both these rivets are
supplied in the T4 temper and must be heat treated. These rivets must be driven within 20
minutes after quenching or refrigerated at or below 32°F to delay the aging time 24 hours. If
either time is exceeded, reheat treatment is required. These rivets may be reheated as many
times as desired, provided the proper solution heat-treatment temperature is not exceeded.
The 2024-T4 rivets are stronger than the 2017-T4 and are, therefore, harder to drive. The
2017-T4 rivet is identified by the raised teat on the head, while the 2024-T4 has two raised
dashes on the head.
Alloy 5056 Rivets - These rivets are used primarily for joining magnesium alloy structures
because of their corrosion-resistant qualities. They are supplied in the H32 temper (strain-
hardened and then stabilized). These rivets are identified by a raised cross on the head. The
5056-H32 rivet may be stored indefinitely with no change in its driving characteristics.
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Table 5.10: American rivet head markings and code letters
Example:
An American AN system rivet with the identifying code AN470 AD 3-5, would be a
Universal head, aluminium alloy (2117-T) rivet, of 3/32 inch diameter with a shank
length of 5/16 inch.
Note: With countersunk rivets, the length is the overall length.
Head markings, using dimples and raised dots (or dashes and rings) are also used as an aid to
indicate the material content of the rivets.
Protective surface coatings, used by the manufacturers, are shown by colours, where zinc
chromate is usually yellow, an anodised rivet is usually pearl grey and a metal sprayed rivet
has a silvery grey colour.
Mild Steel rivets are used for riveting steel parts while Corrosion Resistant Steel rivets are
used for riveting CRS components in fire-walls and exhaust areas etc.
Note: The absence of a letter following the AN standard number indicates a rivet
manufactured from mild steel.
Monel (M) rivets are used for riveting nickel-steel alloys. They may also be used as a
substitute for CRS rivets when specified.
Copper (C) rivets are also available, but their use is limited on aircraft. They may only be
used on copper alloys or non-metallic materials, such as leather.
Note: Most metals, including aircraft rivets, are subject to corrosion. This may be
the result of local climatic conditions or the fabrication process used. It can be
reduced to a minimum by using the correct materials and by the use of protective
coatings on the structure and the rivets. The use of dissimilar metals should be
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avoided where possible and, as previously stated, the rivet manufacturers usually
apply a protective coating on the rivets, which may be either of a zinc chromate, a
metal spray or an anodic film finish.
Heat-Treatment and Refrigeration of Solid Rivets
The action of closing a rivet, and the strength required on completion, dictates whether any
heat-treatment will be required prior to closing. As previously discussed, some rivets, for
non-structural applications, can be manufactured from pure aluminium. These are given no
heat-treatment and are soft, both before and after closing.
Among the most common rivets in use (and which are made of aluminium alloy) are those
already identified, in the American ‘AN’ specification system, as ‘AD’ rivets. ‘AD’ rivets are
heat-treated during manufacture and remain easy to close whilst possessing adequate
strength.
Where rivets of a stronger material are required, then ‘D’ and ‘DD’ rivets can be used. These
are also made from aluminium alloys, but to different (‘AN’) specifications. They are heat-
treated, just prior to use, and either formed within a short time period of time (in which they
‘age-harden’), or they are stored, in a refrigerator, at temperatures well below zero degrees
Celsius (which retards the age-hardening process), until required for use. They are known as
‘icebox’ rivets in the USA.
Heat-Treatment
Metal temper is important in the riveting process, especially with aluminium alloy rivets.
These generally have the same heat-treating characteristics as sheet alloys and can be
annealed and hardened in much the same manner. The rivet must be soft or comparatively
soft before a good head can be formed.
The 2017-T and 2024-T rivets must be solution-treated before being driven and then they
harden with age.
The process of heat-treatment of rivets (normalising) may be achieved in either an electric,

air furnace or in a salt bath. The temperature range, depending on the alloy, is in the region of
495ºC - 505ºC. For convenient handling, the rivets are heated on a tray or in a wire basket
and, after heating for the required period, they are finally quenched in cold water
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Refrigeration
The heat-treated rivet will begin to age harden immediately after treatment and, if the rivets
are not to be set immediately, they may be refrigerated to delay the age-hardening process.
The solution-treated rivets are stored at low temperature (below freezing) and, under these
conditions, will remain soft enough for driving for up to 2 weeks. Any rivets not used in that
period should be removed and re-heat treated.
It should be noted that refrigeration only delays age-hardening and that age- hardening will
continue at a rapid rate as soon as the rivets are removed from the refrigerator.
2017-T rivets must be driven within 1 hour of refrigeration and 2024-T rivets, within 10
minutes
Solid Rivet Head Types
The many forms of rivet heads have evolved due to the specific requirements of an
application and, whether they are of the British or American (or any other) standards, their
designs and uses are fairly similar. A selection, considered here, gives typical used for the
more common types of rivets:
 Brazier head: has a head of larger diameter, making it suitable for riveting thin sheet.
It offers only a slight resistance to airflow and is often used on exterior skins,
especially on aft sections of fuselage and empennage. A modified brazier head rivet is
also produced which has a reduced head diameter.
 Countersunk head: this rivet is flat topped and bevelled towards the shank so that it
can be installed into a countersunk or dimpled hole and so be flush with the material’s
surface. The countersunk angle may vary from 78º to 120º (the 100º rivet being the
most common type). Countersunk rivets are used to fasten metal sheets which overlap
others. They are also used on exterior surfaces of the aircraft, because they offer only
a slight resistance to airflow and therefore minimise turbulence.
 Flathead: used on interior structures, where there is insufficient clearance to use a

roundhead rivet.
 Roundhead: used in the interior of the aircraft and has a deep rounded top section.
The head is large enough to strengthen the sheet around the hole and to offer
resistance to tension.
 Universal head: this rivet is a combination of brazier, flathead and roundhead. It is

used in aircraft construction and repair in both interior and exterior locations. It may
be used as a replacement for all protruding head types of rivet.
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Blind and Hollow Rivets
There are many places in an aircraft where access to both sides of the structure is impossible,
or where limited space will not permit the use of a reaction (bucking) bar. Also, in the
attachment of many non-structural parts, such as aircraft interior furnishings, flooring
material, de-icer boots etc, the full strength of solid shank rivets may not be necessary. For
use in such places, special rivets have been designed which can be set from one side only.
These rivets are often lighter than solid rivets, yet amply strong enough for their intended use.
The rivets are produced by several manufacturers, and have unique characteristics requiring
special installation tools and procedures. The same, general, basic information, relating to
their fabrication, composition, uses, selection, installation, inspection and removal procedures
applies to most of them.
Hollow rivets that can be closed by pulling a mandrel through them are often known as
‘blind’ rivets and these in turn can be described as Mechanically Expanded Rivets. They can
fall into one of three main types:
 Self-plugging (friction lock) rivets
 Self-plugging (mechanical lock) rivets
 Pull-through rivets
Where blind or hollow rivets are installed in place of solid rivets, (due, perhaps, to the lack of
access to the both sides of the joint), they must, in the absence of specific instructions, be of
the same material as the original solid rivet, and be of equivalent shear strength. The shear
strength, of the rivet, may be increased, by using a form of ‘plug’ to fill the hollow shank of
the rivet.
Friction Lock Rivets
These are generally fabricated in two parts, consisting of a rivet head with a hollow shank
and a stem that extends through the hollow shank. They may, typically, be of the ‘friction
lock’ protruding head or countersunk head styles of rivet (refer to figure 5.57). Several events
occur in sequence when a pulling force is applied to the stem of the rivet:
 The stem is pulled into the rivet shank

 The mandrel part of the stem forces the rivet shank to expand
 When friction (pulling action) becomes great enough, it caused the stem to fracture at
the weakest point. The bottom end of the stem is retained in the shank, giving much
greater shear strength than could be obtained from a hollow rivet.
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Note: With this type of rivet, the stem is often designed to break above the rivet head,
necessitating a further action, which entails cutting off the extra portion of the stem
with snips (or a specialised pneumatic gun) and milling the exposed portion flush with
the head. This type of rivet is going out of style because of the extra work involved with
setting it.
Figure 5.57: Friction lock rivet
Mechanical Lock Rivets
A mechanical lock-type of rivet (refer to figure 5.58), is similar in design to the friction lock
rivet previously described, except in the manner in which the mandrel is retained in the rivet.
This type of rivet has a positive mechanical locking collar, to resist the vibrations that may
cause the friction lock rivet mandrels to loosen and fall out. In addition, the mechanical
locking-type rivet-stem breaks off flush with the head and, usually, does not require further
stem trimming when properly installed.
Self-plugging, mechanical lock rivets display all the strength of solid rivets and, in most
cases, can be substituted rivet for rivet. Three operations are performed when the rivet is
installed (generally using a pneumatic gun):
 When pulling force is exerted on the stem, the stem is pulled in, forming the blind
head and clamping the sheets of metal together.
 At a pre-determined point, the inner anvil, incorporated in the gun, forces the locking
collar into position.
 The rivet stem snaps off approximately flush with the head of the rivet.
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Figure 5.58: Mechanical lock rivet
Hollow/Pull-Through Rivets
When installed, the rivet mandrel is pulled through these rivets, leaving a hollow rivet of
much lower strength than the self-plugging types.
Different types of these rivets are supplied, either complete with individual mandrels or as
individual rivets, used with a re-usable steel mandrel, which is drawn completely through the
rivets. In some cases, the rivets may be plugged with sealing pins which, as previously stated,
give them additional strength as well as sealing them.
Grip Range
Unlike a solid rivet, the part of a blind rivet, available to form a head, cannot always be seen.
It is, therefore, necessary to know the range of total material thickness that a given rivet can
fasten together.
This is known as the ‘Grip Range’ of the rivet and requires the use of a gauge to measure the
material thickness (refer to figure 5.59), which is used in conjunction with a rivet data table.
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Figure 5.59: Grip Range gauge (rivet dipper)
Tucker ‘Pop’ Rivets
Tucker ‘Pop’ rivets (refer to figure 5.60) are supplied mounted on steel mandrels. The head
of the mandrel is pulled into the rivet, expanding it, before the mandrel fractures at the
waisted portion. This waisted portion may either be near to the head of the rivet, or part way
up the stem. In the first case the rivet will be classified as ‘Break Head’ (BH) and in the
second case, ‘Break Stem’ (BS)
The rivets are set, using a pair of ‘Pop’ pliers or by the use of a hydro-pneumatic gun. ‘Pop’
rivets are less suitable for use on aircraft as they tend to loosen with vibration and then
become increasingly difficult to remove, because of the looseness and the presence of the
steel mandrel. (They also tend to spin when attempts are made to drill them out).
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Figure 5.60: Tucker pop rivet
Break head rivets must not be used if the structure is not accessible to retrieve the mandrel
heads. It is sometimes permitted for the mandrels of Break Stem rivets to be dipped in an
adhesive, so that they will not vibrate loose after installation. If Tucker ‘Pop’ rivets are to be
used externally on aircraft, the heads must be sealed to prevent the ingress of dirt and
moisture. Cellulose Metallic Filler is often recommended for this purpose.
The rivets are manufactured in either aluminium alloy or cadmium-plated Monel metal, with
either dome heads or 100º and 120º countersunk heads. The AGS reference number consists
of the AGS number identifying the material and head type, a three figure size code and letters
specifying Break Head or Break Stem. In the size code the first figure represents the
diameter, in increments of 1/32 inch while the last two figures indicate the length in
increments of 1/10 inch.
Example:
A rivet, with the designation code AGS2051/537/BS, would be a Tucker ‘Pop’, made
from Monel metal, with a 120º Csk. Head. The figure 537 indicates that its diameter is
5/32 inch and its length is 0.37 inch. BS shows that it is a Break Stem.
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Note: Care must be taken to ensure all remaining stems and swarf, are totally removed
from the aircraft, on completion of work, when using these rivets. For this reason, tucker
pop rivets are considered NOT to be fully ‘blind rivets’ since the broken stem cannot be
retrieved if access to the blind side is not available.
Avdel Rivets
Avdel rivets (refer to figure 5.61) are rarely used today, but may be found on older aircraft.
To close the rivet, the stem is pulled through and, at a predetermined load, the stem breaks
proud of the manufactured head of the rivet, plugging the rivet body. Whilst the stems can be
milled off on alloy rivets, those manufactured of stainless steel or titanium break flush with
the rivet head. A flush finish is required for aerodynamic reasons.
Avdel rivets are pre-lubricated by the manufacturer, to facilitate forming the rivet. They
should NEVER be de-greased in solvent before use.
Figure 5.61: Avdel rivet
Chobert Rivets
Chobert rivets (refer to figure 5.62) are also similar to Tucker ‘Pop’ rivets, but have a tapered
bore. The head of the mandrel is re-usable, and is pulled fully through the rivet on forming.
This gives an advantage of no loose articles after the riveting operation is completed. The
mandrel is drawn through the rivet using a special tool, which carries a number of rivets on
the mandrel to allow repetitive and faster riveting. The tool simply feeds the next rivet into
place after the closure of the previous one.
Where additional shear strength or water-tightness is required, sealing pins or plugs of the
same material are driven into the bore of the closed rivets
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Figure 5.62: Chobert rivet
Cherry Rivets
Cherry Rivets (refer to figure 5.63) consist of a range of fasteners including Cherry-Lok and
Cherry-Max, which are manufactured in the USA. The primary difference between these and
the rivets mentioned previously is that the mandrel is locked in position, after closing, instead
of depending on friction alone.
During the final stages of closing, a locking collar, located in a recess in the rivet head, is
forced into a groove in the stem and prevents the stem from any further movement. This
method means that, when closed, the rivets have a shear and bearing strength high enough to
allow their use in place of solid-shank rivets.
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Figure 5.63: Cherry rivet
Standard Cherry Lock Rivet
Consist of a hollow sleeve, a spindle of increased diameter and a positive mechanical locking
ring. As the spindle is pulled into the rivet, a blind head is formed. Continued movement of
the spindle with the shank clamps the sheets of metal together. This movement also seats the
manufactured head tightly against the outer plate. When the groove in the spindle and the
chamber in the rivet head line up, the locking ring is automatically inserted. The spindle then
breaks off approximately flush with the top of the rivet head.
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Figure 5.64: Standard Cherry Lock rivet
Bulbed Cherry Lock Rivet
These have the same characteristics as the standard rivets plus a shear ring and tapered
spindle. As the spindle is pulled into the rivet shank, the blind head immediately bulbs
against the shear ring. When the hole is filled and the blind head is completely formed, the
shear ring shears from the spindle under maximum load then slides down the spindle taper.
Both shear ring and spindle taper join to push the bulbed head to its maximum width. The
lock ring insertion and stem break are as for the standard rivet.
The advantage of the Bulbed Cherry Lock rivet is that it does not exert any radial load on the
hole in the material being joined. This has been found, in some light alloys, to promote stress
corrosion.
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Figure 5.65: Bulbed Cherry Lock
Huck Blind Rivets
Huck rivets are very similar to Cherrylock rivets in that they have mandrels which are also
mechanically locked in position with collars when the rivets are broached.
The Huck rivet comprises three separate items, a sleeve having a pre-formed head, a
mechanical lock collar and a spindle on which the sleeve and lock collar are mounted. The
sleeves are normally supplied in either 1000 countersunk or protruding (snap) head types.
Annular grooves on the spindle shank provide a secure grip for the puller tool during setting.
As the rivet is set the spindle is drawn into the sleeve forming the blind head of the rivet.
During the final stages of setting, the mechanical lock collar is pressed into the lock groove in
the spindle, thereby securing the spindle in position. Continued tension on the spindle causes
it to fracture flush with the rivet head
The maximum grip length number is stamped on the head of each Huck rivet and its grip
range extends to 1/16 in from the length represented by that number. A typical part number is
as follows:
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Identification number: MLS - P - M5 - 6C

ML - Mechanically locked mandrel
S - Self plugging
P - Protruding (domed) head
M - Monel metal
5 - Rivet diameter in increments of 1/32 in. = 5/32 in.
6 - Maximum grip length in increments of 1/16 in. = 3/8
in.
C - Cadmium plated finish
Figure 5.66: Huck blind rivet
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SPECIAL FASTENERS
These fasteners are, basically, close-tolerance, metal pins that combine the best features of a
rivet and bolt. They usually require access to both sides of the joint but are extremely strong
in shear, with a shear strength equal to a standard AN bolt of the same size. Three typical
types, considered here, are:
 Hi-Lok Fasteners
 Hi-Tigue Fasteners
 Hi-Shear Fasteners
Hi-Lok Fasteners
The Hi-Lok fastener (refer to figure 5.67) consists of a metal pin which has a thin,
manufactured head at one end and a part-threaded shank at the other. The threaded end of the
Hi-Lok fastener contains a hexagon-shaped recess, for the insertion of an Allen Key.
After the pin is located in its prepared hole, a hexagon-headed collar is turned onto the
threaded shank by a box wrench or an ordinary spanner. An Allen Key engages in the recess
in the shank end, to prevent rotation of the pin whilst the collar is being tightened and, when a
pre-determined load is reached, the hexagonal section of the collar shears off, leaving the pin
securely fastened in the hole. Because the collar breaks off at a designated pre-load, the use
of torque wrenches is eliminated and three primary design advantages are:
 Accurate pre-load and torque to within 10%.

