Ow Q 51-100 (14.11.09)
Ow Q 51-100 (14.11.09)
Ow Q 51-100 (14.11.09)
A 30yearold male presents to ER with complaints of recurrent seizures. Physical
examination reveals candidiasis of oral cavity and cervical lymphadenopathy. On
investigation, he is found to be HIV positive. An MRI of his brain with contrast is
shown below.
What is the most likely diagnosis?
Answers
A. Neurocysticercosis
B. Tuberculoma
C. Toxoplasmosis
D. Pyogenic brain abscess
E. Glioblastoma multiforme
Explanation
This contrast MRI shows multiple ringenhancing lesions. The patient also has oral
thrush and lymphadenopathy. This constellation of signs and symptoms points to
HIVassociated toxoplasmosis as the most likely diagnosis. Seizures are a common
complication of such brain lesions because of the surrounding edema that they
produce. The diagnosis can be established by serological methods. Detection of IgG and
IgM antibodies to toxoplasma is diagnostic of an acute infection. Commonly employed
methods for detection of antibodies is SabinFeldman reaction, indirect fluorescent
antibody test and double sandwich IgMELISA (Choice C)
Choice A: Neurocysticercosis can also cause multiple brain lesions. The lesions are
usually cystic. One or more calcified areas may also be seen that may be typicaaly
cigar shaped. Sometimes cysticerci are visible on MRI. Neurocysticercosis is
uncommon in the United States. It should be suspected in immigrants from developing
nations.
Choice B: Mycobacterial tuberculomas can also cause similar lesions but, the disease is
uncommon in HIV negative individuals. In HIV positive individuals it does come into
differential diagnosis, for which a biopsy would be essential.
Choice D: Pyogenic abscess of brain is uncommon lesion in USA. More commonly brain
abscess is produced by Toxoplasma, Aspergillus,Nocardia and Mycobacteria. All would
come as a differential diagnosis in HIV positive patients. Pyogenic abscess often show
daughter abscesses in relation to the main abscesss.
Choice E: Ringenhancing. glioblastomas are usually solitary and have a
characteristic butterfly appearance
Educational Objective:
The finding of multiple ringenhancing lesions in an HIV patient is most likely due to
toxoplasmosis. The diagnosis can be confirmed by serological tests for specific IgM and
IgG antibodies.
52
A 6yearold boy a recent immigrant from Pakistan complains of difficulty in
walking. He had fever a few days ago that was accompanied by headache and
lethargy. On physical examination, there is a definite weakness, more on left legs and
is flaccid in nature. Reflexes are diminished in the affected region. Lumbar puncture
shows lymphocytic pleocytosis, normal glucose and mildly raised proteins. PCR assays
yield viral RNA from the CSF. This patient has an infection that was most likely
transmitted through which of the following routes?
Answers
Α. Blood transfusion
B. Respiratory
C. Sexual
D. Insect bite
E. Fecal oral
Explanation:
Fever, headache, photophobia and painful movements of extraocular muscles are
classic symptoms of meningitis. His CF picture is indicative of aseptic meningitis.
Isolation of viral RNA from the patient’s CSF indicates that an RNA virus was the
most likely cause of his aseptic meningitis. Some viruses that produce aseptic
meningitis are: enteroviruses, West Nile and other arboviruses, HIV, herpes simplex
2, EpsteinBarr virus, Variclla zoster, mumps and adenoviruses.
Enterovirus infection is the most common cause of aseptic meningitis accounting for
up to 10,000 cases per year in USA. The enteroviruse are a family of singlestranded
RNA viruses that include the coxsackie, echo and poliomyelitis virus. Enteroviruses
are so named because of their fecaloral route of transmission and ability to replicate
in the GI tract. However, they do not produce gastroenteritis.
The patient described above appears to have poliomyelitis. Polio classically occurs in
unvaccinated immigrant patients from endemic areas of the world. Symptoms of fever,
malaise and aseptic meningitis occur first, and can be followed by severe myalgias and
asymmetric paralysis that affects the legs more often. Damage to anterior horn cells
produces flaccid paralysis. (Choice E)
Choice A: HIV and CMV are the viruses that can be transmitted by blood transfusions
and are capable of producing aseptic meningitis
Choice B: Varicella, mumps and adenoviruses are among the few viruses that are
spread by respiratory ssecretions and capable of causing aseptic meningitis or
encephalitis.
Choice C: Sexually transmitted viruses that may cause aseptic meningitis include
HIV. HSV types 1 and 2, EBV and CMV. HIV and HSV2 are amongst the more
common viruses that produce aseptic meningitis.
Choice D: Arboviruses are transmitted by insect bites and can cause aseptic
meningitis. These include: the togaviradae (Eastern, Western and Venezuelan equine
encephalitis) and the burryaviridae (California encephalitis) families. These viruses
are most common in the summer and fall when arthropods are most active.
Educational Objective:
Enteroviruses are the most common cause of viral aseptic meningitis. The enterovirus
group includes the coxsackie, Echo and poliomyelitis virus. Polio virus can cause lower
motor neuron paralysis in addition to aseptic meningitis, especially in nonimmunized
individuals from endemic regions. Diagnosis is usually clinical. The virus can be
cultured from the stool up to early convalescence. Four fold rise in complement fixing
antibodies against type 1,2 and 3 polio virus at interval of three weeks can be used if
desired.
53
Incidence of neonatal tetanus is on rise in a particular community. What would be the
most appropriate measure to control this problem?
Answers
A. Routine vaccination at birth
B. Post partum antibiotic administration to neonates
C. Extended postpartum hospital stay.
D. Early inception of postpartum breastfeeding
E. Vaccination of young mothers and early start of breast feeding
Explanation:
In developing countries, most cases of tetanus occur in mothers with incompletely
removed placentas and in newborns with unclean and infected umbilical cord stumps.
Tetanus vaccine has been available since 1925. Immunity to cross infection is
produced by vaccination with a formalininactivated toxin, also known as tetanus
toxoid. The first vaccine dose is started approximately 2 months after birth. Vaccine is
administered during childhood at 2, 4, 5, 15 to 18 months and at 10 to 12 years of age.
Booster immunizations are required every ten years to maintain protective levels of
antibodies. Long term immune response to tetanus is usually mediated by IgG
antibodies. As IgG antibodies can cross the placenta, a newborn baby will have
protection from maternally derived antibodies, if the mother has immunity against
tetanus. Hence vaccination of young mothers along with inception of breast feeding
from just after birth would be the most appropriate strategy for preventing neonatal
tetanus. Immunization of the baby at birth would not suffice as the immune response
at early infancy is not developed enough to launch a protective antibody response.
(Choice E)
Choice A: Tetanus vaccination is not given at birth. The first dose of the diphtheria
rertussistetanus (DPT) series is commonly begun at 2 months of age. In areas
endemic for tetanus vaccination can be started at 4 to 6 weeks of age. At birth infant's
immune system is immature and unable to mount a proper immune response against
the tetanus toxoid. It is also possible that IgG antibodies against tetanus derived from
mother may bind to tetanus toxoid and inactivate the vaccine.
