What are plastics ?

Property : Tangling or linking of very long molecular chains Monomers Polymer

(but all polymers are not plastic)

Production: Chemically modifying natural substances or Synthesized from inorganic & organic raw materials Polymerization

Degree of polymerization No of monomer units in a chain 103 to 105

All the same monomer Monomers all same type (A) A + a + a + a -A-a-a-a eg poly(ethene) polychloroethene PVC

Different monomers Monomers of two different types A + B A+B+A+B -A-B-A-Beg polyamides polyesters

Polymers

Linear/branched polymers Cross-linked polymers

Linear polymers long chain molecules Monomers are joined together end to end. Polyethylene polymerization of Ethylene
CH2 = CH2 - CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2-

Cross-linked polymers

Chains are connected by transverse covalent bonds

Example : Vulcanized rubbers and thermosetting plastics

Classification of Polymers
Linear polymer - Any polymer in which molecules are in the form of chains. Thermoplastics - Linear or branched polymers in which chains of molecules are not interconnected to one another. Thermosetting polymers - Polymers that are heavily cross-linked to produce a strong three dimensional network structure. Elastomers - These are polymers (thermoplastics or lightly cross-linked thermosets) that have an elastic deformation > 200%.

Thermoplastics (80%)

No cross links between chains. Weak attractive forces between chains broken by warming. Change shape - can be remoulded. Weak forces reform in new shape when cold.

Thermosets

Extensive cross-linking formed by covalent bonds. Bonds prevent chains moving relative to each other.

COMPARISON OF THE THREE POLYMER CATEGORIES

Comparison of the three polymer categories

Effect of Temperature on Thermoplastics

Degradation temperature - The temperature above which a polymer burns, chars, or decomposes. Glass temperature The temperature range below which the amorphous polymer assumes a rigid glassy structure.

The effect of temperature on the modulus of elasticity for an amorphous thermoplastic.

Thermoplastics Vs Thermosets

Important class of polymers

Types of polyolefins

Types of polyolefins

properties of a polymer depends on

Attractive forces between chains (Chains able to slide past each other) flexible polymer .

More crystalline polymer - stronger and less flexible.

Transparency

Thermal softening and brittleness

Melting point and mechanical strength

Some selective thermoplastics and glass temperatures

Thermosetting plastics - applications

Applications for Epoxides

(Thermosets)

Bonding and adhesives: Automotive and aircraft industries adhesive to metals and composites. Molding, casting and tooling: Molding compounds in electrical and electronic industries, casting resins, potting resins. Prototype and master model tools. Laminating and composites: Binders in fiber reinforced laminates and composites. Laminates are used in printed wiring boards. Composite applications include filament winding (high performance pipes in oil fields, pressure vessels, tank and rocket motor housings), pultrusion, casting, and molding (graphite composites for aerospace applications) Building and construction: Flooring (seamless, self-leveling, or epoxy terrazzo floors), repair of bridges and roads with glass and carbon fiber wraps, concrete crack repair, coat reinforcing bars, binders for patios, swimming pool decks, and soil around oil-well drills. Protective coatings: maintenance coatings for industrial and marine, tank linings, industrial floorings, beer and beverage can coatings, food cans, appliance primers, hospital and laboratory furniture.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS

What is a Composite Material
In its most basic form a composite material is one which is composed of at least two elements working together to produce material properties that are different to the properties of those elements on their own. Composites consist of a bulk material (the 'matrix'), and a reinforcement of some kind, added primarily to increase the strength and stiffness of the matrix. This reinforcement is usually in fibre form.

Function of Matrix and Fiber

Matrix: The continuous phase to transfer stress to other phases protect phases from environment

Fiber:

Dispersed phase to

enhance matrix properties. MMC: Increase y ,TS, creep resist. CMC: increase Kc PMC: increase E, y ,creep resist.

Classification of Composites
Based on the type of matrix

Polymeric matrix composites; Ceramic matrix composites; Metal matrix composites; Carbon- carbon composites; concrete composites
Based on the type of matrix polymers:

Thermosetting composites; Thermoplastic composites LCP composites

Based on the type and form of reinforcement GFRP; CFRP; AFRP

Nanocomposites (nano- particulate and nanotube-based composites) Particulate composites Chopped fiber reinforced composites. Continuous fiber reinforced composites( laminates ) Textile Composite Hybrid composites

COMPOSITE BENEFITS

Factors which determines the composite strength

The properties of the fibre
The properties of the resin The ratio of fibre to resin in the composite (Fibre Volume Fraction) The geometry and orientation of the fibres in the composite