 Minimum size and weight.
 Rapid, quiet, single-handed operation.
Figure 5.67: Hi-lok fastener
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The pins are made of cadmium-plated alloy steel with protruding or 100-degree flush heads.
Collars for the pins are made of anodized 2024-T6 aluminium or stainless steel. The threaded
end of the pin is recessed with a hexagon socket to allow installation from one side. The
major diameter of the threaded part of the pin has been truncated (cut undersize) to
accommodate a 0.004-inch maximum interference-free fit. One end of the collar is internally
recessed with a 1/16-inch, built-in variation that automatically provides for variable material
thickness without the use of washers and without fastener preload changes. The other end of
the collar has a torque-off wrenching device that controls a predetermined residual tension of
preload (10%) in the fastener
Hi-Tigue Fasteners
Hi-Tigue fasteners (refer to figure 5.68) are similar to Hi-Loks, excepting that they possess a
bead at the bottom of the shank, adjacent to the threaded portion of the fastener. The bead
exerts a radial load to the side of the hole which serves to compress and strengthen the area
surrounding the fastener hole. This reduces the effect of cyclic loads on the fastener which, in
turn, will reduce the effect of the cold working of the joint and minimise the likelihood of
subsequent failure. The process is known as ‘broaching’.
Hi-Tigue fasteners are closed in exactly the same manner as the Hi-Lok types.
Figure 5.68: Hi-Tigue fastener
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Hi-Shear Fasteners
Hi-shear (pin) rivets are essentially threadless bolts. The pin is headed at one end and is
grooved about the circumference at the other. A metal collar is swaged onto the grooved end.
They are available in two head styles - the flat protruding head and the flush 100-degree
countersunk head. Hi-shear rivets are made in a variety of materials, and are used only in
shear applications. Because the shear strength of the rivet is greater than either the shear or
bearing strength of sheet aluminium alloys, they are used primarily to rivet thick gauge sheets
together. They are never used where the grip length is less than the shank diameter. Hi-shear
rivets are shown in figure 5.69.
A Hi-Shear fastener is a close-tolerance pin, which is an interference fit and must be tapped
into its hole before the locking collar is swaged on. There are two head styles; one being flat
while the other is countersunk. The rivets are closed, either with a special pneumatic pulling
tool or by a conventional riveting gun and a special, conical, gun-set.
Figure 5.69: Hi shear fasteners
Figure 5.70: Closing a hi-shear fastener
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Lock-Bolt Fasteners
Lock-bolt fasteners are designed to meet high-strength requirements. Used in many structural
applications, their shear and tensile strengths equal or exceed the requirements of AN and
NAS bolts. The lock-bolt pin, shown in view A of figure 5.71, consists of a pin and collar. It
is available in two head styles: protruding and countersunk. Pin retention is accomplished by
swaging the collar into the locking grooves on the pin. The blind lock bolt, shown in view B
of figure 5.71, features a positive mechanical lock for pin retention.
Figure 5.71: Two types of lock-bolt fastener
Jo-Bolts
The jo-bolt, shown in figure 5.72, is a high-strength, blind structural fastener that is used on
difficult riveting jobs when access to one side of the work is impossible. The jo-bolt consists
of three factory-assembled parts: an aluminium alloy or alloy steel nut, a threaded alloy steel
bolt, and a corrosion-resistant steel sleeve. The head styles available for jo-bolts are the 100-
degree flush head, the hexagon protruding head, and the 100-degree flush millable head.
The fastener is installed with either a pneumatic or a hand-operated tool, with which the bolt
is rotated and the nut is held stationary. This action expands the sleeve over the tapered end
of the nut and draws the fastened items together. At a pre-determined torque, the bolt breaks
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off at a notch-weakened point, flush with the head of the nut. A different tool is required for
each of the two head forms and for each particular diameter bolt.
Figure 5.72: Jo-Bolt
Figure 5.73: The components of, and the fitting of, a Jo-Bolt
Huckbolts
Huckbolt fasteners are designed for use in high strength structural joints where access is
available from both sides of the structure. A Huckbolt is not a bolt in the accepted sense as it
is not threaded; it is really a form of shear pin which is secured by the cold swaging of a
metal collar into annular locking grooves on the stud.
Two types of Huckbolt fasteners are used, a pin type using a long serrated pin for use where a
puller tool can be used, and a stump type having a short serrated pin for use with a swaging
set where operating space is limited. Both types are basically the same except for the length
of the pins and each use the same metal collar. The pin is manufactured of cadmium plated
steel or anodised aluminium alloy with a variety of head styles including pan, countersunk
and crown head.
Collars are produced in anodised aluminium alloy or cadmium-plated mild steel. The
recessed end of the collar is applied to the face of the work. All collars are supplied lubricated
to assist the swaging process.
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A Huckbolt can, when required, be applied to work with an interference fit; this makes it
unnecessary for holes to be reamed subsequent to drilling, and ensures fuel and water- tight
joints.
Huckbolt fasteners, both pin and stump type are manufactured in a range of shank diameters
and grip lengths and can be identified as follows. The basic part number denotes the type i.e.
1446 for pin type and 1426 for sump type, the dash number indicates the grip length is 1/16
in (0.0625 in) increments. N after the basic number denotes Nickel-cadmium plating. M after
the basic number denotes a sealant escape groove. For the diameters and grip ranges, the
relevant tables should be consulted.
Pin Type - These Huckbolts are set by pneumatically or manually-operated pull guns. The
pin is inserted as far as possible and the collar applied. If the pin is an interference fit it may
be necessary to tap the pin into the hole until the shank is gripped by the gun jaws. As the gun
is operated the pin is drawn towards the gun and reaction is applied to the collar by a swaging
anvil in the nose of the gun. The strong clenching action of the operation makes sheet
grippers unnecessary other than for local registration. After the swaging anvil forces the
collar into the pin locking grooves it begins to retract as pressure on the collar is transferred
to a second head within the gun, which eventually fractures the pin at the break neck, flush
with the outer face of the collar.
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Figure 5.74: Huckbolt Setting - Pin Type
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Stump Type - The stump type of Huckbolt is set with a swaging set. The stump (short pin) is
inserted into an interference hole and driven in with a hammer or air hammer. The collar is
placed over the stump and a bucking bar placed against the head of the stump. The swaging
set is placed over the collar and is driven using an air hammer, swaging the collar into the
fastener locking grooves. When the swaging set meets the material being fastened, the stump
and collar are fully locked in a permanent, integral unit.
Figure 5.75: Huckbolt Setting (Stump Type)
Tubular Rivets
Tubular rivets are used primarily to save weight when riveting through tubular or hollow
members, where a large part of the rivet is merely passing through space.
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They are often used on control rods for connecting end fittings. The rivets are made to AGS
drawing specifications in several materials. The drawing number indicates the type of rivet
and the following letter denotes the material. The number after the letter denotes the
dimensions of the rivet, but has no particular significance as is the case with other types of
rivet.
Table 5.11 shows the letters used to indicate different tubular rivet materials and the features
by which the materials may be recognised
Letter Material Identification Feature

Identification
Protective Physical
Treatment Characteristic
A Aluminium (L54) Anodic film Dyed black
D Duralumin (L37) None Natural colour
H Mild steel (T26) Cadmium plated Magnetic
J Nickel alloy Cadmium plated Only slightly

(DTD268) or Monel magnetic
metal (DTD204A)
K Monel metal None Only slightly
(DTD204A) magnetic
Table 5.11: Identification Codes for Tubular Rivets
Example
A tubular rivet with the designation code AGS 501/H/49 is made of mild steel, has a
length of 1 inch, and has a wall thickness of 26 SWG.
Rivnuts
These fasteners were produced to attach rubber de-icing boots to aircraft wing and tail
leading edges. Rivnuts can be either of the countersunk or flat head types, of which, each can
have open or sealed ends (refer to figure 5.76).
Installation is achieved by drilling a hole into the skin and a small notch made on the edge of
the hole to prevent the Rivnut rotating during closing
The nut on the thread of the ‘puller’ is inserted into the hole (refer to figure 5.77), and the key
aligned with the notch. The puller handle is squeezed, closing the nut and gripping the skin.
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The tool is then unscrewed from the Rivnut, leaving a threaded hole that accepts standard
machine screws, for attaching the de-icer boots
Rivnuts are supplied in American thread sizes and in BA or BSF thread forms, but to avoid
confusion, only the American types are considered here.
These Rivnuts are available in six grip ranges, the minimum grip Rivnut having a plain head
while the next size has a radial dash mark on the head. Each succeeding grip range is
indicated by an additional radial mark on the head with the largest size having five radial
dash marks.
The rivnut is manufactured in two head styles, flat and countersunk, and in two shank
designs, open and closed ends. See figure 5.77. Each of these rivets is available in three sizes:
6-32, 8-32, and 10-32. These numbers indicate the nominal diameter and the actual number
of threads per inch of the machine screw that fits into the rivnut. Open-end rivnuts are the
most widely used, and are recommended in preference to the closed-end type. However, in
sealed flotation or pressurized compartments, the closed-end rivnut must be used.
Figure 5.76: Rivnut types
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Figure 5.77: Rivnut setting
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6.6.PIPES AND UNION
6.6.1. INTRODUCTION
The many different systems in an aircraft require the services of pipes and hoses, in a range
of sizes. These can include fuel, oxygen, lubrication, hydraulic, instruments, heating, fire
extinguishing, air conditioning and water systems. Loss of integrity in any of these systems
could put the aircraft at risk.
The pressures inside the pipes can vary from negative (suction) through ambient, in
instrument piping, to as much as 4000 PSI (27.58 x 103 kN/m2) in a hydraulic system. Low-
pressure fluid lines can be manufactured from metal or plastic (pipes and tubes) or,
alternatively, from various forms of rubber (hoses). High-pressure fluid line can be made
from a variety of materials, including aluminium alloy, stainless steel, copper, titanium and
also reinforced flexible hoses.
Fluid lines are made of rigid, semi-rigid and flexible tubes, depending on their use. A rigid
fluid line would be one that is not normally bent to shape or flared. Direction changes and
connections are made by the use of threaded end-fittings.
Semi-rigid fluid lines are bent and formed to shape and have a relatively thin wall thickness
in comparison to rigid lines. A variety of end-fittings may be used to make connections
between semi-rigid tubes.
Flexible fluid lines are made from rubber or synthetic materials and are usually called
‘hoses’. Depending on the pressure they are designed to carry, hoses may have reinforcing
materials wrapped around them. Various types of end-fittings are used to attach hoses to each
other and to other components.
6.6.2. RIGID PIPES
These are usually manufactured in a standardised combination of length, outside diameter

(OD), and wall thickness. The use of threads, cut into the pipe wall, and the need for special
end-fittings means that, apart from some components, there are few, if any, rigid pipes used
on aircraft.
6.6.3. SEMI – RIGID FLUID LINES (TUBES)
Semi-rigid fluid lines are usually referred to as tubes or tubing and can be bent to shape and
are often flared for connectors. Sizing is also by length, OD and wall thickness.
Various methods are used to connect semi-rigid tubes both to each other and to other
connectors. These will depend upon the use, location and pressure being carried in the tube.
The most common end-fittings are of the flared, flare-less, swaged or brazed types and are,
often, standard parts.
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Flared End-Fittings
American flared end-fittings have a 74° flare (remember AGS are different and not
compatible) on the end of the tube, which matches a cone of the same angle on the
component (or adapter) to which it is being attached.
A special nut and sleeve are used to pull the flare onto the cone and to form a fluid-tight
metal- to-metal seal. The end-fittings are produced in a wide variety of types, depending upon
their use. Examples are the ‘In-line-’, ‘Cross-’, ‘Elbow-’, and ‘T’-type of end-fittings, in
addition to ‘Bulkhead’ fittings, which allow tubes to pass fluids through structural portions
(bulkheads) of an aircraft or of an engine power-plant assembly.
In-line connectors may be either of the pipe-to-pipe or pipe-to-adapter type of connectors and
internally coned adapters usually require the use of a dapter ‘nipples’ to provide an effective
seal (refer to figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1: Pipe-to-pipe and pipe-to-adaptor connectors