Choice B: Post partum antibiotics are not provided to newborns for tetanus
prophylaxis. They are used manly in cases where group B streptococcal infection or
colonization has been identified in the mother. They are also used in cases of HIV
infected mothers in whom anti retroviral therapy has been initiated peripartum.
Choice C: Extension of postpartum hospital stay may help in providing more rapid
medical treatment to an infant with neonatal tetanus, but it would not reduce the
incidence of neonatal tetanus.
Choice D: As breast milk is rich in antibodies, early start of postpartum breastfeeding
is very important in reduction of infectious disease in newborn. However passive
immunity provided to infants is generally mucosal, because IgA antibodies are mainly
present in breast secretions. It will not reduce the incidence of neonatal tetanus,
unless the mother herself is having high titers of IgG antibodies against tetanus. This
can be ensured by immunization of the mother during pregnancy, so that IgG
antibodies are able to cross the placenta to reach the fetus.
Educational Objective:
Tetanus can be easily prevented by proper immunization with a series of childhood
vaccinations and a booster immunization every ten years thereafter. An immunized
mother will be able to pass IgG antitetanus antibodies, through the placenta to the
fetus and provide passive immunity against neonatal tetanus. Vaccination of infant
just after birth is ineffective because on immature immune system at this age and
hence the inability to mount an immune response
54
A 20yearold farm worker presents to the hospital with paroxysmal, painful
involuntary muscle contractions mainly of the jaw and trunkal muscles. Causative
organism of this affliction commonly takes the following route in establishing the
disease.
Answers
A. Wound → axons → salivary glands
B. Wound → motor neuron axons → spinal cord
C. Food → systemic circulation → peripheral nerves
D. Food → systemic circulation → meninges
E. Fibrinous exudate → systemic circulation → cortical neurons
Explanation:
The patient is likely to be suffering from tetanus, a disease caused by anaerobic spore
producing gram positive bacteria clostridium tetani. Bacterial spores are commonly
present in soil and can easily contaminate injured and devitalized tissue. Such tissues
provides ideal environment for growth of vegetative form of the bacteria because of its
low oxygen tension. Vegetative form of the bacteria produces a powerful toxin called
tetanospasmin, which is a potent neurotoxin. After bacterial autolysis, the toxin is
released and gains access to the motor neuron via the axonal terminal. The toxin then
travels up the motor neuron by retrograde transport to the spinal cord and medulla.
Tetanospasmin blocks release of inhibitory neurotransmitters glycine and gamma
aminobutyric acid (GABA). With diminished inhibition of resting neurons, the motor
neurons can fire easily. Classic feature of tetanus include stiffness of the jaw due to
spasmodic contraction of the masseter muscle (trismus) and sustained contraction of
the facial muscles, producing a bizarre ‘smiling’ appearance (risus sardonicus). In later
stages, muscles of neck and back also show spasmodic contractions leading to
opisthotonos. Respiratory muscle involvement produces respiratory failure. (Choice B)
Choice A: Wound → neuron axons → salivary glands is the route taken by the rabies
virus. After its inoculation into a bitewound from the saliva of a rabid animal, the
virus is taken up at the motor neuron terminal and travels by retrograde axonal
transport into the nerves of the spinal cord and from there into the cerebellum, brain
stem and hippocampus. From here it travels within nerve axons to the tissues of the
salivary gland.
Choice C: A Food → systemic circulation → peripheral nerve is the route taken by the
botulinum toxin, which causes foodcome botulism.
Choice D: Food → systemic circulation → meninges is the route taken by listeria
monocytogenes , a gram positive foodborne pathogen that causes meningitis in
neonates end immunocompromised patients.
Choice E: Fibrinous exudate → systemic circulation → cortical neurons is the route
that diphtheria toxin takes from the pseudomembranous exudate in oropharynx to the
bloodstream and subsequently to cardiac and cerebral cortical tissues.
Educational Objective:
Clostridium teteni is responsible for tetanus, a toxinmediated disease that causes
uncontrolled muscle spasms and respiratory failure. Toxin travels within the motor
neuron by retrograde transport into the spinal cord where it causes inhibition of
inhibitory neurotransmitters glycine and gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA). This
causes uncontrolled firing in motor neurons producing uncontrolled spasms of the
muscles.
55
A 7year old boy presents to the hospital with high fever, altered consciousness and
headaches. History or vomiting is also present. Physical examination reveals neck
rigidity and a purpuric rash on extremities. His CSF examination shows decreased
glucose, increased proteins and large number of polymorphs. This infection could have
been prevented by a vaccine containing
Answers
Α. Live attenuated bacteria
B. Bacterial capsular polysaccharide
C. Bacterial outer membrane protein
D. Inactivated toxin
E. Heatkilled bacteria
Explanation:
This patient is presenting with classic signs and symptoms of acute bacterial
meningitis. Common pathogens of acute bacterial meningitis include Str. pneumoniae,
N. meningitides, Str. agalactiae, Listeria monocytugenes, H. influenzae, S. aureus and
E.coli. Less commonly it may be caused by, Borrelia, Leptospira, and T. pallidum.
Causative organism of acute bacterial meningitis cannot be suspected based on clinical
signs and symptoms alone. However presence of purpuric rash does suggest infection
by Neisseria meningitides, as in this case. Neisseria meningitides is a gram negative
diplococcus transmitted by respiratory secretions. Close living conditions (e. g., college
dormitories. prisons, and military barracks) promote its spread.
N. meningitidis has several virulence factors that include a polysaccharide capsule,
(impairs phagocytosis of the bacteria), lipopolysaccaride endotoxin, pili (for attachment
to the respiratory mucosa), and IgA protease (cleaves secretory IgA that would
otherwise inactivate the pili). Antibodies against the polysaccharide capsule confer
immunity against N. meningitides. Meningococcal vaccine consists of a single injection
of polyvalent polysaccharide capsular antigens of serogroups, A, C, W135 and Y.
Serogroup B antigens are weak immunogens, hence vaccine against this subgroup of
N. meningitidis is not available. Vaccine provides about 80% to 90% immunity in
adults. Unless multiple injections are given, the vaccine is ineffective in children < 2
years old. Immunity lasts for about 5 years. Because immunity provided by the
vaccine is incomplete and transient, it is only used only in highrisk groups like
military recruits and college students. (Choice B)
Choice A: The BCG vaccine is used in some parts of the world for protection against M.
tuberculosis contains liveattenuated organisms of a different mycobacterial species. It
is not used in USA. Salmonella typhi also contain liveattenuated bacteria.
Choice C: Borrellia burgdorferi (Lyme disease) vaccine contains recombinant bacterial
outer surface protein
Choice D: Vaccine for Clostridium tetani contain inactivated toxin (toxoid).
Choice E: Heat killed bacteria are included in B. pertussis, V. cholera and Y. pestis
vaccines.