Composites in an Aircraft

Reinforcements

Glass - Fiberglass
E-Glass - Less Expensive, Strong S-Glass - More Expensive, Very High Tensile Strength Carbon - More Common

Boron - Expensive Organic fibers (Kevlar) Ceramics - In Metal Matrix Metal fibers

Arrangements of Reinforcements

Fiber Forms
Strand - A compactly associated bundle of -A closely associated bundle of twisted

filaments
Yarns

filaments or strands. Each filament diameter yarn is the same, and is usually between Rovings - A loosely associated bundle of untwisted filaments or strands. Each filament diameter in a roving is the same, and is usually between 13-24microns

in a 4-13microns

Glass Fiber
Silica based (50-60% of SiO2) And contain oxides of Calcium, Boron, Sodium, Aluminum and Iron. They are of three types E Glass A Glass C Glass

Fabrication
The raw material are melted in a hopper and the molten glass is fed in to a electrically heated platinum bushings or crucible. Each bush contains 200 holes in its base. Molten glass flow by gravity through these holes forming fine continuous filaments. These are gathered together in to a strand and a size is applied before it is a wound on a drum. The final fiber diameter is a function of the bushing orifice diameter, viscosity and the head of glass in the hopper

Application and properties

Building Industry Construction industry Cladding for structural materials Window Frames Tanks and Bathroom Units Pipes and Ducts Boat Hulls

Sl.No Density g/cm-3 1 2.55

Tensile Strength MPa 1750

Young's Modulus GPa 70

Coefficient of thermal Expansion K-1 4.7*10-6

E Glass
E-glass (electrical) lower alkali content and stronger than A glass . Good tensile ,compressive strength and stiffness, good electrical properties relatively low cost, but impact resistance is relatively poor E-glass is the most common form of reinforcing fibre used in polymer matrix composites.

C-glass
C-glass (chemical) - best resistance to chemical attack. Mainly used in the form of surface tissue in the outer layer of laminates used in chemical and water pipes and tanks. higher tensile strength and modulus than E glass, with better wet strength retention. Higher ILSS and wet out properties are achieved through smaller filament diameter. Developed for aerospace and defence industries, and used in some hard ballistic armour applications. relatively high price.

Carbon fibre
Carbon fibre is produced by the controlled oxidation, carbonization and graphitization of carbon-rich organic precursors which are already in fibre form. The most common precursor is polyacrylonitrile (PAN), because it gives the best carbon fibre properties. fibres can also be made from pitch or cellulose. Variation of the graphitization process produces either high strength fibres (@ ~2,600C) or high modulus fibres (@ ~3,000C) with other types in between.

Once formed, the carbon fibre has a surface treatment applied to improve matrix bonding and chemical sizing which serves to protect it during handling

Manufacturing of Carbon Fiber

Oxidation involves heating to 200 3000 C in an oxygen containing atmosphere. Carbonization involves pyrolyzing the fibers to temperatures ranging from 2500 30000 C in inert atmosphere After carbonization fibers are surface treated to clean and attach functional groups which increase bond strength with matrix

Advantages and Applications

High density, thermal and electrical conductivity has the highest specific stiffness high resistance to corrosion, creep and fatigue. impact strength however is lower than either glass or aramid Aerospace Sports goods Automobile parts Fishing rods Skis and Bicycle components

Boron
Carbon or metal fibres are coated with a layer of boron to improve the overall fibre properties. The extremely high cost of this fibre restricts it use to high temperature aerospace applications and in specialized sporting equipment. A boron/carbon hybrid, composed of carbon fibres interspersed among 80-100mm boron fibres, in an epoxy matrix, can achieve properties greater than either fibre alone, with flexural strength and stiffness twice that of HS carbon and 1.4 times that of boron, and shear strength exceeding that of either fibre.

Manufacturing of boron fiber

Made by chemical vapour deposition of Boron on a substrate. Generally fine tungsten wire (10 12mico meter) is used as substrate.

A very high temperature is used to for the reduction of Boron halide in to Boron. BCl3+3H2=2B+6HCl

Properties and Applications

Dia m 142 406 382 382 Treatment As-produced As-produced Chemical Polish Heat treat+Polish Strength (GPa) 3.8 2.1 4.6 5.7 Relative fracture Energy 1.0 0.3 1.4 2.2

Military Air crafts(F14 and F15 of U.S Military Aircraft) Golf shaft Tennis Racket Bicycle Frame

Organic Fiber
Aramid fibre is a man-made organic polymer (an aromatic polyamide) It is produced by spinning a solid fibre from a liquid chemical blend. The bright golden yellow filaments produced can have a range of properties, but all have high strength and low density giving very high specific strength. All grades have good resistance to impact, and lower modulus. Used extensively in ballistic applications. Most commonly known under its DuPont trade name 'Kevlar' The fibres offer good resistance to abrasion, and chemical and thermal degradation. The fibre can degrade slowly when exposed to ultraviolet light. Aramid fibres are usually available in the form of roving.