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Where it is necessary to have fuel, oil or other tubes passing through structural bulkheads, it
requires an end-fitting with a long body and provision for securing the end-fitting to the
bulkhead (refer to figure 6.2). Two typical bulkhead end-fittings, AN832 and AN833, are
among those illustrated and they can be identified by the extra machine thread at one end, for
attachment, to the bulkhead, by an additional, threaded, locking device.
Figure 6.2: Typical American (including ‘bulkhead’) connectors
Flareless Couplings
The heavy-wall tubing, used in some high-pressure systems, is difficult to flare (and flaring
tends to put the end of the tube in a stressed condition). For these applications the flare-less
coupling is designed to provide leak-free attachments without flares.
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Although there is no need to flare the tube, in one of the methods used, it is necessary to
pre¬set the coupling, prior to its installation (refer to figure 6.3). Pre-setting is the process of
applying enough pressure to a sleeve (also called a ferrule) to cause it to cut into the outside
of the tube.
The tube and ferrule are placed into a pre-setting tool and the action of tightening the nut
causes the ferrule to ‘bite’ into the tube. Depending on the size of th e tube and its material,
between one and one and a half turns of the nut is enough to form the pre-set.
When complete, the tube can be inspected and, if satisfactory, attached directly to the
appropriate union or adapter.
Figure 6.3: Pre-set flareless coupling
Two other methods of forming flareless couplings involve the swaging of metal sleeves
around the ends of the tubes, which are being connected and the joining of tubes by
brazing. Both methods require specialist skills, which are beyond the scope of these
notes.
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6.6.4. FLEXIBLE PIPES (HOSES)
The need for flexibility in many areas of aircraft construction means it is often necessary to
employ hoses, instead of semi-rigid tubing, for the transmission of fluids and gases under
pressure. Whilst a number of hoses were previously manufactured from rubber, most modern
hose manufacturers use either Teflon or other elastomers.
Low-Pressure Hoses
An example of the type of construction used in these hoses is where the inner and outer tubes
are made from synthetic rubber, with the inner having a braided cotton reinforcement (refer
to figure 6.4). These hoses are used on instrument systems, vacuum systems, autopilots and
other low-pressure systems, usually operating at pressures below 300 PSI (2.07 x 103
kN/m2).
Figure 6.4: Low pressure hoses
A typical marking on this type of hose could be a yellow line with the letters ‘LP’ along it.
The line (lay line) is used to ensure that the hose is not assembled with a stress-inducing twist
in it. Other markings could include the hose manufacturer’s code and part number, its size
and the date of manufacture
Medium-Pressure Hoses
Medium-pressure hoses are generally used with fluid pressures up to 1500 PSI (10.34 x103
kN/m2). Their maximum pressure varies with diameter, so that whilst smaller diameter hoses
will be able to withstand such pressures, larger sizes may be restricted to lower pressures.
Typical construction of this type of hose could be a seamless inner liner made from different
materials, a layer of cotton braid, a layer of stainless-steel reinforcement and an outer layer of
tough, oil-resistant, rubber-impregnated cotton.
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High-Pressure Hoses
All high-pressure hoses (refer to figure 91) have a maximum working pressure of at least
1500 to 3000 PSI (10.34 x 103 kN/m2 to 20.68 x 103 kN/m2) and use a synthetic rubber liner
to carry petroleum products. The inner liner is usually wrapped with two or more steel braids
as reinforcement. To distinguish high-pressure from medium-pressure hose, the entire hose
usually has a smooth outer cover.
Figure 6.5: High pressure hose assembly
The end fittings on a flexible hose assembly are made of steel or light alloy, depending on
their application. They are designed to exert a grip on the tubes and wire braids, so as to resist
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the high pressure twisting and vibrating loads, as well as providing an electrical bond
throughout the assembly.
Flexible hoses have their sizes identified by their inner bore diameter and the overall length.
With pre-assembled hoses, the overall length of the assembly, from the centres of the nipple
extremities, regardless of the shape of the end fittings, is used for identification purposes
(refer to figure 6.6).
Flexible hoses, used in engine bays and other high temperature areas, will often have a
metallic stainless braid as the outside layer, to make the hose fire-resistant.
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6.6.5. UNIONS AND CONNECTORS
Very few pipes and hoses are manufactured at company engineering facilities, the majority
being obtained direct from manufacturers and specialist suppliers.
It is important that engineers be aware of the variety of different types of unions and
connectors that are available for rigid pipes and flexible hoses on aircraft. These may be of
British,
European or American manufacture with the different standards that these entail.
Aircraft General Standards (AGS)
It has already been discussed, in earlier topics, how this British standard comprises a wide
range of small parts, which includes items such as bolts, nuts, rivets and taper pins. The
standard also includes pipe end-fittings (union nuts and adapters), sleeves, collars, and
nipples.
The cones (flares) on AGS end-fittings (unions and adapters) have an included angle of 32°,
with the pipe flaring machines being shaped accordingly.
Air Force and Navy (AN)
This standard may also be found in a wide range of aircraft and components, but it should be
noted that the flares and other hardware for this standard have an included angle of 74°.
Military Standard (MS)
This standard (as previously discussed) has replaced the standards from the AN system.
Many AN part numbers have been incorporated into the MS system and now appear with MS
designations
Other specifications in current use with aircraft manufactured in the USA include National
Aerospace Standards (NAS) and Military Specifications (Mil Specs). These may have an
equivalent civilian or Military Standard.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the Aeronautical Materials Division of
SAE specifications (AMS) are yet another set of standards to which aerospace materials may
be produced. The Society of Automotive Engineers has a second standard - referred to as the
Aeronautical Standard (AS) - which is for components that do not qualify for an AMS
standard.
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All these specifications provide for a range of fasteners with Unified threads in the UNC,
UNF and UNJF series and, whereas British aircraft fasteners are manufactured in a selected
range of Unified threads, American fasteners are in some instances supplied in both UNC and
UNF threads.
From all this it can be seen that great care must be taken when matching up union assemblies
with these many different forms of thread.
Quick-Release Couplings
Quick-release couplings are required at various points in aircraft systems. Typical uses are in
fuel, oil, hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Their purpose is to save time in the removal and
replacement of components; to prevent the loss of fluid and to protect the fluid from
contamination. The use of these couplings also reduces the maintenance cost for the system
involved.
A coupling consists of a male and female assembly (refer to figure 6.7). Each assembly has a
sealing piston (poppet valve) that prevents the loss of fluid when the coupling is
disconnected. Three checks may be used to verify a positive connection. These involve an
audible, visual and tactile indication. A click may be heard at the time the coupling is locked
and indicator pins will extend from the outer sleeve upon locking, which can be seen and felt.
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Figure 6.7: Typical quick-release (self-sealing) coupling
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6.6.6. BANJO COUPLING
A banjo coupling is used wherever a fluid tight seal is required, but relative (rotational)
movement between the fitting and hose is also required (such as on some brake units).
The fitting consists of a bolt, drilled longitudinally, and also partly radially. A ring (the
‘banjo’) with a hollowing on the inside accepts the fluid via the bolt’s drilling s.
To ensure a leak free fitting but also relative rotational motion between bolt and ring, a
washer is placed either side of the banjo as shown in figure 6.8.
Figure 6.8: Banjo couplings - fittings and assembly
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6.7. SPRINGS
Springs are mechanical components designed to store mechanical energy, working on the
principle of flexible deformation of material. Springs belong to the most loaded machine
components.
Applications for springs include:
a. Storing energy as in clock and watch springs

b. Energy absorbers for drives and reciprocating devices
c. Applying set forces as used in relief valves
d. Maintaining the position of a linked mechanical item such as a brake panel or door
e. Shock absorbers in anti-vibration protection
f. Indicating /controlling a load in a scale or instrument.
g. Lifting devices-Used to reduce effort in manual hoists
Spring Index
The spring index (C) for helical springs in a measure of coil curvature.
For most helical springs C is between 3 and 12
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6.7.1. TYPE OF SPRING
Leaf spring
Leaf Springs are widely used in the automobile and railway industries for suspension
applications. The simplest variation is the single beam spring. The more normal application
is the laminated (multiple) leaf spring which provides a more efficient stress distribution.
Single Leaf Springs have the following characteristics.
a. They are suitable for low and medium load forces

b. They have reasonably linear working characteristics
c. They have relatively low spring constant
d. They are long items with relatively low cross section
e. They are relatively low cost items
Laminated leaf springs have the following characteristics

a. They are suitable for higher loading forces
b. They have theoretically linear working characteristics (friction
between the leaves causes hysteretic pattern of the working
curve)
c. Compared to single leaf springs they have relatively high
spring constants (stiffness)
d. Laminated springs have high space requirements compared to
single leaf springs
e. They require regular maintenance (lubrication and cleanness)
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Torsion Spring
Torsion Bar
Springs used to apply torque or store rotational energy are generally called torsion or double
torsion springs. Torque by definition is a force that produces rotation. A torsion spring
exerts a force (torque) in a circular arc, and the arms rotate about the central axis. The stress
is in bending, not in torsion. It is customary to specify torque with deflection or with the
arms at a definite position.
P = Force on lever arm.

T = Torque resulting from force = PR (Nm)
R = lever radius
D= bar outside diameter
d= bar inside diameter
L = bar length
θ = Deflection (radians)
δ = Linear Deflection= θ. R
Torson Helical Spring
A typical torsion helical spring is shown below. There are a wide variety of coil end
configurations to suit different applications and a torsion spring is usually positioned on a
shaft. The coils are usually close wound as are tension springs but they generally do not have
any initial tension unlike tension springs.
The primary stress induced in torsion spring is a bending stress in the wire . This is not the
case for the tension and compression helical springs for which the primary stress is a
torsional (shear) stress. During forming residual stresses are built up in the winding process.
These residual stresses are in the same direction but of opposite sign to the working stresses
resulting when the spring is loaded causing the coils to tighten. Torsion springs are stronger
as a result and they are often designed to work at, or above the yield strength.
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Nomenclature :
d = wire diameter
D = Spring diameter
F = applied Force
n = Number of active coils
Torsion springs are often used over shafts. It is important that the spring inside diameter,
when fully loaded is not equal to, or less than the shaft diameter. If this happens the spring
will fail.
Helical Spring
A helical spring is a spiral wound wire with a constant coil diameter and uniform pitch. The
most common form of helical spring is the compression spring but tension springs are also
widely used. Helical springs are generally made from round wire. it is comparatively rare for
springs to be made from square or rectangular sections. The strength of the steel used is one
of the most important criteria to consider in designing springs. Most helical springs are mass
produced by specialists organizations. It is not recommended that springs are made
specifically for applications if off-the-shelf springs can be obtained to the job.
Helical spring may be divided into two sub type namely Tension Spring and Compression
Spring.
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Tension spring Compression Spring
The figure below shows various end designs with different handing. Each end design can be
associated with any end design. The plain ends are not desirable for springs which are highly
loaded or for precise duties.
Pitch
Free length Lo
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Plain and Closed and

Term Plain Closed Ground
Ground
End Coils 2
0 1 2
(n e )
Total Coils n+2
n n+1 n+2
(n t )
Free Length pn +2d
pn+d p(n+1) pn +3d
(L 0 )
Solid Length dn t
d(n t +1) dn t d(n t +1
(L s )
Pitch(p ) (L 0-d)/n L 0/(n +1) (L 0-3d)/n (L 0-2d)/n
Helical Extension Spring
An important design consideration for helical extensions springs is the shape of the ends
which transfers the load to the the spring body. These must be designed to transfer the load
with minimum local stress concentration values caused by sharp bends. The figures below
show some end designs. The third design C) design has relatively low stress concentration
factors.
Conical Helical Compression Springs
These are helical springs with coils progressively change in diameter to give increasing
stiffness with increasing load. This type of spring has the advantage that its compressed
height can be relatively small. A major user of conical springs is the upholstery industry.
 D1 = Smaller Diameter
 D2 = Larger Diameter
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Spiral Spring
A spiral spring consists of a strip or wire wound in a flat spiral .This is subject to a torque to
produce an angular deflection. A typical spiral spring is a clock spring.
D = Outside diameter of spring

b = Width of spring strip
d = Inside diameter of spring
t = thickness of spring strip
n = Number of turns of spring
L = Length of strip
F = Force to deflect spring
θ = Deflection (radians)
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Disc Spring
A disc spring is a conical shell spring which is loaded along its axis. Disc springs can used as
single or multiple units. When stacked in multiple units they can be stacked in series to give
a low stiffness value or in parallel to give a higher stiffness value. By varying the size and
the stacking arrangements an extremely wide variation in operating parameters can be
achieved.
Parallel Stacked springs (n springs)..For a given force the spring deflection will be (1/n) x the
deflection of a single spring. The stress experienced by each spring will be 1/n the stress
experienced by the single spring. (friction must be considered when loading is constantly
changing )
Series Stacked Springs (n springs)..For a given force the spring deflection will be n x the
deflection of a single spring. Each spring will experience the same stress as that for a single
spring
Series & parallel Stacked springs (n series + n parallel )...For a stack of springs n in parallel
and n in series. The deflection for a given force will be the same as for one spring. The
springs will only experience 1/n of the stress of one spring.
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6.7.2. SPRING DIMENSIONS
The close-coiled round wire helical compression spring is the type of spring most frequently
encountered, and it alone is shown below. It is made from wire of diameter ‘d’ wound into a
helix of mean diameter ‘D’, pitch ‘p’, and total number of turns ‘nt’. This last is the number
of wire coils prior to end treatment (see Table 7.1 below).
Figure 7.8: Compression spring dimensions
Table 7.1: Effect of end treatment
Close-coiled requires a small helix angle, say α ≤ 12°.
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The ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter is known as the spring index, C = D/d.
Portions of two springs which have the same mean coil diameter but different wire diameters
and hence different indices are compared here. It is clear that low indices result in difficulty
with spring manufacture and in stress concentrations induced by curvature. Springs in the
range 5 ≤ C ≤ 10 are preferred, while indices less than 3 are generally impracticable.
Loads are transferred into a spring by means of platens, which are usually just flat surfaces
bearing on the spring ends. Various end treatments are shown in Table 7.1.
Plain ends - when the wire is just cropped off to length - are suitable only for large index,
light duty applications unless shaped platens or coil guides are employed, because each
spring end contacts its platen at a point offset from the spring axis and this leads to bending
of the spring and uncertain performance.
Ground ends distribute the load into the spring more uniformly than do plain ends, but the
contact region on a flat platen will be very much less than 360° which is ideal for
concentricity of bearing surface and spring axis. One or more turns at the end of a spring may
be wound with zero pitch, this is called a squared or closed end. Subsequent grinding
produces a seating best suited for uniform load transfer, and so squared and ground ends are
invariably specified when the duty is appreciable. Grinding the ends becomes difficult when
the spring index exceeds 10, and is obviously inappropriate for small wire sizes - say under
0.5 mm.
The active turns na are the coils which actually deform when the spring is loaded, as opposed
to inactive turns at each end which are in contact with the platen and therefore do not deform
though they may move bodily with the platen. The free length L0 of a compression spring is
the spring's maximum length when lying freely prior to assembly into its operating position
and hence prior to loading. The solid length Ls of a compression spring is its minimum length
when the load is sufficiently large to close all the gaps between the coils.
Table 7.1 indicates how na, L0 and Ls depend upon wire diameter, total turns, pitch and end
treatment, however the Table's predictions should be viewed with caution - especially if there
are less than seven turns - because of variability in the squaring and/or grinding operations.
The springs illustrated here are right handed, but left hand lays are just as common. The lay
usually has no bearing on performance, except when springs are nested inside one another in
which case the two lays must differ to avoid interference. Springs with closed ends do not
become entangled when jumbled in a container, which is sometimes an important
consideration in assembly.
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6.7.3. SPRING FORCE
The forces may be exerted in the spring is tension, torsion or compression or their
combination
Spring Stress Values
For General purpose springs a maximum stress value of 40% of the steel tensile stress may be
used. However the stress levels are related to the duty and material condition (ref to relevant
Code/standard).
Spring Rate
An important initial factor in spring design is the Spring Rate
When considering linear motion the spring rate is the load divided by the elastic
deflection.
k=P/δ
P = Force (N)
δ = deflection (mm or m)
When considering angular (rotary) motion the spring rate is the Torque divided by the elastic
angular deflection.
ka = T / θ
T = Torque (Nm)
θ = Angular displacement (Radians)
Spring Class
Metal springs are generally fall into one of three classes of duty;
1. High Duty - Springs subject to rapidly reciprocating loads e.g.

engine valve springs
2. General Duty - Springs that work infrequently for limited
periods
3. Static Load Springs - Springs that are used to apply a fixed
load throughout their life
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Spring Energy Storage
Based on the deformation pattern, springs can be divided into the following three types:
1. springs with linear characteristics

2. springs with degressive characteristics
3. springs with progressive characteristics
The W area under the spring characteristic curve represents the deformation work (energy) of
a spring performed by the spring during its loading. Deformation energy of springs
subjected to compression, tension or bending is specified by the formula:
Spring State
At any point in a springs operating life it can be in one of a number of states
 Free- The spring is unloaded

 Preloaded - The spring is loaded as and initial operating state
 Loaded - The spring is loaded to under some operating
condition
 Fully Loaded - The spring is subject to the maximum design
operational loading
 Limiting Loaded - The spring is exposed to the limit load as
defined by the strength or design condition
A limiting load as defined by strength may be considered as at the limit of elasticity or at

yield.
A limiting load as defined by design limitations is exampled by a compression spring with all
coils in contact
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Fatigue
Components which are subject to continuously cyclic loading often fail prematurely as a
result of fatigue. The worst fatigue loading regimes are loads which continuously reverse
from negative (compressive) loading to positive (tensile) loading in a cyclic manner.
As springs are often used under continuously fluctuating loading conditions it is necessary to
consider fatigue loading and stress concentration factors. Helical springs are never used
under conditions of load reversals. They are either normally in tension or normally in
compression. In addition springs are often prestressed as part of the forming process or/and
preloaded, thus preventing the stress from being zero. These factors mitigate, to some extent,
the fatigue loading conditions.
All spring subject to continuous fluctuating load are candidates for fatigue failure. Typical
springs are
•Valve springs in automobile /aeroplane engines
•Vehicle suspension springs.
•Springs in press tools
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6.7.4. SPRING CHARACTERISTICS
The F-d characteristic is approximately linear provided

the spring is close- coiled and the material elastic. The
slope of the characteristic is known as the stiffness of
the spring k = F/d (sometimes called the spring
'constant', or 'rate', or 'scale' or 'gradient') and is
determined by the spring geometry and modulus of
rigidity as will be shown. The yield limit is usually
arranged to exceed the solidity limit as illustrated, so
that there is no possibility of yield and consequent non-
linear behaviour even if the spring is solidified whilst
assembling prior to operation. Sometimes a spring is
deliberately yielded or pre-set during manufacture as
will be explained later.
The animation illustrates the spring working between a

minimum operational state ( F|0, d|0) and a maximum
operational state ( Fhj, dhi). If the total number of cycles
is small - say less than 104 - then loading may be
treated as static, otherwise fatigue considerations
apply.
The largest working length of the spring should be

appreciably less than the free length to avoid all
possibility of contact being lost between spring and
platen, with consequent shock when contact is re-
established. In high frequency applications this may be
satisfied by the design constraint Fhi/F|0 ≤ 3.
As the spring approaches solidity, small pitch