Educational Objective:
N. meningitides can cause upper respiratory infection, meningitis and
meningococcemia Immunity against this bacterium is provided by antibodies against
their polysaccharide capsules. The meningococcal vaccine contains immunogenic
capsular polysaccharides from four major subgroups of N. meningitides (serogroups A,
C, W135 and Y) and induces production of protective anticapsular antibodies
56
A 36 yearold male is brought to the hospital with a oneweek history of headache,
progressive confusion and occasional seizures. About a year back he developed
cytomegalovirus esophagitis and two months ago he was hospitalized with
pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. His CSF findings show moderate increase in protein
along with pleocytosis. A latex agglutination test is positive for soluble polysaccharide
antigen of a particular organism. An India ink preparation of CSF allows visualization
of the organism. Organism seen in this preparation would be in form of:
Answers
A. Budding yeast forms
B. Nonseptate hyphae
C. Conidiophores
D. Spherules
E. Sporangium
Explanation:
A recent history of CMV esophagitis and pneumocystis carinii pneumonia is virtually
diagnostic of HIV infection. These organisms are opportunistic pathogens and
normally produce disease only in immunocompromised hosts. The patient in question
is currently having symptoms that are fairly characteristic of meningitis. His CSF
changes are also typical of meningitis. In an HIV positive patient, infections of CNS
are likely to be caused by Cryptococcus neoformans, C.immitis, Histoplasma
capsulatum, Acanthamoeba, Naeglaria, Toxoplasma, CMV, T. pallidum, M.
tuberculosis and HTLV1. Cryptococcus neoformans is the commonest fungi producing
meningitis in HIV infected patients. India Ink preparation for C..neoformans is a
negative stain, where the capsule of this yeast like organisms is not stained and
appears as a halo around the organism. Other investigations for diagnosis of
crptococccal meningitis are latex agglutination or EIA tests for detection of antigens of
this organism. Sensitivity of these tests is around 90%. For study purposes, the
medically important facts regarding C. neoformans are summarized below. (Choice A)
Choice B: Nonseptate hyphae that branch at wide angles are characteristic of mucor
and rhizopus species of fungi. These fungi cause infection of the paranasal sinuses in
immunosuppressed patients.
Choice C: Conidiophores is the branch of mycelium that bears spores. It normally is
seen in artificial media during culture of the fungus
Choice D: Spherules are found in the tissue form of Coccidioides immitis. This fungus
causes lung disease and disseminated mycosis, but is not commonly associated with
meningitis.
Choice E: Sporangium is a sac like that produces and contains spores. It is present in
mold fungi. Cryptococcus occurs only in yeast form and thus does not have sporangia.
Educational Objective:
Cryptococcus neoformans causes meningoencephalitis in HIV positive individuals. The
latex agglutination test detects the polysaccharide capsule antigen of cryptococcus and
is used for diagnosis. India ink staining of the CSF shows round or oval budding yeast
and is used for rapid provisional diagnosis
57
A patient suffering from Hodgkin’s disease is put on chemotherapy. After few cycles of
treatment, the patient develops fever. A blood culture is done. It shows growth of
many Gram positive rods that produce a narrow zone of hemolysis on sheep blood
agar. The organisms are catalase positive. Which of the following processes is most
important in eliminating these bacteria from the body?
Answers
A. Terminal complement cascade
B. Activity of major basic protein
C. Cel1mediated immunity
D. Immunoglobulin secretion
E. Neutrophil oxidative burst
Explanation:
Gram positive beta hemolytic rods that infect humans are commonly, Listeria
monocytogenes and Arcanobacterium (produces respiratory tract and skin infection
and are catalase negative). It is a facultative intracellular parasite and the only Gram
positive bacteria to produce lipopoysacchande (LPS) endotoxin. Listeriae can cause
some serious diseases like meningitis and septicemia in newborn infants, pregnant
women (abortions or still birth), and the elderly and immunocompromised patients. It
rarely causes disease in immunocompetent individuals.
Resting macrophages when they ingest L. monocytogenes, are unable to kill the
bacteria, which go on to multiply in the cytoplasm and infect other cells. On the other
hand, macrophages that have been activated by IFNγ (secreted by NK cells and T
cells) are able to destroy the microorganisms. In this way healthy individual, are able
to get rid of these organisms. However patients whose immune system is compromised
are unable to mount Tcell or NK cell response. (Choice C)
Listeriosis may be seen in neonates or in adults. In neonatal listeriosis, the organism
is transmitted from the mother to the fetus either transplacentally or during fetal
passage through the vaginal canal. In both adults and neonates, listeriosis can be
transmitted by the consumption of contaminated food.
Choice A: Patients with inherited deficiencies of the terminal complement cascade are
unable to form the membrane attack complex (MAC) and usually are predisposed to
recurrent infection by pyogenic organisms like Neisseria and pneumococcus.
Choice B: major basic protein is produced by eosinophils and is responsible for killing
of multicellular parasites
Choice D: Xlinked agammaglobulinemia of Bruton is a condition causing a pure defect
of immunoglobulin synthesis and secretion. Patients lack humoral immunity but have
intact cellmediated immunity. These patients are therefore at increased risk for
bacterial infections like Streptococci and Staphylococci but have normal responses to
infections like Listeria, viruses and fungi.
Choice E: Defect in neutrophil oxidative burst leads to chronic granulomatous disease
of childhood (CGD). This is an Xlinked disorder that causes decreased NADPH
activity and a failure of the myeloperoxidase system, resulting in an inability to form
hydrogen peroxide and oxygen freeradicals in concentrations high enough to kill
catalaseproducing bacteria.
Educational Objective:
Intact cellmediated immunity is essential for elimination of Listeria monocytogenes.
Neonates up to 3 months of age are especially vulnerable because their cellmediated
immune responses are not well developed. Same happens with immunocompromised
adults. Listeria monocytogenes rarely causes disease in normal healthy adults.
58
A patient is having uncontrollable contraction in his neck muscles. Immediate relief
that lasts for up to a few weeks is obtained, when a bacterial product is injected locally
into these muscles. This substance is produced by bacteria that also demonstrate:
Answers
A. IgGbinding outer membrane protein
B. Antiphagocytic capsule
C. Hypervariable pili
D. Subterminal spore formation
E. Intracellular polyphosphate granules
Explanation:
Focal dystonia is a localized uncontrollable muscle contraction that causes pain or
discomfort, as well as physical deformity in some cases. Some examples of focal
dystonia are blepharospasm, oromandibular dystonia and contraction of
sternocleidomastoid muscle called torticollis. Local injection of botulinum toxin type B
into contracted sternocleidomastoid muscle results in muscle relaxation because the
toxin prevents presynaptic release of acetylcholine by producing proteolysis of this
neurotransmitter. The effect is temporary however; because regeneration of the nerve
terminal occurs eventually (regeneration occurs in about three months). For this
reason therapeutic botulinum toxin injections must be repeated, when effect of the
earlier injection begins to wane.
Botulinum toxin can also be used cosmetically to reduce the appearance of glabellar
and other facial wrinkles. It is also used to relax the lower esophageal sphincter in
case of esophageal achalasia, to treat muscle spasms of multiple sclerosis and
Parkinson's disease, and for other conditions resulting from involunatary muscle
contraction.