Properties and Application

Used as rubber reinforcement for tires Used for ropes ,cables, coated fabrics for inflatable, architectural fabrics and ballistic protection fabrics Aerospace, Automotive and sports industries

Property Density (g/cm-3) Diameter ( m) Tensile Strength (GPa) Strain to Fracture (%) Youngs Modulus (GPa)

Kevlar 29 1.44 12 2.8 4.0 65

Kevlar 49 1.44 12 2.8 2.3 125

Ceramic Fibers
usually in the form of very short 'whiskers' are mainly used in areas requiring high temperature resistance. They are more frequently associated with non-polymer matrices such as metal alloys. They combine rather high strength and elastic modulus with high temperature capability and a general freedom from environmental attack. They can be alumina Fibers, Silicon Carbide Fibers, Silicon Nitride, Boron carbide and Boron Nitride. Among them the most commonly used ceramic fibers are Alumina and Silicon Carbide Fibers.

Alumina Fiber
Normally contains 70 100% Al2O3 and 30-0% SiO2. An aqueous slurry mix is made of selected alumina particles and some additives to render it spinnable. Fibers are dry spun from this spinnable slurry. Finally the dry yarn is subjected to two step firing. Finally a thin silica coating is applied Dia m Density g/cm-3 Tensile Young's Strength Modulus MPa GPa 1380 379 Melting Point oC 2045

205 3.95

Metallic Fibers
Wires of Tungsten (High modulus and refractory), Beryllium (Low density and high modulus) and Steel (High strength and low cost) are used as metallic fibers. Beryllium with its high modulus and extremely low density is ideal for Metallic reinforcement but its high cost and toxicity limits its application Steel is a common reinforcement for concrete. They are also used as reinforcement in tires. Conventional wire drawing methods are generally employed to produce wires of titanium, tungsten, tantalum, molybdenum and steels.

Properties of Metallic Fibers

Material Dia m Densit Tensile E y Strength Gpa g/cm-3 MPa 7.8 8.0 1.85 19.3 10.2 4250 7001000 1260 3850 3150 2450 210 198 300 360 310 Melt. Point oC 1300 1280 3400 2600

Steel, 0.9%C Stainless steel, 18-8 Beryllium Tungsten Molybdenu m

100 50 250 <25 125 <25

Properties of common fibers

Role of Matrices in Composites

TYPES OF MATRICES

Polymeric Matrix of Composites

Thermosetting resin (formed from a chemical reaction in situ, where

the resin and hardener or resin and catalyst are mixed and then undergo a non-reversible chemical reaction to form a hard, infusible product ) Epoxy Unsaturated polyester and Vinyl Ester Phenolic resin BMI-Bismaleimide PI-Polyimide

Thermoplastic resin (Thermoplastics, like metals, soften with heating and eventually melt, hardening again with cooling ) PE, PP, PET/PBT, PA PEEK, PPS, PEI

Polymeric Matrix
Although there are many different types of resin in use in the composite industry, the majority of structural parts are made with three main types, namely polyester, vinylester and epoxy.

Polyester resins
Viscous,

pale colored liquids consisting of a solution of a polyester in a monomer which is usually styrene. The addition of styrene in amounts of up to 50% helps to make the resin easier to handle by reducing its viscosity. The styrene also performs the vital function of enabling the resin to cure from a liquid to a solid by 'cross-linking' the molecular chains of the polyester, without the evolution of any by-products. These resins can therefore be moulded without the use of pressure and are called 'contact' or 'low pressure' resins. Polyester resins have a limited storage life as they will set or 'gel' on their own over a long period of time. Often small quantities of inhibitor are added during the resin manufacture to slow this gelling action.

Additional Materials needed for moulding

Catalyst Accelerator

Additives: Thixotropic; Pigment; Filler; Chemical/fire resistance

Manufacturer supply the resin in its basic form or with any of the above additives already included. Resins can be formed by simple addition of the catalyst prior to moulding.

Given enough time an unsaturated polyester resin will set by itself. This rate of polymerization is too slow for practical purposes and therefore catalysts and accelerators are used to achieve the polymerization of the resin within a practical time period.
Catalysts are added to the resin system shortly before use to initiate the polymerization reaction. The catalyst does not take part in the chemical reaction but simply activates the process. An accelerator is added to the catalyzed resin to enable the reaction to proceed at workshop temperature and/or at a greater rate.