differences between coils will lead to progressive coil-
to- coil contact rather than to sudden contact between
all coils simultaneously. Any contact leads to impact
and surface deterioration, and to an increase in
stiffness. To avoid this, the working length of the
spring should exceed the solid length by a clash
allowance of at least 10% of the maximum working
deflection - that is ds - dhi ≥ 0.1 dhi, though this
allowance might need to be increased in the presence
of high speeds and/or inertias.
Figure 7.10; Spring Characteristic
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6.7.5. SPRING MATERIALS
This page covers materials used for making metal springs which mainly include helical
compression, tensile, and torsion springs. Leaf springs and disc spring materials properties
may be identified in the more general notes. A wide range of materials are available for the
manufacture of metal springs including
 Carbon steels
 Alloy steels
 Corrosion resisting steels
 Corrosion resisting steels
 Phosphor bronze
 Spring brass
 Beryllium copper
 Nickel alloy steels
 Titanium alloy steels
Springs are manufactured by hot or cold working processes. The process depends on the
section of the material, the spring index (C= D/d) and the properties required.
Music Wire
This is the most widely used of all spring materials for small springs because it is the
toughest. It has the highest strength tensile and can withstand higher stresses under repeated
loading conditions than any other spring material. It can be obtained in diameters from 0,12
to 3mm. It has a usable temperature range from 0 to 120oC
Oil-tempered Wire. Music wire will contract under heat, and can be plated.
This is a general purpose spring material used for spings where the cost of music wire is
prohibitive and for sizes outside the range of music wire. This material is not suitable for
shock or impact loading. This material is available in diameters from 3 to 12mm. The
temperature range for this material is 0 to 180 oC..Will not generally change dimensions
under heat. Can be plated. Also available in square and rectangular sections.
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Hard-drawn wire
This is the cheapest general purpose spring steel and is should only be used where life,
accuracy and deflection are not too important. This material is available in sizes 0,8mm to
12mm. It has an operating range 0 to 120oC
Chrome Vanadium wire
This is the most popular alloy spring steel for improved stress, fatigue, long endurance life
conditions as compared to high carbon steel materials. This material is also suitable for
impact and shock loading conditions. Is available in annealed and tempered sizes from
0,8mm to 12mm. It can be used for temperatures up to 220 oC. Will not generally change
dimensions under heat. Can be plated.
Chrome-silicon wire
This an excellent spring material for highly-stressed springs requiring long life and/or shock
loading resistance. It is available in diameters 0,8mm to 12mmm and can be used from
temperatures up to 250oC. Will not generally change dimensions under heat. Can be plated.
Martensitic Stainless steel wire
This is a corrosion, resisting steel which is unsuitable for sub-zero conditions.
Austentic Stainless steel wire
A good corrosion, acid, heat resisting steel with good strength and moderate
temperatures. Has low stress relaxation.
Spring Brass
This is a low cost material which is convenient to form. It is a high conductivity

material. This material has poor mechanical properties. This metal is frequently used in
electrical components because of its good electrical properties and resistance to corrosion.
Phosphor Bronze
Popular alloy .Withstands repeated flexures. This metal is frequently used in electrical
components because of its good electrical properties and resistance to corrosion. Suitable to
use in sub-zero temperatures. They are much more costly than the more common stocks and
cannot be plated. Generally will not change dimensions under heat.
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Beryllium Copper
High elastic and fatigue strength, Hardenable. They are much more costly than the more
common stocks and cannot be plated. Generally will not change dimensions under heat.
Nickel base alloys
These alloys are corrosion resistant. They can withstand a wide temperature
fluctuation. The materials are suitable to use in precise instruments because of their non-
magnetic characteristic. They also poses a high electrical resistance and should not be used as
an electrical conductors.
Titanium
Used mainly in aerospace industry because of its extremely light weight and high
strength. This material is very expensive, It is dangerous to work as titanium wire will
shatter explosively under stress if its surface is scored. Size range 0,8 to 12mm. Generally
will not change dimensions under heat. Cannot be plated.
Composite materials
Anti-vibration mounting in engine and APU mounting installation used elastomers joining
with metals to form housing and bushing. Other type of spring made from combine synthetic
rubber strands braided cotton or nylon that usually named “shock cord” used in small
airplane.
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6.8.BEARINGS
6.8.1. TYPES OF BEARINGS
Bearings are, broadly, classified by the type of rolling element used in their construction. Ball
bearings employ steel balls, which rotate in grooved raceways, whilst Roller bearings utilise
cylindrical, tapered and spherical rollers running in suitably shaped raceways (refer to figure
8.1).
Although these notes give information on the uses of the various types of ball and roller
bearings, - together with general information on installation, maintenance and inspection, -
the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) should be the final arbiter for specific installations.
Ball bearings and tapered roller bearings accept both radial and axial loads, whilst the other
types of roller bearings may accept only radial loads.
Those bearings, which are contained in cages, are, in general, used for engine and gearbox
applications with rotational speeds in excess of approximately 100 rpm. Most other bearings,
on an aircraft or in an engine, are intended for oscillating or slow rotation conditions and do
not have a cage. They are generally shielded or sealed and pre-packed with grease, although
some have external lubrication facilities.
Figure 8.1: Ball and roller bearings
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6.8.2. BALL BEARINGS
These consist of an inner and outer race separated by hardened steel balls. This class of
bearing relies on the motion of the balls to reduce friction between the inner race carried on
the shaft of the machine and the outer race which is normally fitted inside a housing on the
stationary part of the machine. The bearing may be constructed using single or double rows
of balls, each row controlled by bronze or brass cage, but bearings which do not have a cage
are often used. Ball bearings are designed for RADIAL or THRUST loads or a combination
of both and are able to operate in either direction of rotation. Ball bearings can be of rigid or
self-aligning type depending on the requirement, this being determined at the time of
manufacture.
Figure 8.2: Section through a standard ball bearing
Ball bearings may be divided into four main types that define the way in which the bearings
are used. The main types of Ball bearings are:
• Radial Bearings
• Angular-Contact Bearings
• Thrust Bearings
• Instrument Precision Bearings
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Radial Bearings
Radial bearings are the most common type of bearing and can be found in all types of
transmission assemblies such as shafts, gears, control rods and end fittings. They are
manufactured with either a single or double row of balls, rigid for normal applications and
self-aligning for positions where accurate alignment cannot be maintained, such as in control
rod ends.
Angular-Contact Bearings
Angular-Contact bearings are capable of accepting radial loads and axial loads in one
direction only. The outer ring is recessed on one side to allow the ball and cage assembly to
be installed, thus enabling more balls to be used and the cage to be in one piece. The axial
load capacity depends on the contact angle.
In applications where axial loads will always be in one direction, a single angular-contact
bearing may be used but, where they vary in direction, an opposed pair of bearings may be
used.
Thrust Bearings
Thrust bearings are designed for axial loading only. They will usually be found in use
together with roller or radial ball bearings. The balls are retained in a cage and run on flat or
grooved washers. These bearings are adversely affected by centrifugal force and so work best
under high-load, low-speed situations.
Instrument Precision Bearings
Instrument Precision Bearings are manufactured to high accuracy and finish. They are
generally of the radial bearing type and can be found in both instruments and communication
equipment.
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6.8.3. ROLLER BEARINGS
These consist of an inner and outer race separated by hardened steel rollers instead of balls.
Roller bearings are normally only used to support radial loads but can be designed to
compensate for linear expansion of the shaft or housing, by ensuring that the inner and outer
races are truly parallel. Location and control of the rollers is achieved by a groove cut in the
inner or outer races which act as recesses for the rollers. This arrangement allows the rollers
to take up lateral expansion of the shaft by allowing the rollers to slide across the surface
during rotation.
Figure 8.3: Section through a standard roller bearing
Roller bearings may be divided into three main types that define their use. They are:
• Cylindrical Roller Bearings

• Spherical Roller Bearings
• Tapered Roller Bearings
Cylindrical Roller Bearings

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Cylindrical Roller bearings will accept greater radial loads than ball bearings of the same
size. This is due to the greater contact area of the rolling elements and, if they have ribs on
both rings, cylindrical roller bearings will also accept light, intermittent, axial loads.
Normally the rollers have a length equal to their diameter, although some rollers have a
length greater than their diameter to cater for special applications.
Roller bearings, which have a length much greater than their diameter, are normally called
needle roller bearings. These are designed for radial loads only and are best used in situations
where the movement is oscillatory rather than rotary, such as in universal joints and control
rod ends.
Spherical Roller Bearings
Spherical Roller bearings can be found with single or double rows of rollers, which run in a
spherical raceway in the outer ring, thus enabling the bearing to accept a small degree of
misalignment. These bearings will accept high radial loads and moderate axial loads.
Taper Roller Bearings
These bearings obtain their description from the shape of the inner race, this being in the
shape of a cone. The tapered bearing consist of the coned shaped inner and a cup shaped
outer race. The rollers are tapered and made from hardened steel. This class of bearing can
support radial loads in one direction only. Because of this, this class of bearing will often be
found to contain two individual rows of bearings, each row using the same inner and outer
races, but with the rollers arranged with the tapers on the rollers in opposite directions, thus
allowing the bearings to withstand radial loads in either direction.
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Figure 8.4: Section through a taper roller bearing
Tapered Roller bearings are designed so that the axes of the rollers form an angle to the shaft
axis. They are capable of accepting radial and axial loads simultaneously, in one direction
only. It is common to find tapered roller bearings mounted in pairs - back to back - so that
loads can be accepted in both directions.
Needle Roller Bearings
These bearings consist of an inner and outer race separated by narrow trunion ended rollers.
This class of bearing ft normally used where space saving is an important factor as they are
physically smaller in diameter than other classes of bearing but are longer and will support
the same loading as an equivalent sized ball or roller bearing. This class of bearing combines
some of the properties of ball and roller bearings in that they are able to support both radial
and trust loads.
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Figure 8.5: Section through a needle roller bearing
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6.8.4. OTHER BEARING TYPES AND FEATURES
Self-Aligning Bearings
Bearings which allow a limited movement of the shaft. So that the inner and outer races are
not always exactly aligned with each other. The action is, of course, achieved without
impairing the operation of the bearing and is a type common to ball and roller class of
bearing.
Single and Double Row Bearings
These bearings employ either a single or double row of either ball or roller bearings. Balls
and rollers are never mixed within the same bearing races.
Sealed Bearings
Some bearings will have a seal in the form of a circular plate fitted at one end of the bearing,
this prevents the lubrication used in the bearing from escaping into other parts of the
machinery and causing contamination. This type is called SEMI-SEALED If the basic idea of
a seal is applied to both ends of the bearing and the bearing is primed with the correct amount
and grade of lubricant during manufacture, then sealed, it is called a FULLY SEALED
bearing. Foreign matter cannot enter this type of bearing, but the bearing cannot be lubricated
or maintained other than to wipe the bearing clean and check it for roughness or wear by
carrying out a hand rotation test.
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Figure 8.6: Other bearing features
6.8.5. LIMIT SYSTEM
For ease of manufacture and replacement it is essential that the components of similar
mechanisms should be inter-changeable. For this reason limits are imposed on the
manufacturing errors to ensure that any two mating parts are manufactured to the limits stated
on the drawing. The limits are based on the tolerance and allowance applied to the
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dimensions of a manufactured part. The correct functioning of a component of any