Clostridium botulinum is a Gram positive anaerobic bacillus forming subterminal
spores. It is found in soil and in sea water all over the world. It elaborates one of the
most potent toxins amongst all bacteria. The powerful neurotoxin is synthesized
intracellularly and is released after autolysis of the bacteria. (Choice D)
Choice A: Staphyloccus aureus has an IgGbinding outer membrane protein, the
protein A virulence factor. Protein A binds to the Fc portions of IgG molecule thereby
preventing opsonisation, phagocytosis and complement fixation.
Choice B: The antiphagocytic capsule is a primary virulence factor of S.
pneumoniae, H. influenzae and Neissera.
Choice C: Hypervariable pilli are characteristic of Neisseria meningitidis and N.
gonorrhoeae.
Choice E: Intracellular polyphosphate granules are a characteristic of
Corynebacterium diptheriae. Granules within the cytoplasm are evident with
methylene blue staining technique.
Educational Objective:
Clostridia are Gram positive sporeforming anaerobic rods. C. botulinum is the
bacteria responsible for botulism, a toxinmediated disease. Local injections of
botulinum toxin into muscle are used to treat focal dystonias, achalasia and spasms n
patients of multiple sclerosis.
59
A group of school children living in a dormitory develop a disease characterized by
high fever, headache, nausea, vomiting and hemorrhagic skin rash. There blood
culture shows growth of Gramnegative, kidney bean shaped cocci. Which of the
following microbial components of these bacteria can be related to the morbidity and
mortality of the disease caused by these organisms?
Answers
A. Inner membrane protein
B. Cell wall lipopolysaccharide
C. Exotoxin
D. Outer membrane protein
E. Capsular polysaccharide
Explanation:
The lipooligosaccharide (LOS) of N. meningitidis is analogous to the lipopolysaccharide
(LPS) of other enteric gram negative rods. In case of N. meningitidis, the cell with its
LOS acts as an endotoxin, which is associated with many of the toxic effects of
meningococcal disease. Plasma levels of LOS are closely associated with disease
manifestation and outcome in meningococcal infections.
As with other Gramnegative infections, growth of N. meningitidis during the infection
process causes release of outer membrane vesicles (OMV) containing LOS into the
bloodstream. The severity of the meningococcal disease has been shown to correlate
with increasing concentrations of OMVbound LOS. As in case of LPS produced by
other gram negative bacteria, LOS causes sepsis by induction of a systemic
inflammatory response. This occurs due to production of proinflammatory cytokines
like tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), inteleukin13 (IL13), IL6 and IL 8 by
monocytes, neutrophils and endothelial cells. Additionally, LOS has been implicated
as a cause of cutaneous patches and hemorrhagic bullae found in meningococcemia. It
is also believed to be the cause of bilateral adrenal cortical hemorrhage characteristic
of the WaterhouseFriderichsen syndrome. (Choice B)
Choice A: Inner membrane protein along with outer membrane protein of N.
meningitidis principally act in cellular homeostasis for the bacteria
Choice C: Exotoxin production is not a known mechanism of pathogenicity of N.
meningitidis. Better known exotoxins are the staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome
toxin, diphtheria toxin, tetanus toxin and pertussis toxin.
Choice D: Outer membrane protein is not responsible for the production of sepsis in
meningococcemia. LOS is the causative agent for causation of septic symptoms in
patients affected by N. meningitidis
Choice E: The capsular polysaccharide of the group C and A serotypes of N.
meningitidis elicit an immune response. Group B serotype is shown to be a poor
immunogen and is not covered by the meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine.
Individuals who become colonized with N. meningitidis produce protective antibodies
directed against the capsular polysaccharide for that particular serotype only.
Educational Objective:
Meningococcal lipooligosaccharide (LOS) is responsible for many of the toxic effects
observed in meningitis and meningococcemia. Blood level of LOS correlates with
disease morbidity and mortality.
60
A 30yearold male presents to the hospital with complaints of severe headache,
nausea, vomiting and fever. His cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) findings are as follows:
Pressure 260 cm H20
Glucose 16 mg/dL
Protein 186 mg/dL
WBC 560 cells/cmm
o Neutrophils 92%
o Lymphocytes 08%
If a Gram stain is performed on his CSF, it is likely to reveal:
Answers
A. Motile Gram positive rods
B. Beanshaped Gram negative cocci in pairs
C. Gram positive cocci in clusters
D. Lancetshaped Gram positive cocci in pairs
E. Nonmotile Gram negative coccobacilli
Explanation:
Symptoms of headache, vomiting, fever, and neck rigidity are very suggestive features
of meningitis. Meningitis can be infectious, chemicalinduced or it may be due to
infiltration by neoplastic cells. Infective meningitis can be bacterial, viral, fungal or
parasitic in origin. In bacterial meningitis, CSF analysis typically shows elevated
neutrophils, decreased glucose, and elevated proteins. The morphology of any observed
bacteria on CSF Gram stain provides an excellent preliminary identification of the
causative pathogen.
Bacteria commonly implicated in acute meningitis in adults are E.coli, S. pneumoniae,
N. meningitidis, H. influenzae and Staphylococcus aures. At extremes of life, group B
streptococci and Listeria monocytogenes are seen in greater number. After
introduction of vaccination against H .influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae has
become the commonest causative bacteria in adults in USA (about 50% of the cases).
S. pneumoniae appear as pair of lancetshaped Gram positive cocci. S. pneumoniae
meningitis often follows a pulmonary infection or mild upper respiratory infection.
After gaining access to the blood stream, the bacteria are able to evade phagocytosis
and complement induced destruction because of their polysaccharide capsule. Once the
bacteria reach the CSF, they rapidly proliferate because of absence of effective
immune response at this site. Teichoic acid and peptidoglycan of S. pneumoniae induce
inflammation in meninges. Alcoholics, sickle cell anemia patients, asplenic individuals
or those in generally poor health are at risk for meningitis caused by S pneumoniae.
(Choice D)
Choice A: Listeria monocytogenes has the morphologic appearance of motile Gram
positive rods. It is a facultative intracellular bacterium; the only Gram positive
bacteria capable of producing lipopolysaccharide. It produces meningitis at extremes of
age and in immunocompromised individuals.
Choice B: Beanshaped Gram negative cocci in pairs is the typical morphology
observed with N. meningitidis, the second most common cause of meningitis in
patients less than 60 years of age. N. meningitidis meningitis tends to occur more
often in individual living in close quarters as in dormitories etc.
Choice C: Gram positive cocci in clusters are the typical morphology observed with
Staphylococcus species. Staphylococci are an unusual cause of meningitis.
Staphylococcal meningitis occurs most often in neurosurgical patients due to direct
access to meninges.
Choice E: H. influenzae is a Gram negative coccobacillus. Infection with this
organism is becoming less common because of vaccination with the Hib capsule
vaccine. Previously, H. influenzae was a major cause of meningitis in very young
children, with a mortality rate of about 5%.