Application
Polyester resins are the most widely used resin systems, particularly in the marine industry. By far the majority of dinghies, yachts and workboats built in composites make use of this resin system. Preferred material in industries such as marine where its superior water resistance is desirable.

Vinylester resins
Similar in their molecular structure to polyesters, but differ primarily in the location of their reactive sites. Reactive sites are positioned only at the ends of the molecular chains so that the whole length of the molecular chain is available to absorb shock loadings. This makes vinylester resins tougher and more resilient than polyesters. The vinylester molecule also features fewer ester groups. These ester groups are susceptible to water degradation by hydrolysis which means that vinylester exhibit better resistance to water and many other chemicals than their polyester counterparts. Frequently found in applications such as pipelines and chemical storage tanks.

Structure
With the reduced number of ester groups in a vinylester when compared to a polyester, the resin is less prone to damage by hydrolysis. The material is used as a barrier or 'skin' coat for a polyester laminate that is to be immersed in water, such as in a boat hull. The cured molecular structure of the vinylester also means that it tends to be tougher than a polyester, although to really achieve these properties the resin usually needs to have an elevated temperature post cure.

Epoxy Resins
Out-perform most other resin types in terms of mechanical properties and resistance to environmental degradation. Exclusively used in aircraft components. As a laminating resin their increased adhesive properties and resistance to water degradation makes it ideal for use in applications such as boat building. Epoxies are widely used as a primary construction material for highperformance boats or as a secondary application to sheath a hull or replace water-degraded polyester resins and gel coats. The term 'epoxy' refers to a chemical group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon atoms that are already bonded in some way.

The simplest epoxy is a three-member ring structure known by the term 'alpha-epoxy' or '1,2-epoxy'.

Epoxy Resin (Contd..)

Amber or brown in color.

Epoxy resins are easily and quickly cured at any temperature from 5C to 150C
High

adhesive strength and high mechanical properties.

high

electrical insulation &

Low shrinkage during cure which good chemical resistance. minimizes fabric 'print-through' and internal stresses

Epoxy Resin (Contd..)

Epoxy resins are formed from a long chain molecular structure similar to vinylester with reactive sites at either end. In the epoxy resin reactive sites are formed by epoxy groups instead of ester groups. The absence of ester groups means that the epoxy resin has particularly good water resistance. The epoxy molecule also contains two ring groups at its centre which are able to absorb both mechanical and thermal stresses better than linear groups and therefore give the epoxy resin very good stiffness, toughness and heat resistant properties.

Epoxy Resin (Contd..)

Epoxies differ from polyester resins in that they are cured by a 'hardener' rather than a catalyst.

The hardener, often an amine, is used to cure the epoxy by an 'addition reaction'
Both materials take place in the chemical reaction.

There are usually two epoxy sites binding to each amine site. This forms a complex three-dimensional molecular structure.
The amine molecules 'co-react' with the epoxy molecules in a fixed ratio. If amine and epoxy are not mixed in the correct ratios, unreacted resin or hardener will remain within the matrix which will affect the final properties after cure.

Properties of Epoxy Resin

Metal Matrix
Strong and tough. Precipitation or dispersion hardening can result in dramatic increase in the yield strength But the increase in elastic modulus is negligible. The improvement in stiffness can be achieved by incorporating fibers in metal matrices. Aluminium is widely used as metal matrix and forms a variety of MMCs including Boron/Aluminium , Carbon/Aluminium, Al2O3/Al and SiC/Al. Apart from Aluminium , Titanium, Nickel and copper are also used as matrix materials.

Applications
Aircraft Industry Shaft for high speed rotating engines Supersonic aircraft Rocket propulsion Sealing element in turbines and compressor Jet Engines Electrical Machinery and super conductors Turbine blades Pressure vessels Armor plates Airfoil surfaces Compressor blades High strength heat resistant materials including vanes ,blades and nozzles.

Ceramic matrices
They are very hard and extreme brittle. Consists of one or more metals combined with non metals such as oxygen, carbon, nitrogen or boron. Low failure strain rate, toughness or fracture energy. Lack uniformity in properties and have low thermal , mechanical shock resistance and tensile strength. But have very high elastic moduli, low densities and withstand very high temperatures. Commonly Silicon Carbide is used as ceramic matrix. It has excellent high temperature resistance. Titanium diboride and silicon nitride are the other two important non oxide ceramic materials.

Applications of Ceramic Matrices

Cutting Tools Heat Engines Electronic and electrical applications. Energy Conversion Military Systems