mechanism depends upon their size. A rotating part must have clearance in its bearing, too
large a shaft or too small a hole can lead to damage and mechanical failure. Due to
imperfections in workmanship, it is not possible to manufacture component parts to
theoretically correct dimensions, but interchangeability of parts can be achieved if their
dimensions are within certain limits, thus the need for a limits system which defines how
much bigger or smaller than the basic size a part can be made and still be considered
acceptable. The limit system in use is the ISO system of limits, which is wholly metric and
covers up to 3150mm. The actual numerical values of tolerances are listed in the form of
engineering tables contained in the revised version of British Standard 1961, limits for
Engineering. The limits system used in the manufacture of a particular component should
always be shown in the title block of the engineering drawing for the component.
Fits
Defined as being the difference, before assembly, between the sizes of two parts of two parts
which are to be assembled. By using various methods of assembly, some gentle - some
extremely forceful, it is possible in engineering to obtain a fit whether or not the shaft is
smaller than the hole. When the shaft is smaller, a clearance exists between the parts,
therefore the assembly is relatively easy. When the reverse is true, an interference is said to
occur and force of some kind is needed to compete the assembly. From these two basic
situations, three types of fits emerge, Clearance, Transition and Interference:
• Clearance Fit. A fit which always has a positive clearance or, technically, where the
tolerance zone of the hole is always above that of the shaft.
• Transition Fit. A fit which can be either a clearance or interference fit or where the
tolerance zones of the hole and shaft over lap.
• Interference Fit. A fit which always has interference, or where tolerance zones of the
shaft, is always above that of the hole.
Tolerances
It is the aim of modern engineering production methods to make parts swiftly and to an
acceptable degree of accuracy. No engineering components can be made, or need to be made,
exactly to size. By using high quality machine tools and a certain flexibility in dimensions,
parts can be made at a tremendous rate and at the same time, guaranteed to be fully
interchangeable. This can be done by adopting a system of limits which in practice, defines
how much bigger or smaller than the basic size an item can be and yet still be considered
acceptable. A tolerance can be unilateral or bilateral. A unilateral tolerance is one which
permits a variation in one direction only, either above or below the basic size. A bilateral
tolerance allows a variation either above or below basic size.
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Bearing Clearance and Classification
The clearance inside a bearing is vital to the correct operation and long life of the bearing.
There are 4 classes of clearance:
• Group 2
• Normal
• Group 3
• Group 4
The clearance refers to the clearance between the ball, roller or needle and the outer race and
is identified by one of the two available methods:
Figure 8.7: Bearing clearance
Dot Method
This method of marking the bearing uses a dot code (or zeros) to denote the clearance:
(1) One dot indicates a range 0.00005" less than standard (Group 2 - not suited to high
speed)
(2) Two dots represent a standard clearance (Normal).
(3) Three dots indicate a clearance 0.00005” greater than standard (Group 3 -
Interference fit - high speed - axial loading).
(4) Four dots indicate the largest clearance (Group 4 - For use where the bearing is
expected to get hot).
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6.9.TRANSMISSION
6.9.1. BELTS AND PULLEY
Whilst some forms of pulley are covered in the section on controls, there are a few situations
where (lighter and less expensive) belts and pulleys are used to transmit movement/power in
place of cables.
Nominally flat belts and pulleys use only friction to transmit the power from input to output
shafts. These are, unfortunately, prone to slippage so, to reduce the problem, vee-section belts
were devised and yet a further improvement has seen the development of serrated or
‘toothed’ belts and pulleys, which use the principle of ‘engagement’, rather than friction’, to
provide drive.
Some of the uses to which belt drives are put can include a change of ratio, usually in a step-
down situation, as well as a simple connection between input and output shafts which are
displaced by some distance.
The simple belt and pulley system (refer to figure 95), has a step-up or step-down facility,
depending on which pulley is driven. It will give a mechanical advantage of 2:1 if the smaller
pulley is driven, due to it being half the diameter of the larger pulley. The larger pulley will
rotate at half the speed of the smaller one, and can be driven using half the torque.
Figure 9.1: Simple belt and pulley system
Some uses of belt and pulley installations in aviation can include the driving of propellers on
micro-light aircraft, which use high-revving engines. These engines rotate about 6000 rpm
whilst propellers are most efficient at around 2000 - 2500 rpm. Therefore the drive from the
crankshaft pulley, via a strong wide belt to the propeller pulley, gives a step down ratio of
about 2.5:1 on most of this type of aircraft.
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Another application of belt drives is on certain piston-engined helicopters, which use a belt to
connect the output pulley on the end of the crankshaft to the transmission and rotor. The
tension pulleys, which bear onto the belt, keep it at the correct tension for normal use.
When starting-up, the tension can be totally released, allowing the engine to be started
without the load of the rotors and transmission. In an emergency the released tension allows
the rotors to free-wheel (autorotate) and, thus, enables a safe landing.
There are a number of places inside piston engines where toothed belts, are used to drive
camshafts
6.9.2. GEAR TYPES
Spur Gears
Common straight toothed gear wheels with teeth formed externally or internally. External
spur gears are used when a change of speed is required and the shafts lie parallel to each
other, internally toothed gears are used when a change of speed is required whilst maintaining
an overall minimum diameter.
Helical Gears
Teeth are cut on a helix and a sliding engagement is made, with more than one tooth in mesh
at any one time.
This tooth shape is smoother and quieter running than spur type, but produces a heavy axial
loading on the shafts. This axial loading is proportional to the resistance to motion offered by
the driven gear, and can be eliminated with gears that are in permanent engagement by using
"Double Helical” gearing, where the teeth are cut with opposite helix.
Bevel Gears
These are used when the drive is required to be transmitted at an angle.
The teeth are formed on conical wheels and may be cut straight across in "Straight Bevel”, or
in a helix in the "Spiral Bevel”.
Hypoid Gears
These are used when the axes of the two shafts do not intersect, and are similar in appearance
to spiral bevel gears.
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Worm Gears
These are often used when a large reduction in shaft speed is required and a high resistance to
turning is encountered. The worm pinion teeth are similar to a multi-start thread while the
worm wheel teeth are cut at an angle.
Skew Gears
These are used to connect shafts whose centre lines do not intersect or run parallel. The teeth
are cut on an acute helix.
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Figure 9.2: Basic forms of gear
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6.9.3. GEAR TRAINS AND GEAR RATIONS
A gear ‘train’ consists of two (or more) gear wheels, running in series, on separate, parallel,
shafts such that one gear transmits its drive to the other. Gear trains can change the direction
of rotation and can also alter the speed of the output shaft. The speed of rotation is dependent
on the ratio between the number of teeth of the input gear to that of the output gear (the Gear
Ratio).
If, for example, the input gear has 25 teeth and the output gear has 75 teeth, then the output
speed will be in the ratio of 25:75, or one third of the input speed. Conversely, if the input
gear has 20 teeth and the output gear has 10 teeth, then the output speed will be in the ratio of
20:10, or twice that of the input speed.
Gear trains may be used in a variety of ways, to change the direction of rotation or to increase
or decrease the speed of the relevant output gear (and its shaft).
The design of a gear train will be influenced by the amount of space available to
accommodate the desired effect and by the power which is to be transmitted through the
gears.
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6.9.4. REDUCTION GEARS
Planetary (Epicyclic) Reduction Gear Train
The Planetary or Epicyclic gear train (refer to figure 9.3), is typical of a gear train which is
used to reduce the speed of an aircraft engine’s output shaft to a more acceptable speed for its
propeller. It has the advantage of putting the output shaft (the propeller), in line with the input
shaft (the engine shaft).
This configuration is far more efficient than a series of spur gears, as it results in a smaller
frontal area being necessary for the power unit and the subsequent reduction in aerodynamic
drag.
It should also be made clear, that neither the number of teeth on the planetary gears, nor the
number of gears on the spider affect the actual gear reduction.
For example, if the ring gear has 72 teeth and the sun gear has 36 teeth, then the overall ratio
remains at 2:1.
Figure 9.3: Planetary (Epicyclic) Reduction Gear Train
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Spur and Pinion Reduction Gear Train
The smaller, of a high-ratio pair of spur gears, is referred to as the ‘Pinion’, while the larger
remains the ‘Spur’ and spur and pinion gear arrangements also vary, depending on the
desired results.
Where the drive pinion is located inside the spur-cut ring gear (refer to figure 9.4) it has the
advantage of not only stepping down the ratio of input to output but also (as can be seen),
both gears rotate in the same direction.
Considerable space is also saved, compared to a system using two, externally-cut gears, for a
similar reduction in output speed.
Figure 9.4: Spur and Pinion reduction gear train
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6.9.5. ACCESSORY UNIT DRIVES
Aircraft engines also employ multiple gear trains (refer to figure 99), in their internal and
external gearboxes. These provide the drives for accessories such as fuel, hydraulic and oil
pumps, electrical generators, engine speed indicators and many other devices
Here it can be seen that ‘idler’ gears are added to reverse the rotation and possibly to alter the
final ratio of several drives and, while the majority of the gears are of spur and helical
configuration, the drive from the engine shaft, to the gearbox, has bevel gears.
Figure 9.5: Typical External Accessory Gearbox
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6.9.6. GEAR TERMS
Backlash (or lash)
The terms used to describe the clearance which must exist between gear teeth at point of
mesh, essential with all forms of gearing to allow for expansion and lubrication.
Idler Gear
A gear which is interposed between the driving and driven gear, its function is to connect the
drive between two shafts. A spur idler gear is used between two parallel shafts to maintain
the direction of rotation and does not affect the ratio of the gears. A bevel idler may be used
where two shafts intersect and/or are co-axial.
Intermediate Gear
A gear which is positioned between the driving gear and one or more driven gears in a gear
train. It may function as an idler gear or transmit drive through its own shaft.
Compound Gear
This is a gear wheel which has more than one driving face. These faces may be formed
integrally on one casting or forging, or it may comprise two or more gears bolted or splined
together to transmit drive to a number of shafts.
Pinion
This term is usually applied to the smaller of two mating gears.
Lay-shaft
A shaft which supports an idler gear or intermediate gear, it may be integral with the gear and
be supported by bearings, or may be fixed and provide a bearing surface for the rotating gear.
Rack and Pinion
A device in which a toothed rod (rack) meshes with a mating pinion to translate the rotary
movement of the pinion into linear movement.
Step-Up Drive
A drive through a gear train in which the speed of rotation of the output (driven) shaft is
increased.
Example: Used in aero-engines in a generator drive. It ensures that the generator has
sufficient rev/mm to remain "on charge” at engine idling rev/mm.
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Step-Down Drive
A reduction gear in which the rev/mm of the output shaft is reduced while the torque is
increased.
Example: Used between the engine and propeller in order to allow the engine to develop its
power by running at high RPM while maintaining high propeller efficiency by avoiding the
tips speeds reaching Mach 1
6.9.7. GEAR LASH PATTERNS
The lash and pattern of a gear is determined by how the teeth of one gear mate with the teeth
of another gear. If the teeth of one gear are set too tightly into the teeth of another, there will
be no lash and the gears will not be properly lubricated because a film of oil must be present
between the teeth of the gears as they mesh. If the gears are meshed too high in relation to the
teeth, the load will be transmitted to the smallest portion of the tooth, breaking the teeth
because of the load area. The ideal placement of the teeth is in the middle area. At this
position the teeth will receive proper lubrication and loading. At this point a measurable
amount of lash may some¬times be felt by holding one gear and trying to move the other
gear. In most instances this is a minute amount of lash and will be measured with a backlash
flag and a dial indicator. A typical gear may have 0.003 to 0.004 lash. In all instances the
amount of lash will be given in the main¬tenance manual and must be followed.
Figure 9.6: Various gear tooth positions with mating gears.
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The pattern of two gears is also very important and closely related to the lash. The lashes and
patterns are generally most critical where directional changes are made with gears, because
they are adjustable by moving the gears inward or outward in order to obtain the correct
relationship.
Figure 9.7: Gear tooth nomenclature used with gear patterns.
The pattern is simply the print that one gear leaves on another gear with which it mates. Each
gear tooth of a bevelled gear has a heel and a toe, The heel is located at the largest diameter
of the bevel gear, and the toe is located at the smallest diameter of the gear. If the gears mate
in such a manner that the teeth ride too close to the heel or toe, the load will not be distributed
evenly and breakage of the teeth will occur. The diagram below shows the pattern set too
close to the toe and to the heel. If it is a straight tooth bevel gear, the proper pattern should be
at the middle of the tooth. However, most gears are not straight tooth gears, but are helical in
design. By being helical more strength may be developed in a smaller gear. With this type of
gear a different pattern is developed in a no-load condition than under a load. With this type
of gear the ideal no-load pattern is shown in figure 9.8 (right).
Figure 9.8: Ideal no load pattern
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The patterns of these gears is taken by using Prussian Blue on the gears to leave the imprint
of the other gear on the teeth. The gears are moved in and out by shims. The thickness of
these shims determine the position of the gear and change the lash and pattern.
Often these gears on which lashes and patterns must be obtained are matched sets and are
replaced as matched sets. Some of the older gears of this type even have match marks as to
what tooth meshes with what tooth with X’s and 0’s scribed in the tooth. This is so that the
high and low spots do not come in contact with each other at the same time. Today this
system is almost forgotten because more modern methods of manufacturing have eliminated
the problem.
Figure 9.9: Typical shim method of moving gear positions.
Opinions vary considerably as to whether lash or pattern should be determined first. Most
technicians prefer to obtain lash first and then check the pattern. The reverse of finding
pattern and then determining lash will also work. If either lash or pattern cannot be properly
adjusted, it is a good indication of excessive wear in the gear teeth and the gears must be
replaced. In such situations it is most probable that if pattern is obtained, the lash will be out.
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Figure 9.10: Patterns may be changed by moving the gears.
6.9.8. CHAIN AND SPROCKETS
Chains, for aircraft use, are generally the simple roller type that consists of outer and inner
plates, rollers, bearing pins and bushes (refer to figure 9.11).
Chains may be one of four standard sizes but, for most aircraft installations, the manufacturer
dictates the size and type of chains used. They are obtained as complete, proof-loaded, units
from manufacturers, and are identified by their allocated part numbers in the relevant aircraft
IPC. Chain links or attachments should never be drilled and re-riveted. Where chains have
bolts in place of rollers and rivets, then the split pins must be replaced BUT, if the nuts have
been ‘peened’, then the nut and bolt must be replaced before re-assembly.
Figure 9.11: Typical chain parts and terminology
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The chain’s main purpose is to transfer motion from one point, to another, remote, point
where the input motion is replicated. An example of this would be found in the input action
of moving a control lever, on the flight deck of an aircraft, and the subsequent output action
of the movement of a control surface. Most installations use chains to generate and convert
rotary motion at each end, but use cables to connect the chains together over long distances.
Chains used for aircraft purposes are generally of the simple roller type and comply with the
requirements of British Standard BS 228: 1984, entitled Specification for Short Pitch
Transmission Precision Roller Chains and Chain Wheels. A complete schedule of dimensions
and breaking loads for chains is given in this Standard.
NOTE: BS 228 is equivalent to ISO 606 - 1982.
Chain assemblies are produced to standards prepared by the Society of British Aircraft
Constructors (SBAC). These standards provide a range of chains built up in various
combinations with standard fittings, e.g. end connectors with internal or external threads,
bi¬planer blocks for changing the plane of articulation of a chain through 90° (see Figure
9.15) and cable spools for connecting chains to cables having eye-splices. Such fittings are
illustrated in Figures 9.12 and 9.15.
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Figure 9.12: Standard chain fittings
Chain Assemblies
A simple roller chain consists of outer and inner plates, rollers, bearing pins and bushes; the
component parts are shown in Figure 9.13(a). The chain has three principal dimensions
(known as gearing dimensions since they are related to the size of the wheels on which the
chains run), these being pitch, width between inner plates and roller diameter. The positions
at which these dimensions are measured are shown in figure 9.13(b).
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Figure 9.13: Chain details
A typical assembly for 3/8 in and % in chains, using a standard end connector with an
internal thread, is shown in figure 9.14.
Figure 9.14: Typical chain end assembly
The pitch of the chain is the distance between the centres of the rollers and for aircraft
purposes, four sizes of chain are standardized by the SBAC, as shown in Table 9.1. BS 228
prescribes that the proof-load for a chain should be one third of the minimum breaking load;
the relevant figures for simple chains are also given in Table 9.1.
Chain Pitch BS No. Minimum Breaking Proof Load (lb)

Load
8 mm J 800 lb 267
0-375 in 2 1900 lb 634
0-50 in 4 1800 lb 600
0-50 in 6 3500 lb 1166
Table 9.1: Chain pitches, BS Nos. minimum breaking loads and proof loads
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Chain assemblies for aircraft systems should be obtained as complete, proof-loaded units
from approved chain assembly manufacturers and no attempt should be made to break and
reassemble riveted links or riveted attachments. If it is necessary to disconnect the chain, this
should be undertaken only at the bolted or screwed attachments. Split pins must not be re-
used and this applies also to nuts and bolts which have been peened.
NOTE: The procedure specified by SBAC standards for securing nut and bolt joints for
Class 1 application is to peen the bolt end for 8 mm pitch chain and to split pin the
bolts of the remaining standard chains. In all cases the nut is actually a lock nut, since
the hole in the loose outer plate is also tapped.
The use of cranked links for the attachment of the chain to end fittings, etc, is not permitted,
thus, when a chain is required to terminate in a similar manner at each end, the length should
be an odd number of pitches. For the same reason, an endless chain should have an even
number of pitches.
The use of spring clip connecting links is prohibited and the attachment of chains to other
parts of the system should be effected by positive methods such as pre-riveted or bolted
joints.
Installation of Chain Assemblies
Figure 9.15 illustrates typical arrangements of chain assemblies. Figure 9.15(a) shows the
simple transfer of straight-line to rotary motion, Figure 9.15 (b) illustrates how a change of
direction of straight-line motion is obtained, whilst Figure 9.15 (c) shows a change of
direction of motion in two planes by the use of a bi-planer block.
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Figure 9.15: Typical arrangements of chain assemblies
A range of non-interchangeable end fittings is available as a safeguard against the crossing of

controls. However, these connectors do not always prevent the possibility of reversing the
chain end to end on its wheel, neither do they prevent the possibility of the chain being
assembled to gear on the wrong face where two wheels are operated by the same chain. Such
contingencies can be overcome by the use of nonreversible chains.
Non-reversible Chains
Non-reversible chains are similar to standard chains except that every second outer plate is
extended in one direction in order to break up the symmetry of the chain. The complete
system of non-reversibility involves the use of five features, i.e. the nonreversible chain, the
shroud on the wheel, correct positioning of the wheel on its shaft, the chain guard and non-
interchangeable connectors. The shape of the special outer plates and the principle of
non¬reversible chains is shown in Figure 9.16.
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Figure 9.16: Non-reversible chain assemblies
It will be seen from Figure 9.16 that by providing a shroud on one side of the wheel and by
making use of the chain guard, the reversing of the chain end to end on its wheel is not
possible. It should be borne in mind that in practice a special feature, such as an attachment
collar, a key, or a flat on the shaft in conjunction with a specially shaped hole, is incorporated
in the wheel mounting to ensure that it can be assembled on its shaft in one definite position
only.
Figure 9.17 illustrates an instance where the use of jockeys is necessary or where contra-
rotation of the wheels is required; it will be seen that the feature of non-reversibility does not
affect the ability of the chain to gear on both sides.
Figure 9.17: Non-reversible chain with jockey pulley
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6.10. CONTROL CABLES
6.10.1. CONTROL CABLES
Cables, used in aircraft control systems, comply with a number of British and American
Standards and are ‘preformed’ during manufacture.
These are made of extra flexible galvanised High Tensile Steel (HTS) or High Tensile
Stainless Steel (HTSS) wire. The majority of the cables used on British Aircraft are of the
preformed type, which have the following advantages:
 resists un-stranding
 resists kinking
 more easily spliced
 if a wire breaks, it will tend to lie flat.
To form a cable, a number of wires are wound together to form a strand, and a number of
strands are wound together to form a cable. The straight strand running through the centre of
the cable is known as the heart strand.
Preformed cables are manufactured from either galvanised carbon steel or corrosion-resistant
steel, and are impregnated with friction-preventive lubricant (such as lanolin) during
manufacture. Non-preformed single strand cable may be found on some minor aircraft
systems. Aircraft cables are usually classified by either their minimum breaking load or
nominal diameter.
It is very rare for a cable to be manufactured by an operator. They are normally ordered
through the aircraft’s IPC, and the aircraft manufacturer supplies the cable fully formed with
the necessary end-fittings and to the correct load factor.
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British Cable
Minimum No. of Wires No. of Strands Cable diameter