Educational Objective:
Bacterial meningitis causes an increase in CSF neutrophil count and protein
concentration along with decrease in glucose. Streptococcus pneumoniae is a leading
cause of communityacquired pneumonia. S. pneumoniae appear in pair as lancet
shaped Gram positive cocci
61
A 45 yearold male, who recently underwent renal transplantation and is on
immunosuppressive drugs, is brought to the hospital with complaints of headache,
fever and altered consciousness. His CSF findings are: presence of pleocytosis, normal
glucose levels and presence of Gram positive rods with tumbling motility. What is the
likely route of infection in this patient?
Answers
A. Arthropod bite
B. Unprotected sex
C. Respiratory droplets infection
D. Needle stick injury
E. Contaminated food
Explanation:
Development of meningitis in an immunosuppressed individual is most often due to
infection by Listeria monocytogenes. In adults, listeriosis occurs almost exclusively in
the immunocompromised persons. The bacteria commonly gains access to the blood
stream following ingestion of contaminated food. Unpasteurized milk and milk
products, undercooked meat and unwashed raw vegetables are common culprits. It
also produces amnionitis in pregnant women that can result in abortion or stillbirth.
L. monocytogenes is an opportunistic agent and a facultative intracellular parasite
that grows within macrophages in immunocompromised human hosts. It is able to
multiply at 4 C, a unique feature that laboratories exploit when culturing the
organism, a process called cold enrichment. Macrophages and T lymphocytes are the key
defense mechanism against Listeria (Choice E)
Choice A: Arthropod bites transmit leishmaniasis (sandfly bite), malaria (anopheles
mosquito bite), Chagas disease (tsetse fly bite) and Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme
disease).
Choice B: Unprotected sex is responsible for transmission of sexually transmitted
diseases like HIV, hepatitis B and C, gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, LGV, human
papilloma virus infection and others.
Choice C: N. meningitidis, H. influenzae, respiratory syncytial virus, M. tuberculosis,
and many other organisms are transmitted via respiratory droplets. However Listeria
monocytogenes is not transmitted through respiratory droplets.
Choice D: Needle stick injury can transmit hepatitis B, hepatitis C, HIV as well as
some other infections
Educational Objective:
Listeriosis is most commonly transmitted through contaminated food. It causes
sepsis, meningitis and brain stem and spinal cord abscesses in immunocompromised
adults. However in about 30% of cases no risk factor is recognized. Listeria
monocytogenes can also cause neonatal meningitis, it being transmitted
transplacentally or during vaginal passage. Infection during pregnancy may cause
abortion or stillbirth. Listeria grows well in cold temperatures and thus can
contaminate refrigerated food. Listeria is a gram positive rod with a unique tumbling
motility.
62
A 30yearold male presents to the hospital with 6 months history of productive cough,
fatigue, malaise and weight loss. Chest radiography shows presence of pulmonary
infiltrate in the lower lobe of the right lung. Potassium hydroxide preparation of his
sputum reveals the following.
What is the most likely diagnosis?
Answers:
A. Histoplasma capsulatum
B. Aspergillus fumigatus
C. Candida albicans
D. Cryptococcus neoformans
E. Blastomyces dermatitidis
F. Coccidioides immitis
Explanation:
The image above shows encapsulated thick walled yeast with single, broadbased
budding. This is the typical appearance of Blastomyces dermatitidis, a fungus endemic
to the Great Lakes, and Ohio and Mississippi River regions. It is present in soil end
rotten organic matter. Blastomyces is a dimorphic fungus, meaning it assumes a
different form at different temperatures. The mold form (branching hyphae)
predominates in the environment having average temperatures of 2530°C. In human
body (3740°C), it assures the yeast form (single cells). Yeast forms are usually 10 to
12 μm in size; they have thick refractile walls and centrally retracted cytoplasm.
Infection occurs by inhalation of aerosolized fungus from the environment. In the
lungs, Blastomyces assumes the yeast form. It multiplies and induces a
granulomatous response. In about 50% of immunocompetent individuals,
blastomycosis remains asymptomatic. In others, it may present as a flulike illness or
pneumonia. Pulmonary blastomycosis is diagnosed by PAP staining of KOH
preparation of the sputum, which demonstrates the typical morphology of this fungus.
In immunocompromised patients, blastomycosis can cause disseminated disease and
patients will experience systemic symptoms, cutaneous and skeletal manifestations.
CNS and genitourinary systems are involved less frequently. Histology of lesions
caused by B, dermatitidis is usually a mixture of acute and chronic granulomatous
reaction. (Choice E)
Choice A: Histoplasma shows presence of yeast forms that measure 24 μm in size.
Yeasts of histoplasma divide by budding which distinguishes it from Penicillium
marneffei. In blastomyces yeast form, have sizes ranging from 2 – 10 μm.
Choice B: Aspergillus infection usually shows septate hyphae that have parallel walls
and branching at a 45 degrees angle.
Choice C: C. albicans shows presence of pseudohyphae and budding and nonbudding
yeast cells.
Choice D: C. neoformans produces disease in immunocompromised individuals. In
contrast to blastomyces, it forms narrow based buds. It measures 3 – 10 μ m in size.
Cryptococcosis has a thick polysaccharide capsule that appears clear with India ink
staining and stains red with mucicarmine.
Choice F: C. immitis is also a dimorphic fungus that shows presence of spherules that
contain endospores.
Educational Objective:
Blastomyces dermatitidis a dimorphic fungus that is seen in tissue as round yeasts
with doubly refractive walls and broad based budding from a single pole on the mother
cell.. The lungs are the primary site of involvement. Infection by this fungus occurs
mainly in central and midwestern states of USA and eastern Canada.
63
A researcher finds that Streptococcus pneumoniae injected intraperitoneally in mice
results in death of the animals. Antibodies having which of the following effects on the
bacterium would prevent this outcome.
A. Causing loss of cytotoxicity
B. Decreasing motility of the bacteria
C. Impairing adhesion of bacteria to epithelial cells
D. Causing swelling of bacterial capsule
E. Inhibiting hemolysis
Explanation:
Pathogenic species of S. pneumoniae is commonly called pneumococcus. It is found as
normal flora in oropharynx in many individuals. It may produce disease of the middle
ear, paranasal sinuses, lung, joints, endocardium and meninges to produce disease.
The capsular polysaccharide is the major virulence factor. Strains with a thick mucoid
capsule are especially virulent. It has antiphagocytic properties.
When viewed under a microscope, the capsule swells when specific anticapsular anti
bodies are added (Choice D) an effect known as the "quellung reaction". This reaction
can be used to identify S. pneumonia and to serotype the isolate. The capsule can also
be visualized by addition of India ink to a suspension of bacteria. Capsular region of
the bacterium appears as a clear halo.
Choice A: Pneumococcus can destroy ciliated epithelial cells via the toxin pneumolysin.
This protein also helps the pneumococcus survive phagocytosis by suppressing the
phagocytic oxidative burst. Pneumolysin is not the target of any specific antibody nor
is it a major virulence factor.
Choice B: S. pneumoniae is a nonmotile organism, hence antimotilty effects are f no
relevance.
Choice C: The adhesion of S. puemoniae occurs by specific interaction of bacterial
surface adhesions with epithelial cell receptors. However, apthogeencity of bacteria is
dependant on antiphagocytic property of the bacterium and not on its adhesion
molecules.
Choice E: S. pneumoniae produces alpha hemolysis on blood agar, meaning that it
produces incomplete hemolysis. Neutralization of this property would not be of any
benefit for controlling virulence of these bacteria
Educational Objerctiva:
S. pneumoniae expresses a polysaccharide capsule that inhibits phagocytosis by
macrophages .and polymorphonuclear leukocytes. It is the primary virulence factor,
without which S. pneumoniae cannot cause disease.
64
A 74 yearold man develops high fevers, chest pain and productive cough. Sputum
microscopy shows many lancetshaped Grampositive cocci in pairs. The patient dies
despite adequate antibiotic treatment. A vaccine containing which of the following
components could have prevented this outcome.
Answers
A. Killed bacteria
B. Recombinant surface protein
C. Inactivated toxin
D. Live attenuated bacteria
E. Synthetic nucleic acid vaccines
F. Capsular polysaccharides
Explanation:
There are more than 90 serotypes of S.pneumoniae based on the variation in capsular
polysaccharide. Diversity of serotypes makes vaccine development a complex task. The
vaccine currently licensed for use has a mixture of 23 polysaccharide serotypes. It
offers protection against 90% of isolates of pneumococci. These singledose vaccines are
recommended for all adults over the age of 65 years and for other patients at high risk
for pneumococcal sepsis (e.g. asplenic patents, patients with chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease and immunosuppressed patients). The vaccine has an efficacy of
about 85% in persons younger than 55 years. But the efficacy decreases as the person
ages; persons in their 80’s have only 50% protection after vaccination. This vaccine is
also not efficacious in infants younger than 2 years. For them a hepatavalent protein
polysaccharide conjugate (instead of the usual polysaccharide vaccine) vaccine has
been introduced. It has an efficacy of around 90% in this age group. Since vaccine
efficacy is not complete, antibiotic prophylaxis is used by many in highrisk group
patients (Choice F.)
Choice A: Killed bacterial vaccines include those for anthrax, cholera, pertussis and
plague. Killed vaccines usually require multiple inoculations in order to induce
immunity, but they do not possess the risk of reactivation. This vaccination method is
also more commonly used in oral vaccines, including the hepatitis A, influenza,
rubella, rabies and Salk polio vaccines.
Choice B: The Hepatitis B vaccine is a recombinant surface protein vaccine.
Choice C: Inactivated toxin vaccines include diptheria and tetanus vaccines.
Inactivated toxin vaccines allow the body to immunologically recognize the toxin and
inactivate it by antibody binding.
Choice D: Live attenuated bacterial vaccine includes the BCG vaccine, used outside of
the United States to immunize against tuberculosis and the typhoid vaccine against
Salmonella typhi. Live attenuated vaccines are vey effective in inducing immunity as
the organisms are actively growing in inoculated host. The risk associated with these
vaccines is the live organisms potential to revert to the virulent state.
Choice E: Synthetic oligopeptide vaccines present an experimental mode of
vaccination. The vaccines may be DNA or RNA vaccines. In this, a synthetic nucleic
acid with help of a plasmid vector is introduced into the body, where it integrates into
the genome. Expression of the integrated DNA sequence results in a protein product
that stimulates an immune respose, either humoral or cellular. The concept is still
experimental, but prospects of multiple advantages of this approach are seductive.
Educational Objective:
The pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine is recommended for all adults over 65 years
of age and for patients with COPD, asplenia, or immunosuppression. Vaccination does
not completely prevent pneumonia, as this vaccine contains antigen from only 23 out
of more than 80 different capsular serotypes know. The adult pneumococcal vaccine is
an unconjugated polysaccharide vaccine that does not stimulate a Thelper cell
response, unlike the new vaccine approved for infants
65
A new that blocks bacterial peptidoglycan crosslinking has been synthesized. There is
great enthusiasm for this drug as it is also resistant to degradation by bacterial
enzymes. Which of the following bacteria is likely to be resistant to this new drug?
Answers
A. Mycoplasma Hominis
B. Pasteurella multocida
C. Borrelia burgdorferi
D. Helicobacter pylori
E. Actinomycosis israelii
F. Treponema pallidum
Explanation:
The new antibiotic inhibits peptidoglycan crosslinking. This moiety is found in cell
wall of both Gram positive and Gramnegative bacteria. The cell wall is essential for
survival of bacteria as it acts as a permeability barrier and protects them from
destruction by osmotic stresses. In absence of proper crosslinking of peptidoglycan,
cell wall synthesis becomes defective and the bacteria are killed. Thus, the new agent
would be effective against those microorganisms in which peptidoglycan are a
constituent.
Mycoplasmas are the smallest prokaryotes that can survive outside of a cell.
Organisms of Mycoplasma genus that include pathogens like M. pneumoniae,
M. hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum lack cell walls. They have only a single
bilayered phospholipid membrane. Their cell membrane contains cholesterol, just as
human cell membranes do. . Thus, cell wall synthesis inhibitors such as penicillins,
cephalosporins, carbapenems, vancomycin and this new agent would be ineffective
against these organisms. Antibiotics that are active against Mycoplasma genus
include, antiribosomal agents like macrolides and tetracycline. (Choice A)
Choice B: Pasteurella multocida is a Gramnegative organism well known for causing
wound infections following cat bites. P. multocida can be effectively treated with
penicillin because penicillin disrupts the very thin but essential peptidoglycan
containing cell wall of these organisms.
Choice C and F: Borrelia burgdorferi and Treponema pallidum are diseasecausing
spirochetes that can be effectively killed by this new agent because their cell wall has
peptidoglycan.
Choice D: Helicobacter pylori are Gramnegative helical organisms that are closely
related to the Campylobacter genus. Multiple agents are required for effective
eradication of this infection.
Choice E: Actinomyces israelii is a grampositive funguslike bacterium that has a
thick peptidoglycan cell wall. Hence, the new agent would be able to act against this
organism.
Educational Objective:
All organisms in the Mycoplasma genus lack peptidoglycan cell walls and are therefore
resistant to agents whose mode of action is to interfere with peptidoglycan containing
cell wall. Hence, agents like penicillin, cephalosporin, carbapenems and Vancomycin
are ineffective. Mycoplasma infection can be treated with antiribosomal agents like
tetracycline and erythromycin.
66
An outbreak of respiratory infection has occurred in a group of schoolchildren living in
a dormitory. Children have mild clinical symptoms. However their chest xray shows
infiltrates more severe than would be expected from their clinical status. Culture of
their sputum on PPLO medium (a medium enriched with cholesterol and animal
proteins) allows growth of the causative organism. Which of the following pathogen
may be responsible for this disease outbreak?