Breaking Load per Strand per Cables
5 cwt. 7 7 0.08 in.
10 cwt. 14 7 0.12 in.
15 cwt. 19 7 0.15 in.
20 cwt. 19 7 0.16 in.
25 cwt. 19 7 0.18 in.
30 cwt. 19 7 0.21 in.
Table 10.1 : British control cable specification
American Cable
Diameter (in) No. of Wires No. of Strands Minimum

per Strand per Cable Breaking load
1/16 7 7 480 lbs
3/32 7 7 920 lbs
1/8 19 7 2000 lbs
5/32 19 7 2800 lbs
3/16 19 7 4200 lbs
7/32 19 7 5600 lbs
Table 10.2: American control cable specifications
The majority of cables used in British aircraft control systems are of the preformed type
complying with British standards. There are two standards in common use:
 W9 Preformed Galvanized Carbon Steel Wire Rope
 W11 Preformed Non-Corrodible Steel Wire Rope
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Cables manufactured to British standards are designated by their minimum breaking load in
cwt i.e.5 cwt 10 cwt 15 cwt etc.
American cables are designated by their diameters and a minimum breaking load in lbs (e.g.
1/4"diameter 7000 lbs Galvanized or 6400 lbs Stainless Steel)
The construction of a cable is such that a number of wires make up a strand (usually 7 or 19
wires) Then 7 strands make up the cable with the exception of 3 cwt which only has 4
strands.
Figure 10.1: Cable construction
The construction of the cable is determined by the number of strands it contains, and the
number of wires in each strand (refer to figure 10.2). For example a cable designated as 7 x
19, consists of 7 strands, each containing 19 wires. The two most common forms of
construction are the flexible and the extra-flexible types.
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Figure 10.2: Cable types
6.10.2. CABLE SYSTEM COMPONENT
There are many components associated with cable systems and a selection is presented here
merely for information. They include:
 End-Fittings
 Turnbuckles
 Shackle Pins
 Tensioning Devices
 Fairleads
 Lockclad cables
 Pulleys
Cable End-Fittings
Whilst cables were, previously, ‘spliced’ or ‘whipped’, to form end -fittings, the majority of
modern cables have a ‘swaged splice’ end-fitting. Most end-fittings, on control cables, are
special-to- type and end-fittings such as fork, threaded (internal and external), and ball end-
fittings (refer to figure 103) can be found in various locations. The nominal overall length of
a cable will depend on the type of end-fitting which is being employed.
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Figure 10.3: Cable end-fittings
Turnbuckles
Turnbuckles are devices which are attached (via internal or external threads) to appropriately
designed end-fittings of aircraft cables and are used to join lengths of cables and to adjust the
tension of those cables.
Cable runs that are too tight will make the controls stiff to operate and, conversely, cables
that are too slack will make the controls sloppy and unresponsive.
Turnbuckles are adjusted by the use of a ‘left-hand’ thread in one end of the turnbuckle, and a
‘right-hand’ thread in the other end (refer to figure 10.4). When the centre part of the
turnbuckle is rotated, its length will increase or decrease, and so it will adjust the cable
tension.
The groove around one end of the turnbuckle barrel, indicates the ‘left hand thread’.
Once the correct tension has been obtained and confirmed (using a cable tensiometer), the
turnbuckle is checked for ‘safety’ (sufficient threads are engaged in the turnbuckle) and the
device is then securely locked.
The spring type of locking clip (used in place of locking wire) can only be inserted into the
turnbuckle when the corresponding longitudinal grooves in the barrel and end fittings are
aligned.
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Figure 10.4: Turnbuckle locking with clip
British Turnbuckles - The sizes are stamped on the eye or fork end.
5 cwt. - 4 BA
10cwt. - 2 BA
15cwt. - 2 BA
20cwt. - 1/4 in BSF
25cwt. - 1/4 in BSF
35cwt. - 5/16 in BSF
American Turnbuckles - An American turnbuckle consists of a brass barrel having a left

hand thread at one end and a right hand thread at the other. End fittings may be eye ends, fork
ends or swaged on, cable end fittings. A groove on the turnbuckle barrel indicates the left-
hand threaded end.
The turnbuckle is in safety when not more than three end fitting threads are visible. It is
locked using locking wire. Clip type locks may be used in place of locking wire if the
turnbuckle barrel is drilled to accommodate this type of clip. The locking clips are used once
only.
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Figure 10.4: Turnbuckle locking with
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Shackle Pins
These are used with fork joints, fork ends and other applications where they take shear loads.
They are secured in place with split pins. While non-standard end fittings are used, a collar
may be placed over the small end and the split pin passed through the collar and shackle pin.
Shackle pins are made from High Tensile Steel and High Tensile Stainless Steel. H.T.S.S.
shackle pins have a dimple at the shank end and/or the letter ‘Z’ marked on the head.
The diameter is denoted by a letter starting from A which is 5/32 in and rising by 1/32 in
from each letter up to T.
Length is indicated by a number starting with 1 which is 0.25 in and rising 0.050 in per
number, and is measured from the underside of the head to the nearer side of the split pin
hole.
Example: D9 is 1/4 in diameter, 0.65 in long.
Figure 10.5: Shackle pin
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Cable Tensioning Devices
Although the cable tension can be correctly adjusted on the ground, that set tension may alter
once the aircraft is in flight. This can be due to the large temperature differentials involved -
particularly with larger aircraft, which fly at high altitudes and are capable of experiencing
various climates in one flight - and the consequences of an expanding, contracting and
flexing airframe. To overcome these problems a tension regulator is installed in some control
runs.
As previously stated, engineers will use a tensiometer to set and check the tension of a cable.
The tension regulator (refer to figure 10.6) is a device which has springs, incorporated within
the mechanism, to ensure that the cable tension remains constant, regardless of the flexing
and temperature changes of the airframe.
Figure 10.6: Cable tension device
Cable Tension Regulators can be very dangerous, when disconnecting cable runs, so it is
important to ensure that they are locked or ‘snubbed’, in accordance with the AMM, before
any work is done on the controls.
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Cable Fairleads
The cables of a control run must be supported otherwise they may foul the airframe structure.
They are supported by fairleads (refer to figure 10.7), which are usually made from fibre.
These fairleads should not be lubricated as this will collect dirt and dust, which will cause
extra wear on the cable and fairlead. Where a change in direction of the cable is required, a
pulley is normally used, due to its low friction in comparison with fairleads. Guards are fitted
to pulleys when the risk of the cable riding off the pulley is high.
The fairleads, already mentioned, simply allow the cable to pass through the bulkheads
without chafing. If, however, the bulkhead is the divider between the pressure cabin and the
outside air pressure, then the fairlead will be designed to be an airtight seal, as well as a cable
guide.
Figure 10.7: Cable fairleads
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Figure 10.8: Cable fairlead components
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Lockclad Cables
Lockclad is a standard twisted steel wire cable with an aluminium tube swaged around it.
This type of cable has two advantages. One is that the cable’s coefficient of expansion is
nearer that of the aircraft’s fuselage than the standard steel wire cable. With temperature
changes, they expand or contract by almost the same amount.
The other advantage is that Lockclad cable is more rigid. There is less cable sag and fewer
supports are needed for a given length of cable.
Fork Joints
These are used in conjunction with bracing wires, tie rods, tension rod turnbuckles, etc.
Identification is as follows:
1. Low Tensile Steel - Plain collar

2. Stainless Steel - No collar or groove
3. High tensile Steel - Groove around collar
4. H.T. Stainless Steel - Groove around shank
Size and nominal thread diameter is determined by a code marked on the shank. Code
numbers commence from:
412 which is 4 BA
413 which is 2 BA
For numbers starting from 414, subtract 406 the size being in 1/32 in. The letter R or L added
as a suffix indicates left hand or right hand thread e.g. 420R.
420 = 7/16 in B.S.F

R = Right hand thread
Figure 10.9: Fork Joints - Materials and Markings
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Pulleys
Cables that run from the flight deck to the control surfaces, require the ability to change
direction (possibly a number of times).
If the cable needs to change direction to another angle, the conventional method of a pulley
allows this change with little friction. The example of the elevator flying control run of a
simple aircraft, (refer to figure 10.11), has pulleys that can change the direction of the cable
through a large range of angles.
Figure 10.11: Elevator control cable run
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Figure 10.12: Cable pulley
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6.10.3. BOWDEN CABLES
The Bowden system of control consists of a stainless steel wire, housed in a flexible sleeve or
conduit (refer to figure 10.13). The control is intended for pull operation only, with the cable
being returned, on release of the control lever, by a return spring. The transmitting end of the
cable is attached to the actuating lever whilst, at the receiving end, the cable is secured to the
component to be operated.
The flexible cable is made up of several strands of stainless steel wire with nipples soldered
onto the end of the wire. The nipples are of different shapes, depending on their use. The
flexible conduit consists of close-coiled wire, covered with cotton braiding and a waterproof
coating. For long runs, or runs not requiring flexibility, the Bowden cable is fed through rigid
metal tubing, which can be bent over large radius curves if required.
Figure 10.13: A Bowden cable
The control fittings are used at each end of the cable to transmit and actuate the movement
required. These fittings are the hand levers and adjustable stops (refer to figure 10.14). The
illustration shows a simplified set-up of a Bowden cable control, with an operating lever and
an adjustable stop. The double-ended stop is used if the component does not permit access to
the stop at that end of the cable.
At points along the conduit, connectors may be found which allow the conduits to be
separated for maintenance. Junction boxes are also used, to permit either more than one input,
to actuate a single operating lever, or one input to operate a number of operating mechanisms.
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Figure 10.14: Bowden cable end fittings
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6.10.4. TELEFLEX CONTROL SYSTEMS
The Teleflex control system differs from most other cable control systems in that, rather than
have a pair of cables (both of which operate in tension only), the Teleflex system allows a
single, flexible cable to operate in both push and pull mode, without the need for a return
spring.
Examples of the types of systems, operated by Teleflex controls, are engine and propeller
controls, trimming controls and fuel valves. Teleflex controls can also be used to transmit
movement from one place to another, such as in a mechanical Flap Position indicator or as
interlocks between controls and throttles during control lock operation.
Figure 10.15: Types of Teleflex control cable
The Teleflex Control employs a flexible cable, which operates inside a rigid conduit. This
cable has a continuous helix (form like a screw thread) throughout its length. In most
instances this rack engages with the teeth of gear wheels at the transmitting and receiving
ends of the control runs. It is also used as a thread by which various end fittings can be
attached to the cable.
(a) Cable
The cable is made of high tensile steel wires, which enable it to transmit both push and pull.
The strand core A transmits the pull, whilst the first wire wrap B transmit the push. A and B
are wound in different directions to prevent the cable from twisting under load. A wire of
heavier gauge C, interspaced by three turns of wire D, forms the helix which acts as a bearing
surface when working in the conduit and by which the end of the cable is gripped in the
control unit.
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Figure 10.17: Teleflex control cable
b) Conduit
The flexible conduit consists of a wound wire casing, suitably protected externally. The rigid
conduit consists of a number of light alloy tubes, jointed together by clamps to make up the
total length required.
The conduits operate in a similar manner to the Bowden system and are made from copper,
aluminium or steel. The linings are of PTFE on most conduits except in high temperature
areas like engine bays.
c) Box Fittings
(i) Control end units vary in detail. In the "box" (or wheel) unit at the control end
the large wire of the cable C is engaged between the teeth of the gear wheel
and the body of the unit. The gear lever is turned by a hand lever or hand
wheel, thus moving the cable into or out of the box. In some boxes (double
entry) the cable engages the pinion for 180 degrees and an outlet it provided
for the free end of the cable, which is protected by a short length of conduit.
These boxes permit much greater movement of cable.
Figure 10.18: Teleflex control cable with box fittings

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(ii) Alternatively, the control may consist of a simple push-pull unit. This is
sometimes fitted with a spring-loaded stop to retain the control in any position;
or sometimes fitted with a spring which returns the control to its original
position when released from operation. The cable is attached to such a fitting
by clamping a short coil of wire, which is screwed to the cable end, between
two parts of the control knob,
Figure 10.19: Teleflex control push-pull unit
iii) At the operating (or terminal) end the fitting may be box type (with gear
wheel) or a simple sliding end fitting to which the cable is attached in a similar
manner to that for a push-pull type of control. This final attachment to the
component operated could vary, being either fork end or ball and socket -
examples of which are shown.
Figure 10.20: Teleflex control box
iv) A swivelling coupling is sometimes used to allow the sliding end fitting an
angular movement; this is used when the lever on the component scribes an
arc.
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Figure 10.21: Teleflex control swivelling coupling
To operate the system, the cable and conduit are connected to control units at each end of the
control run and, in between, to other units and fittings, which are used to direct the run. In
many locations, the cables are attached to lever-operated wheel units or to push-pull handles.
At the receiving end of the run, another wheel unit or sliding end-fitting is used to actuate the
mechanism.
The Teleflex system allows a variety of controls to operate a wide selection of end-fittings
(refer to figure 10.22 and 10.23).
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Figure 10.22: Teleflex control cable end-fittings
Figure 10.23: Examples of Teleflex control cable runs
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6.11. ELECTRICAL CABLE AND CONNECTORS
6.11.1. CABLE PERFORMANCE
The prime considerations that govern the construction of any electrical cable are that it must:
 Be capable of carrying its rated current
 Be able to withstand the applied voltages
 Be flexible, where necessary
Also it must be able to perform these functions in conditions of:
 Very high temperature
 Very low temperature
 A large temperature range
The insulation of additional covers must provide a mechanical cover to protect the cable in
the environment in which it is designed to be used, e.g.,
 Atmospheric moisture
 Fuels
 Lubricating oils and greases
 Hydraulic fluids
 Abrasion caused by vibration
The definition of cable performance has increased in complexity and precision with the
reduction of insulation thickness and weight. Some of the cables now used for airframe
wiring have no more than 0.006" of insulation thickness and thus there is little margin for
error in manufacture or in an aircraft installation. The operating temperature dictates to a
large extent the materials and constructions used, but installation requirements need to be
satisfied by defining properties such as resistance to insulation "cut through" and abrasion. It
follows that cables need to be selected with care and the factors detailed below should be
considered in relation to any intended duty.
Temperature
The temperature rating of a cable must be defined to permit comparison with the worst case
requirements of the application. It follows that the location of a cable, relative to hot air ducts
and local hot spots such as power transformers and some filament lighting, must be known.
Cables have a specified maximum continuous operating temperature and for many types, this
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may be achieved by any combination of ambient temperature plus temperature rise due to I2R
losses. However, it should be noted, that in general, it is undesirable to contribute more than
40° rise by electrical heating and that operating temperature and installed life are directly
related. The temperature rating of an airframe cable is determined by its construction.
105°C (obsolescent cable types), 135°C, 150°C, 210°C and 260°C.
Clearly this temperature rating had to be known when evaluating any design application.
Flammability and Toxicity
All cables are required to have a defined level of resistance to burning when exposed to
standard flame tests. In addition to the requirements for flammability, there exists within
BCARs and FARs, general requirements relating to the hazards of smoke and toxicity. In
recent years, greater emphasis has been placed upon these characteristics and whilst they are
not yet defined in many civil cable specifications, it is generally true that new cable types
have been more thoroughly investigated.
Wet Arc Tracking
A requirement has now been formulated to assess the 'resistance to failure' of cables when
subjected to a combination of insulation damage and fluid contamination.
Tracking can also occur under dry conditions and this is being studied. This failure mode
reinforces the need for good cable installation and maintenance practices.
Fluid Contamination
Cables are required to display a defined level of resistance to the effects of commonly used
aircraft fluids but this is not to say that cables can withstand continuous contamination, which
should be avoided. A related hazard is that presented by sealing compounds because this
these may contain agents which are aggressive to cable insulation. It follows that where a
new cable type is introduced, the compatibility with such compounds should be checked.
Equally, the use of a new fluid on an aircraft, e.g. new types of hydraulic fluid, should be
considered in relation to the ability of cables to withstand contamination. Contamination of
cables by toilet or galley waste has to be rigorously prevented or corrected.
6.11.2. CABLE SIZE
Cable is usually identified by a size number which approximates to the AWG (American
Wire Gauge) size of the conductor. However, some cables employ a number which refers to
the square millimetres of a conductor cross section, which is a system used extensively for
commercial cables. The size of cable is the primary determinate of the electrical protection
level set by the circuit breaker or fuse and should never be reduced below the level
established by proper coordination data.
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Manufacturers publish rating data for single cables in free air and for bundles of three cables
in free air. By study of the short term and continuous ratings for a given cable type and size,
the correct protection can be determined (CAA Airworthiness Notice No 12 Appendix No 32
should be observed). Current rating data usually relates to a temperature rise of 40°C above
ambient as stated above and due allowance must be made for such electrical heating.
Manufacturers' data will normally include conductor resistance in ohms per km at 20°C and a
temperature correction may be necessary if accurate voltage drop calculations are necessary.
It should be noted that cable 'size' relates only to the conductor and thus the overall diameter
and surface finish for a given size may vary significantly between cable types, such
differences in overall diameter may have an effect on cable sealing in connectors and
pressure bungs and also the selection of pre_ insulated terminal ends where a dielectric crimp
is provided. carrying ability.
Current Carrying Capability
A wire fitted to an aircraft system should be able to carry the required current without
overheating and burning. Also it must be able to carry the required current without producing
a voltage drop greater than that which is permissible for the circuit.
Most aircraft wiring that is required to carry large amounts of current for long distances, is
generally made up of aluminium wire.
Tables 11.1 and 11.22 shows the characteristics of MIL-W-5086 copper wire and MIL-W-
7072 aluminium wire
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Wire Size Single Bundled Max Weight