Answers
A. Coxiella burnetii
B. Streptococcus pneumoniae
C. Klebsilla pneumoniae
D. Haemophilus influenzae
E. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
F. Legionella pneumophilia
Explanation:
These schoolchildren are suffering from atypical pneumoniae, a condition generally
caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae. It was so called because historically, the
pneumoniae could not be attributed to any known bacterial pathogen. It is believed
that up to one sixth of all pneumoniae are caused by this agent. In military recruits, it
is responsible for about half of the cases. Although it causes infection more often in
children, its severity is more in older individuals. Patients with atypical pneumonia
experience a chronic dry nagging cough and lowgrade fever. The telltale sign is a
chest xray that looks much worse than the patient’s clinical manifestations. Another
clue to the presence of this organism as a causative agent is that it can be cultured
only in a medium enriched with a source of animal protein and serum that supplies
sterols along with saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. (Choice E). Cholesterol is
needed for growth on artificial medium because their cell membrane is composed of a
single cholesterolrich phospholipid bilayer. These organisms completely lack a
peptidoglycan cell wall, cell envelope or capsule (Fungi also incorporate sterols into
their cell membranes, but fungi use the sterol ergosterol).
Choice A: C. burnetii is the etiologic agent of Qfever. Qfever is a mild pneumonialike
illness that results from inhalation of the C. burnetii spores that commonly
contaminate animal hides. It is an obligate intracellular parasite; hence, it requires a
cell culture in order to grow.
Choice B: Streptococcus pneumoniae can produce lobar pneumoniae. This organism
can grow well on standard unenriched blood agar.
Choice C: Klebsilla pneumoniae is a common cause of pneumonia in debilitated,
hospitalized, and alcoholic individuals. Patients with this infection often expectorate
jelly like sputum (currant jelly sputum). K pneumoniae can be grown on standard agar
but often MacConkey agar is preferred because it contains bile that inhibits the
growth of contaminant organisms.
Choice D: H. influenzae requires chocolate agar (lysed sheep blood agar heated to 70
80 degree centigrade) supplemented with factor X and and a source of NAD in order
to grow.
Choice F: Legionella pneumophila requires an L cysteine supplemented agar to grow.
Educational Objective:
Mycoplasma pneumonia is the causative agent of atypical pneumonia; a condition
characterized by a nagging nonproductive cough, lowgrade fever and malaise. Often
the chest Xray suggests a severe pneumonia, even though the patient appears
relatively well. Mycoplasma species require cholesterol supplementation in order to
grow on artificial media.
67
A 50 yearold male is brought to the ER with history of recent onset of highgrade
fever, confusion, headache and cough with little watery sputum. He has a chronic
smoker and is suffering from chronic bronchitis. His xray chest shows lobar
consolidation. His sputum microscopy after Gram staining shows large number of
neutrophils, but bacteria are not visualized. Usual bacterial pathogens could not be
isolated from his sputum sample that was obtained with much difficulty. What
microorganism can produce this clinical picture?
Answers
A. Legionella pneumophila
B. Klebsilla pneumoniae
C. Mycobacterium kansasii
D. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
E. Streptococcus pyogenes
F. Coccidiodes immitis
Explanation:
The patient appears to be having atypical pneumonia. Atypical pneumonia is usually
caused by Chlamydia pneumoniae, C. psittaci, M. pneumoniae, C .burnetti, Legionalla
pneumophilia and some viruses. The classic presentation of Legionnaires’ disease
includes very high fever accompanied by diarrhea, confusion, and cough causing chest
pain. The disease usually occurs in a smoker or in an immunocompromised individual
Legionella pneumophilia is one of the most common causes of communityacquired
pneumonia. Diagnosis can be difficult because the signs and symptoms are not
specific, but this disease should be suspected in a patient with radiographic evidence
of pneumonia with high fever and accompanying gastrointestinal symptoms such as
diarrhea. Also, there is relatively nonproductive cough and the sputum is usually non
purulent. As compared to other causes of atypical pneumonia, the clinical course of
Legionnaires’ disease is more severe, with mortality ranging from 10% in general
population to about 80% in immunosuppressed patients. Acquiring sputum is difficult
and frequently unreliable with few or no bacteria seen on Gram staining. The
organisms can be visualized by Dieterle’s silver impregnation stain. Diagnosis is most
commonly made by testing for Legionella antigen in urine. Legionella is a common
contaminant of water and can be spread by inhalation of aerosolized water from
natural water sources, air conditioners and other waterbased cooling systems, as well
as tap water used in the healthcare setting (Choice A).
Choice B: K. pneumoniae is a Gramnegative rod and a major cause of nosocomial
pneumonia as well as pneumonia in alcoholic or otherwise debilitated patients. It
would reveal Gramnegative rods on sputum microscopy.
Choice C: Mycobacterium kansasii is an atypical mycobacterium that can cause
disease similar to that caused by M. tuberculosis. M. kansasii is an acidfast rod that
is similar to L pneumophila in that it is a water contaminant. It is an infrequent cause
of contamination of municipal drinking water systems.
Choice D: Mycoplasma pneumonia is another etiologic agent of atypical pneumonia.
This is an illness that predominantly affects young adults causing a tracheobronchitis
or pneumonia. Patients often have a mild fever and mild transient anemia as well as a
cough. Chest radiograph will give the impression of a pneumonia that is much more
severe than what the patient appears clinically. These organisms also do not stain on
Gram stain because they do not have a cell wall
Choice E: S. pyogenes is the etiologic agent of streptococcal pharyngitis, impetigo and
abscess.
Choice F: Coccidiodes immitis is a fungal organism that is frequently an asymptomatic
infection, but it can also cause severe disseminated disease and fungemia in
immunocompromised patients
Educational Objective:
Legionella pneumoniae causes Legionnaires' disease. Legionnaires' disease is
characterized by a propensity to produce manifestations in chronic smokers and
immunocompromised individuals. The disease results in highgrade fever and lobar
consolidation of lungs with nonproductive cough. Sputum if any is usually watery in
nature. The disease carries a high mortality if not treated promptly.
68
Increased incidence of pneumonia is seen in residents of a health care faculty for
elderly persons. The microorganism isolated from these cases can be visualized by
immunofluorescent microscopy. It also demonstrates slow growth on complex media
such as buffered charcoalyeast extract agar (BYCE media) supplemented with
cysteine, ferric salt and αketoglutarate. What can be the possible cause of infection by
these microorganisms?
Answers:
A. Widespread use of antimicrobial agents
B. Infection occuring among hospital staff (nosocomial infection)
C. Contamination of the hospital water system
D. Failed sterilization of mechanical ventilators
E. Poor isolation of infected patients
F. Widespread use of intravascular devices
Explanation:
The cultural characteristic described above is those of Legionella pneumophila. The
organism requires special culture media to be grown in vitro. It has exacting
nutritional requirements and grows best on BYCE media. They also grow better in
CO2 enriched environment. Colonies grow slowly and will appear usually after 5 days.