Wire Wire Resistanc Pounds
Max Max e per
Amps (In Amps Ohms/1,0 1,000ft
free Air) (Conduit 00ft
) (20°C)
AN-20 11 7.5 10.25 5.6

AN-18 16 10 6.44 8.4
AN-16 22 13 4.76 10.8
AN-14 32 17 2.99 17.1
AN-12 41 23 1.88 25
AN-10 55 33 1.1 42.7
AN-8 73 46 0.7 69.2
AN-6 101 60 0.44 102.7
AN-4 135 80 0.27 162.5
AN-2 181 100 0.18 247.6
AN-0 245 150 0.11 382
AN-00 283 175 0.09 482
AN-000 328 200 0.07 620
AN-0000 380 225 0.06 770
Table 11.1: MI L-W-5086
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Wire Size Single Bundled Max Weight

Wire Wire Resistanc Pounds
Max Max e per
Amps (In Amps Ohms/1,0 1,000ft
free Air) (Conduit 00ft
) (20°C)
AL-6 83 50 0.64
AL-4 108 66 0.43
AL-2 152 90 0.27
AL-0 202 123 0.17 166
AL-00 235 145 0.13 204
AL-000 266 162 0.11 250
AL-0000 303 190 0.09 303
Table 11.2: MI L-W-7072
We need to supply an actuator with 100 amps of current from a 28V system. Using tables
11.1 and 11.2, select both a copper and aluminium single wire to carry out this task.
Copper wire gauge - ……………………………
Aluminium wire gauge - ……………………………
Note; The higher the number the smaller the wire.
Now select a wire for the above task that will be routed within a bundle.
Copper wire gauge - ……………………………
Aluminium wire gauge - ……………………………
Note: The rule of thumb says that when substituting copper for aluminium wire, we
should use wire that is two gauge numbers larger. The Authority does not allow
aluminium wire smaller (in size, larger in number), than 6-gauge to be used on
aircraft.
Voltage Rating and Voltage Drop
All cables have a rated voltage and some, such as equipment wires, may be specified by
voltage. Particular reference should be made to the specified voltage of any cable where
higher than normal potentials may be used, examples being discharge lamp circuits and
windscreen heating.
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When we add any electrical equipment to an aircraft, we must be sure that the current flowing
in the wiring does not drop the voltage below a set level.
Table 11.3 shows an example of the allowable voltage drop for various systems using
various supply voltages.
Nominal Allowable Voltage Drop - Volts

System
Voltage
Continuous Intermittent
Operation Operation
14 0.5 1
28 1 2
115 4 8
200 7 14
Table 11.3: Allowable Voltage Drop
6.11.3. CLASSIFICATION OF CABLES
Listed below are the broad classifications used for aircraft cables. Regrettably, there is little
International Standardisation of terminology and it should be noted that the term 'wire' is used
in the USA where most other countries talk of 'cable'.
Airframe Cables
Cables designated as 'Airframe' are intended to be sufficiently robust to satisfy the

requirements of 'Open' airframe wiring and the general wiring of Power Plants. However, in
recent years there has been a strong trend towards very thin insulation which is harder and
stiffer than insulation such as PVC. Such 'stiff cables are perfectly satisfactory if the
installation is designed to accept them but they may very well be quite unsuitable for an older
airframe design requiring, say, flexing over hinges. It follows that even if all the major
declared characteristics such as overall diameter and temperature rating are acceptable, the
apparently equivalent cables may still not be interchangeable. There are two basic methods of
applying cable insulation, namely wrapping and extruding. These methods in themselves can
produce different 'handling' characteristics. In the USA, the term 'Medium Weight
Interconnect' may be used for Airframe Cables.
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Interconnect Cables
'Interconnect' is a term adopted by the BSI to designate cables which may be used in
protected areas of wiring such as the interconnection of equipment within racks. Such cable
would then be positioned into an aircraft. It would not, therefore, be subject to 'pulling
through' and other such stressful exercises. Interconnect cables employ thinner insulation
than airframe types, which saves weight and space and increases flexibility, the latter being
most important where looms (bundles) are required to turn through small radii into electrical
connectors. However, all the constraints given for airframe cable also apply here.
The term 'Hook Up' is commonly used in the USA to designate cables of this general type
and the designation 'Light Weight Interconnect' may also be applied.
Equipment Wire
This cable, invariably known as 'wire', is intended to be used within equipment and,
therefore, is very flexible and suitable for soldering. It is not designed for use as interconnect
wiring but design organisations do, on occasions, select a particular type for use in protected
areas of an airframe. There is a considerable range of such cables which vary in basic
construction and performance and they should always be very clearly defined. In general, the
types in aircraft use are produced by CAA Approved Organisations who provide 'CAA
Release' to British Standard G210 or an equivalent specification. Some manufacturers have
sought 'Accessory Approval' for BS G210 cable and this has been granted, but it is not a
CAA requirement that any form of design approval be applied to this cable when it is used
for its intended purpose (which is within equipment enclosures where the equipment itself is
subject to control). It follows that it can be manufactured and released by a Supplier,
approved to BCAR A8-2. The term 'Module Wire' is sometimes used for this class of cable in
the USA.
Fire Resistant Cables
This type of cable is required to retain a defined level of electrical insulation in the presence
of fire for five minutes, as defined in BCAR Section S1-2 paragraph 1.17.2 and EASA CS-1.
'Fire Resistance' should not be confused with 'high temperature' and fire resistant types
should only be employed where this property is required because other characteristics, such
as fluid resistance, will usually be poorer than could be expected from a non fire resistant
high temperature cable.
Fireproof Cables
These cables are required to operate for fifteen minutes in a designated fire as defined in
BCAR D6 paragraph 6.5.1 and EASA CS-1 and are for use in designated fire zones. BCAR
D6-13 paragraph 6.6.2 and JAR 25.1359 define a fire zone. As for Fire Resistant types, they
should only be used where necessary.
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Figure 11.1: Examples of aircraft cabling
Figure 11.2: Examples of common aircraft cabling
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6.11.4 CABLE TYPES STANDARD COPPER WIRE
There are many different types of wire used for special applications in aircraft electrical
systems, but the majority of the wiring is achieved with MIL-W-5086 or MIL-W-22759
stranded tinned copper wire with PVC, nylon or Teflon insulation. Figure 11.3 shows an
example of MIL- W-5086 copper wire.
Figure 11.3: MIL-G-5086 Copper Wire
Aluminium Wire
Where large amounts of current must be carried for long distances, MIL-W-7072 aluminium
wire is often used. This wire is insulated with either "Fluorinated Ethylene Propolene (FEP),
nylon or fibreglass braid. Aluminium wire smaller than six-gauge is not recommended
because it is so easily broken by vibrations.
Shielded Wire
Anytime a wire carries a current, a magnetic field surrounds the wire, and this field may
interfere with some aircraft instrumentation. For example, the light that illuminates the
compass card of a magnetic compass is powered with low-voltage DC. The field from this
small voltage can deflect the compass. To minimise this occurrence, a two-conductor twisted
wire is used to carry the current to and from this light. By using a twisted wire, the fields
cancel each other out and thus do not interfere with the compass.
AC or pulsating DC has an especially bad effect on electronic equipment, as its conductor’s

radiate electrical energy much like the antenna of a radio. To prevent radio interference, wires
that carry AC or pulsating DC are often shielded. Encasing the conductor in a wire braid
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carries this out. This ensures that the radiated energy is received by the braid and is then
passed to the aircraft's ground where it can cause no interference. Figure 11.4 shows a
shielded wire.
Figure 11.4: Shielded Wire
Antennas are connected to most of the radio receivers and transmitters with a special type of
shielded wire called "Coaxial Cable". This consists of a central conductor surrounded by an
insulator and a second conductor. The spacing and concentricity of the two conductors are
critical for the most efficient transfer of energy through the cable. This second conductor is
normally the wire braid, which is then covered in an outer insulator. Figure 11.5 shows a
coaxial cable.
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Figure 11.5: Coaxial Cable
Data Bus Cable
One special type of cable used exclusively for various digital electronic systems is called
“Data Bus Cable”. Data bus cable typically consists of a twisted pair of wires sur rounded by
electrical shielding and insulators. Digital systems operate on different frequencies, voltages
and current levels. It is extremely important to ensure that the correct cable is used for the
system installed. The cable should not be pinched or bent during installation and data bus
cable lengths may also be critical. Refer to current manufacturer’s manuals for cable
specifications
Figure 11.6 shows an example of a data bus cable.
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Figure 11.6: Data Bus Cable
6.11.5. CONDUCTOR MATERIAL INSULATION
The wires installed in an aircraft electrical system must be chosen on the basis of their ability
to carry the required current without overheating and to carry it without producing an
excessive voltage drop. There are a number of factors to consider when choosing the correct
wire, these are:
• Conductor material.
• Flexibility of the wire.
• Insulation material.
• Diameter of the wire (AWG)
• Length of wire.
• Type of installation.
For aircraft, the wire material could be either copper or aluminium. If the conductor is made
from copper, the individual strands of wire are typically plated to protect the copper from
corrosion. Figure 11.7 shows two types of conductor found in aircraft systems.
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Figure 11.7: Electrical Wire Type
The number of strands that make up the wire and the type of insulation on the wire typically
determine the flexibility of a conductor. The type of insulation is very important; various
insulations have different ratings for heat, abrasion and flexibility. The length and type of
installation are factors established by the aircraft manufacturer.
6.11.6. WIRE GAUGE SYSTEMS
The wire used for aircraft electrical installations is usually sized according to the “American
Wire Gauge” (AWG). The size of the wire is a function of its diameter and is indicated by a
unit called “Circular Mil”. One circular mil is equal to the cross-sectional area of a 1-mil
(0.001-in) diameter wire, measured in thousandths of an inch. To determine the size in
circular mils of a wire, simply square the wire's diameter measured in thousandths of an inch.
Figure 6 shows this concept.
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Figure 11.8: Circular mil
Many wire gauges designate wire sizes by integer numbers, usually starting with an arbitrary
size as “1” and getting smaller as the gauge numbers increase, r oughly corresponding to how
many times the wire must be drawn through the sizing dies. Sizes going in the opposite
direction are designated by 1/0 or 0, 2/0 or 00, 3/0 or 000, etc. The starting sizes and steps
between sizes are pretty much arbitrary.
• American Wire Gauge (AWG), the de facto US standard for non-ferrous wires and
some ferrous wires; it is also called Brown and Sharp Gauge (B&S).
• British Standard Wire Gauge (SWG), used in Britain; it is also called New
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Table 11.4: AWG and SWG
In AWG only even numbers are used, small wires have higher numbers, typically starting at
AWG 24. Large wires have smaller numbers, down to AWG 0000. AWG size 20 is
approximately 0.032in. in diameter, and AWG 0 is approximately 0.325in. in diameter.
To determine the size of any given wire, a wire gauge tool may be used. Figure 11.9 shows a
typical wire gauge tool.
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Figure 11.9: Wire Gauge Tool
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6.11.7. WIRE IDENTIFICATION
Aircraft cables are normally marked with a combination of letters and numbers to provide the
necessary information to identify the cable, the circuit to which it belongs, the cable size, and
any additional information necessary to relate it to a circuit diagram or routeing chart. Such a
code is usually either of the aircraft manufacturer’s own specification or one devised by the
Air Transport Association of America under Specification 100 (ATA 100) which has been
adopted as a standard.
The ATA 100 Specification basic coding consists of a six position combination of letters and
numbers, which are printed on the outer covering of the cable. The identification code is
normally printed at specified intervals along the length of the cable. When printing is not
practical the code is printed on non-metallic sleeves and positioned along the cable
• Position 1 - Unit number, used where the component shave identical circuits
• Position 2 - Circuit function letter and circuit designation letter which indicate the
circuit function and the associated system
• Position 3 - Cable number, allocated to differentiate between cables which do not
have a common terminal in the same circuit. Generally, contacts of switches, relays
etc. are not classified as common terminals. Beginning with the number 1, a different
number is given to each cable.
• Position 4 - Cable segment number, which identifies the segment of cable between
two terminals or connections, and differentiates between segments of the circuit when
the same cable number is used throughout. Segments are lettered in alphabetical
sequence, excluding the letters I and O. A different letter is used for each of
the cable segments having a common terminal or connection.
• Position 5 - Cable size
• Position 6 - Suffix data, used to indicate the type of cable and to identify its
connection function. For example, in the sample code NMS V indicates Nyvin-
metsheath ungrounded cable in a single phase system.
Figure 8 shows another typical example of a code.
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Figure 11.10: Wire Code
The last letter relates to the function of the system to which the wire relates. Table 11.5
shows the other functions
AC Power X
De-icing and anti-icing D
Engine control K
Engine instruments E
Flight control C
Fuel and oil Q
Ground network N
Heating and ventilation H
Ignition J
Inverter control V
Lighting L
Miscellaneous M
Power P
Radio navigation and R
communication
Warning devices W
Table 11.5: Function code letters
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6.11.8 WIRE INSTALLATION AND ROUTING
In aircraft there are two groups of wiring that may be installed:
■ Open Wiring - (Wire Groups, Bundles and Routing).

■ Conduit - (Mechanical Protection).
Open Wiring
This is where the wires are bundled together and installed with no external protection. This
method is used when there is no great danger of mechanical damage (Chafing, Rubbing).
This type of installation is easy to install and maintain, and is lighter in weight.
Wires are grouped and tied together in bundles for the neatest and most efficient routing. No
one bundle should carry wires from circuits that would disable both main and back-up
systems. The bundles should be routed so as not to interfere with any of the controls or
moving components. They must be routed where they cannot be damaged by persons entering
or leaving the aircraft or by baggage or cargo moving over them or resting on them.
Figure 11.11 shows an example of an Open Wire bundle fitted to an aircraft sidewall.
Figure 11.11: Open Wire Bundle
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Wire and Cable Clamping
Electrical cables or wire bundles are secured to the aircraft structure by means of metal
clamps (P Clips/clamps), lined with a synthetic rubber or similar material. In the installation
of cable clamps, care must be taken to assure that the stress applied by the cable to the clamp
is not in a direction that will tend to bend the clamp. When a clamp is mounted on a vertical
member, the loop of the clamp should always be at the bottom. Correct methods for installing
clamps is shown in Figure 11.12.
Figure 11.12: Correct Methods of Installing Cable clamps
Conduit
Mechanical protection can be provided for the wire by routing the bundles through either
flexible or rigid conduit. The size of the conduit is normally an inside diameter 25% larger
than the diameter of the wire bundle being encased. Figure 11.13 shows the two types of
conduits.
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Figure 11.13: Cable Conduit
All conduit, rigid and flexible, should have drain holes at the lowest point in each run,
and these holes and the edges of the conduit, should have no rough edges that could
damage the wiring. Figure 11.14 shows a bundle fitted inside conduit.
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Figure 11.14: Conduit Drain Hole
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6.11.9. CONNECTORS
Most of the electrical components in an aircraft are designed so that they may be serviced
with a minimum amount of time needed for their removal and installation. The electrical
wiring is usually connected through quick-release plugs. There are many different types of
plugs, but they are all somewhat similar. The individual wires are fastened to pins or sockets
inside the plugs and are clamped tight to prevent mechanical strain on the cable being
transmitted into the connectors themselves.
Figure 11.15: Connector Identification Number
The most commonly used connector is the Military Standard (MS), type. Each MS connector
has an identification number on it, Figure 11.15 shows a connector and identification number.
The MS type number is the basic configuration of the connector:
 MS3100 - Wall Receptacle.

 MS3101 - Cable Receptacle.
 MS3102 - Box Receptacle.
 MS3106 - Straight Plug.
 MS3108 - Angle Plug.
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The letter following the configuration tells the class of connector:
A - General purpose, solid aluminium alloy shell.

B - General purpose, split aluminium alloy shell.
C - Pressurized, solid aluminium alloy shell.
D - Environmental-resistant, solid aluminium alloy shell.
E - Fire and flame proof, solid steel shell.
The size of the connector is indicated with a code number, the higher the number, the larger
the connector. The insert arrangement is a code number to identify the number and size of the
connector and its physical arrangement.
The contact style may be either an "S" or "P" to indicate a "socket or "pin" (female or male),
arrangement. The final letter in the identification is one of the last letters in the alphabet,
"W", "X", "Y" or "Z". These letters indicate the rotation of the insert in the connector. It is
possible to connect the wrong plug to a receptacle, so to prevent this, the inserts may be
rotated in their relationship to the index slot. This ensures only the correct plug may be
inserted into the receptacle.
Figure 11.16 shows typical MS type connectors. These connectors can carry either pins or
sockets in the form of inserts. It is normal practice that, if a connector carries power supplies,
it will use sockets. Pins will be used for the receiver equipment. This is to eliminate the
possibility of shorts circuits to ground.
Figure 11.16: MS Quick-Release Connectors
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Plugs and Sockets
Plugs and sockets (or receptacles) are connecting devices which respectively contain male
and female contact assemblies. They may be fixed or free items, i.e. fixed in a junction box,
panel or a consumer component, or free as part of a cable to couple into a fixed item.
Figure 11.17: Plugs and Sockets
There are many variations in the design of plugs and sockets governed principally by the
distribution circuit requirements, number of conductors to be terminated, and environmental
conditions. In general, however, the conventional construction follows the pattern indicated
in exploded form in the diagram above. The bodies or shells, are mostly of light alloy or
stainless steel finished overall with a cadmium plating; they may be provided with either a
male or female thread. Polarizing keys and keyways are also provided to ensure that plugs
and sockets and their corresponding conductors, mate correctly; they also prevent relative
movement between their contacts and thereby strain, when the coupling rings are being
tightened. The shells of “free” plugs and sockets are extended as necessary by the attachment
of outlets or endbells. These provide a means of supporting the cable or cable loom at the
point of entry to the plug or socket thereby preventing straining of the conductor, and pin or
socket joints, they prevent displacement of the contacts in the softer material insulators, and
the ingress of moisture and dirt. In many cases a special cable clamp is also provided.
Plug contacts are usually solid round pins, and socket contacts have a resilient section which
is arranged to grip the mating pin. The contacts are retained in position by insulators or
inserts as they are often called, which are a sliding fit in the shells and are secured by
retaining rings and/or nuts. Insulators may be made from hard plastic, neoprene of varying
degrees of hardness, silicone rubber or fluorosilicone rubber depending on the application of
a plug and socket, and on the environmental conditions under which they are to be used.
Attachment of conductors to pin and socket contacts is done by crimping a method which has
now largely superseded that of soldering. The socket contacts are designed so that their grip
on plug pin contacts is not reduced by repeated connection and disconnection.
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In most applications, plugs and sockets are secured in the mated condition by means of
threaded coupling rings or nuts; in some cases bayonet-lock and push-pull type couplings
may also be employed.
In addition to identifying pins and sockets by numbers or letters, it is usual in many types of
connectors to signify the numerical or alphabetical sequencing. As shown below, this is done
by a spiraling “guideline” embossed on the faces of inserts. Every tenth pin or socket cavity
is identified with parentheses.
Figure 11.18: Typical pin numbering system
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Contact Insertion and Extraction
This module covers all the different aspects of

connector contact insertion and extraction. It
will cover the basic history of removable
contacts, the locking and unlocking of contacts
and the insertion and extraction of contacts to
connectors with the requirements of tooling and
processes.
Contact history
The earliest connectors used contacts which

were not removable and they were fixed into
the connector during manufacture and required
soldering onto the cable. Plessey developed a
connector that used removable locked contacts,
and modern connectors are manufactured with
locking mechanism built into the insert which
accept a whole range of contact sizes. There are
two types of locking mechanism, FRONT and
REAR release. See figure 11.21. Both systems
use a similar mechanism but the tools used are
not interchangeable between the two types.
Tool selection is critical and tooling
information for both insertion and extraction
tools can be found in chapter 20 of the relevant
Maintenance Manual.
Figure 11.20 A range of contact insertion and extraction tools for different types of
connectors.
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Figure 11.21: Typical front and rear contact release arrangement.
Pin removal - There are two basic types of contact retention used in plug and socket
connectors, one with the contacts being released for removal from the rear of the contact
insert and the other from the front. Each system requires the use of different types of
insertion/extraction tools, therefore. It is essential that the correct procedures and tools are
used for a particular type of plug or socket.
 Rear Release - The appropriate extraction tool should be positioned over the
cable connected to the contact to be removed. To ensure that the contact retention
system has been released, the extraction tool should be slid slowly into the contact
insert hole in the plug or socket until a positive resistance to further movement is
felt. With the cable held against the extraction tool, the contact should be removed
by pulling the cable and tool from the plug or socket insert.
 Front Release - The appropriate extraction tool should be positioned over the
contact to be removed and, with the central plunger of the tool held back, pushed
into the plug or socket to release the contact retention system. Depressing the
central plunger of the extraction tool will eject the contact rearwards, out of the
plug socket. Extreme care should be taken when using this type of tool as their
tips are easily damaged, which
unless identified and replaced with a serviceable one, can cause damage to inserts
and contacts.
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Figure 11.22: A typical connector.
6.11.10. CRIMPING
A crimped terminal is one which has been secured to its conductor by compressing it in such
a way that the metals of both terminal and conductor merge together to form a homogeneous
mass. Some of the advantages of the crimping method are:
 Fabrication is faster and easier, and uniform operation is assured.

 Good electrical conductivity and a lower voltage drop is assured.
 Connections are stronger (approaching that obtained with cold welding); actually as
strong as the conductor itself.
 Shorting due to solder slop and messy flux problems are eliminated.
 “Wicking” of solder on conductor wires and “dry” joints are eliminated.
 When properly formed a seal against the ingress of air is provided and a corrosion-
proof joint thereby obtained.
A typical terminal is comprised of two principal sections; crimping barrel and tongue. For a
particular size of conductor the copper or aluminium barrel is designed to fit closely over the
barrel end of the conductor so that after pressure has been applied a large number of point
contacts are made. The pressure is applied by means of a hand-operated or hydraulically-
operated tool (depending on the size of conductor and terminal) fitted with a die, shaped to
give a particular cross-sectional form, e.g. hexagonal, diamond or “W”. The barrels are
insulated by plastic sleeves which extend a short distance over the conductor insulation and
provide a certain amount of support for the conductor allowing it to be bent in any direction
without fraying of the conductor insulation or breaking of wire strands.
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Figure 11.23: Crimped terminals
In certain types of terminal the inside surface of the barrel is serrated so that under the
crimping pressure the strands of the conductor “flow” into the serrations to make a
connection of high tensile strength. The serrations have the additional function of assisting in
the breaking down of the oxide layer that forms on conductor wires during the crimping
operation. To facilitate inspection of the crimped joint, the barrel is frequently left open at the
tongue end, or in some cases, is provided with an inspection hole through which sufficient
insertion of the conductor into the barrel may be visually verified.
The design of the tongue end depends on where and how the terminal is to be attached. The
most common forms are the ring type and fork type.
Where a connection between the ends of two cables has to be made, for example, in a cable
run from the engine nacelle to the fuselage of an aircraft, a change from an efglas cable to a
nyvin cable may be necessary, a variant of the crimped terminal is used. This variant is
known as an in-line connector and consists essentially of two crimping barrels in series, one
conductor entering and being crimped at each end. A plastic insulating sleeve is also fitted
over the connector and is crimped in position.
Figure 11.24: Crimped terminals and splices
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Aluminium Cable Connections - The use of aluminium wire as an electrical conductor for
certain systems is due chiefly to the important weight advantage of this metal over copper.
However, in order to acquire satisfactory electrical connections, certain installation
techniques are necessary to compensate for two other principal characteristics of aluminium,
namely the rapidity with which it oxidizes, and its softness.
The oxide film is formed as soon as aluminium is exposed to the atmosphere and it not only
acts as an insulator, but also increases in thickness as heat is generated by the flow of current,
still further increasing the electrical resistance and causing corrosion at connecting joints. The
method most commonly employed for eliminating the oxide film is the one in which a special
zinc granular compound is applied to the exposed ends of the cable and the appropriate
terminal. Aluminium terminals are normally of the crimped type and the barrel is filled with
compound; in some cases the barrel contains a pre-filled cartridge. When crimping takes
place the compound is forced around and between the wire strands of the cable, and
penetrates the oxide film to assist in breaking it down. In this manner, clean metal-to-metal
contacts are provided and the high electrical resistance of the oxide film is bypassed. Sealing
of the terminal/cable joint is also achieved so that the oxide film cannot reform.
In cases where an aluminium cable terminal is to be bolted directly to the aircraft structure, a
busbar, or surface of a component, the surfaces are first cleaned and a coating of compound
applied. To compensate for the relative softness of aluminium as compared with copper, flat
washers with larger diameters than the tongue end of a terminal are used to help distribute the
clamping pressure over a wider surface. For reasons of softness also, tightening torques
applied to bolted connections are maintained within specific limits.
Crimping Practice
Crimping is a method of firmly attaching a terminal end to an electrical conductor by

pressure forming or reshaping a metal barrel, together with the conductor. The forming of a
satisfactory crimped joint depends on the correct combination of conductor, crimp barrel and
tool.
When applied with the correctly matched tool, a joint would be established which has both
good electrical and mechanical properties. Figure 11.25 show a crimped terminal.
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Figure 11.25: Pre-Insulated Crimped Terminal
Crimping Tools
There are a number of types of crimping tool available, but the best ones have a ratchet
mechanism that will not allow them to open until they have crimped the terminal to the
proper size. These tools, often referred to as "Precision Termination Tools” (PTT), require
periodical calibration checks. If a terminal is properly crimped on the wire, the wire will
break before the terminal slips off.
Figure 11.26 shows a heavy-duty crimping tool, this is used to install pre-insulated wire
terminals.
CRIMPING
Figure 11.26: Heavy-duty Crimping Tools
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The A.M.P. Crimping tool - The A.M.P. hand crimping tool shown below is one of the most
common type found in the Industry. The pliers have a self-locking ratchet whilst the handles
are colour coded in red, blue or yellow for cross reference to A.W.G. In addition the A.W.G.
is stamped on the plier jaws. The colour code and AWG to the actual crimp which is pre-
insulated with a red, blue or yellow sleeve. Also marked on the jaws are the letters P.I.D.G.,
this refers to the characteristic of the completed crimp: Pre-Insulated Diamond Grip. Since
this tool is a PRECISION TERMINATING TOOL it must be subjected to regularly
prescribed checks and have a validity label showing dates of last and next check. It the test
date has expired the tool must be considered unserviceable and returned for check.
Figure 11.27: The A.M.P. Crimping Tool
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Figure 11.28: The A.M.P. Crimping Tool
Figure 11.29: PIDG terminal
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Raychem Crimping Tool - This is a relatively new tool introduced with inception of thin
walled cable. The tool is smaller in size than the AMP tool and has no insulation grip
adjustment, the crimps also are significantly smaller but are still pre-insulated and colour
coded.
Figure 11.30: The Raychem Crimping Tool
This tool has three separate jaws colour coded to match the crimps.
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6.11.11. WIRE SPLICING
The splicing of electrical wires may be done if approved for a particular installation.
Typically, the splice is made with an approved crimp type connector. The “Splice connector”
is a metal tube with a plastic insulator on the outside or a plain metal tube that is covered with
a plastic tube after the splice has been made.
The stripped wire is inserted into the end of the tube and then crimped with a terminal
crimping tool. When splices are made in wires that are in a cable bundle, the spliced wires are
placed on the outside of the bundle. If several splices are to be made in any cable bundle, the
splices should be staggered to reduce the bundle diameter. Figures 11.31 and 11.32 shows
various situations of splices in a cable bundle.
Figure 11.31: Cable Splices
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Figure 11.32: Cable Splices
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6.11.12. BEND RADIUS
Figure 11.33: Bend Radius
To protect the cable from undue stress, it is important to ensure that when the cable has to
bent, the radius of the bend is not less than six times the radius of the cable bundle. Figure
11.33 shows the bend radius for a cable with connector.
If the cable bundle is supported at the bend (example on a terminal block, then the bend
radius can be reduced to a minimum of three times the diameter of the cable bundle. Figure
11.34 shows a terminal block connection.
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Figure 11.34: Bend radius (Supported)
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6.11.13. SLEEVING
Sleeving is also to protect electrical cables and comes in a variety of types depending upon its
application. Sleeving should be abrasion and solvent resistant, flexible and for heat resistant
for high temperature installations. Were there is risk that a cable may chafe on the structure
due to vibration etc. addition protection can be provided by wrapping it with split sleeving or
'Spirap'. (See figure 11.35)
Non Shrink Sleeving
This comes in a variety of materials including PVC, Silicone and Fibreglass and they can be
supplied in a variety of size to suit the specific application. Loom and Harness Sleeving. This
enables cables to be made into 'ready to fit' harnesses providing flexibility and resistance to
abrasion as well as moisture and water. Connections allow for breakouts thereby ensuring
creative, efficient and high quality cable assemblies.
Heat Shrink Sleeving
These are an innovation in plastics technology and it has been widely accepted as an
outstanding insulation for repair, resisting wire strain, abrasion, moisture, fuels, solvents and
electrical shock. In addition, it provides protection for splices, terminals, wire and cable
marking as well as improving the appearance of harness and wire bundles.
Figure 11.35: Conduit drainage hole
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Figure 11.36: Prevention of chafing around an abrasion point
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6.11.14. SHIELDING
Aircraft cables are shielded to prevent interference from external sources and great care
should be taken to avoid it being damaged. However if it becomes damaged and replacement
is not an immediate option then the area must be repaired to maintain the shielded properties
of the cable in accordance with the aircraft constructors approved repair scheme.
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What are some of the different types of materials discussed in the document?

What are some of the different types of materials discussed in the document?

What are some of the testing methods mentioned for materials?

What are some of the testing methods mentioned for materials?

TRAINING MATERIAL

MATERIALS AND HARDWARE

Table content ........................................................................................................... 1

Non-Metallic Components Adhesives and Sealants

6.4.22. Permanent Anti-Corrosion Treatments

6.6.6. Banjo Coupling

6.9. Transmission.............................................................................................................. 433

6.10. Control Cables........................................................................................................... 452

6.1. AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS

6.1.1. MATERIAL TESTING

This is the ability of a material to withstand tensile loads

Figure 1.1: Test Specimen

Tensile Stress (Strength) - Tensile strength in a material is obtained by measuring the

Figure 1.2: Stress-Strain Diagram for Mild Steel

Figure 1.3: Typical stress-strain graph

Figure 1.6: Stress-strain graphs for a brittle and a ductile material

The tensile stress, which is just sufficient to produce a non-proportional

Figure 1.7: Acquiring the Proof Stress from a Load/Extension Graph

The Tensile Test Machine

Figure 1.9: Tensile test machine

Summary of the Information Derived from the Tensile Test

Load – extension curves for steel

Figure 1.10: Load extension curve

The Brinell Test

Figure 1.11: Brinell stell Ball

The Vickers Pyramid Hardness Test

Figure 1.12: The Vickers Pyramid tester

Figure 1.13: The Vickers Pyramid Indenter

diagonal measurement is converted to a hardness figure by referring to a set of tables. The

The Rockwell Test

Figure 1.14: The Rockwell test machine and its

There are two types of Rockwell tests

Principal of the Rockwell Test:

1. The indenter moves down into position on the part surface

Material BHN HV Rockwell

Aluminium Alloy 100 100 B 57

Mild steel 130 130 B 73

Cutting Tools 650 697 C 60

Table 1.1: Comparative hardness values

Hardness Testing on Aircraft

Figure 1.15: The Charpy and Izod Impact test machines

Figure 1.16: Izod Impact test machine

Figure 1.17: Stages of creep

Effect of Stress and Temperature on Creep

The Effect of Grain Size on Creep

Figure 1.18: Fatigue testing machine

Figure 1.19: A typical S-N curve

Two essential requirements for fatigue development in a material are:

The stress fluctuations may be separated by considerable time intervals, as experienced in

Figure 1.20: Fatigue crack propagation

Figure 1.21: Typical fatigue failure

The resultant fractured surface often has a characteristic appearance of:

In normal circumstances, a great deal of energy is required to 'weaken1 the material

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)

Do's and Don’ts - Preventing Fatigue Failures