L. pneumophila is found usually in water bodies like lakes and streams. It can survive
for long periods in refrigerated water and it proliferates rapidly in water that is
stagnant, scaly and has lot of sedimentary deposits.
Outbreaks of L pneumonia have been associated with inhalation of aerosolized water
contaminated with these organisms. Contaminated water used to humidify air filters
in different settings can lead to infection. Tap water used in patient care or to
humidify air during mechanical ventilation is also a possible mode of transmission of
infection. (Choice C)
Choice A: Widespread use of antimicrobial agents leads to multidrug resistant
organisms, but does not predispose to the development of pneumonia itself.
Choice B: Nosocomial mode of spread is a frequent cause of methicillinresistant S.
aureus infection. Health care workers can be asymptomatic nasal carriers of this
organism. Unwittingly they pass this organism to their patients resulting in wound
and intravenous catheterrelated infections.
Choice D: Failed sterilization of mechanical ventilators can lead to nosocomial
pneumonia with K. pneumoniae, Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas. A large proportion
of nosocomial pneumonias occur in intubated patient.
Choice E: Poor isolation of the infected patients can result in the spread of many
infectious diseases in the hospital, but L .pneumophila is not acquired usually by this
route.
Choice F: Widespread use of intravascular devices does carry increased risk of
bactericidal and sepsis but not of legionellar pneumonia.
Educational Objective:
L. pneumophila commonly contaminates natural water bodies. Municipal water,
humidification systems, air conditioning and waterbased cooling systems are the
usual culprits. The organism is inhaled in aerosolized water and establishes infection
by the pulmonary route.
69
A 78year male comes to physician's office complaining of fever of sudden onset along
with headache, muscle pain, malaise and cough. Two of his family members, who live
with him also, had similar complaints a few days back, but they recovered with
symptomatic treatment, within 3 to 4 days. Presently, the patient shows rise in
temperature and congested throat without purulent exudates. The patient is advised
conservative treatment. Few days later, this patient is admitted to the hospital with
complaints of progressive dyspnea, chest pain, and productive cough. What is the
likely causative organism in this case?
Answers
A. Cytomegalovirus
B. Listeria monocytogenes
C. Staphyloccus aureus
D. Klebsiella pneumoniae
E. Pneumocystis carinii
Explanation:
This patient's present signs and symptoms along with history of short lasting illness of
similar nature in other members of his household are consistent with influenza.
Influenza virus belongs to Orthomyxovirus family of viruses. It is comprised of
Influenza A, B and C group of viruses. In classical influenza, the illness is
characterized by sudden onset of symptoms like chills, fever, headache and myalgia.
Both upper and lower respiratory tract infections can be present. The disease usually
lasts from 3 to 5 days.
Subsets of patients stricken by influenza go on to develop secondary bacterial
pneumonia characterized by recurrent fever, dyspnea and productive cough. The
elderly are particularly at risk for this complication. This produces a classic biphasic
pattern of fever. In elderly, severe infection and sudden death may occur especially if
there is an underlying disease such as cardiovascular disorder or COPD. Physical
examination and chest radiograph demonstrate pulmonary consolidation. This
vulnerability to secondary infection is because of virusinduced damage to the
mucociliary clearance mechanisms of the respiratory epithelium. Pathogens mostly
responsible for secondary bacterial pneumonia are Streptococcus pneumoniae and
Staphylococcus aureus. (Choice C)Immunity to influenza is type and subtype specific
ad mediated mostly by local IgA antibody in the mucosa. However, influenza viruses
are well known for sudden change in their antigenic structure (antigenic shift).
Choice A: Cytomegalovirus may cause pneumonia, particularly in
immunocompromised persons.
Choice B: Listeria monocytogenes is an occasional cause of septicemia and purulent
meningitis in neonates and immunosuppressed individuals
Choice D: Klebsilla pneumoniae is most commonly responsible for nosocomial urinary
tract infection and pneumonia in asthmatics and IV drug abusers.
Choice E: P. carinii infection occurs most often in immunocompromised individuals
because of inhalation of aerosolized droplets of contaminated water.
Educational Objective:
Patients older than 65 years of age are particularly prone to develop secondary
bacterial pneumonia after influenza infection. The pathogens commonly responsible
for secondary pneumonia are S. pneumoniae and Staph. aureus
70
In an experiment, it is seen that certain strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae are non
virulent However, when grown on culture media alongside a virulent strain of S.
pneumoniae, the nonvirulent strains become virulent. What is the likely mechanism
of this change in character of the microorganism?
Answers
A. Uptake of chromosomal fragment from media
B. Pilusmediated transfer
C. Spontaneous mutation
D. Transposonmediated DNA transfer
E. Phagemediated DNA transfer
Explanation:
Certain strains of S pneumoniae express capsular polysaccharides that inhibit
phagocytosis. Strains lacking capsule are not pathogenic. S. pneumoniae is able to
undergo transformation, a process involving uptake and expression of chromosomal
fragments from the environment, when neighboring bacteria die and lyses (Choice B).
Bacteria capable taking up exogenous DNA and undergoing transformation are said to
be competent. Streptococcus, H. influenzae and Bacillus are some of the bacteria that
are capable of transformation. Through this process, nonvirulent, noncapsule
forming strains of S pneumoniae can acquire the genetic material that codes for the
capsule and gain virulence. The process of uptake of exogenous DNA involves certain
alterations in the cell wall of the bacteria so that The DNA can enter the cell. After
entering the cell, foreign DNA needs to integrate with the host DNA. For this to
happen, the foreign DNA should be of short length and have close homology with the
host DNA. (Choice A)
Choice B: Pilusmediated DNA transfer is called conjugation. We now know that most
bacteria are capable of this process. To initiate conjugation, the donor bacterium must
produce a sex pilus, which creates a direct connect with the receiving bacterium. Only
bacteria with genetic sequences coding for conjugative ability (e.g.plasmids) can
initiate conjugation.
Choice C: A mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene. Mutational
changes may be spontaneous or induced. Changes in the nucleotide base sequence can
cause changes in the transcribed mRNA base sequence, potentially altering the amino
acid sequence of the protein product. Through this mechanism, a bacterium may begin
to form proteins with potentially useful functions to aid in its survival.
Choice D: Transposonmediated DNA transfer is a mechanism by which DNA from
plasmids or phage can be incorporated into the host bacterial DNA genome. Genetic
material can be moved from one position to another within the genome or DNA can be
removed from the gene and placed onto a plasmid. The location of a gene in the
genome is important because it determines its proximity to a promoter or a suppressor
region.
Choice E: Bacteriophage (virus} mediated transfer of DNA from one bacterial cell to
another is called transduction. While replicating within the infected host bacterium,
the phage may incorporate host bacterial DNA. When the phage is subsequently
released and it infects another bacterium, it transfers both phage DNA and
incorporated bacterial DNA into the newly infected cell. It is a method commonly
responsible for acquisition of antibiotic resistance by bacteria.
Educational Objective:
S. pneumoniae is able to undergo transformation, which is the uptake and expression
of chromosomal fragments from the environment made available when another
bacterial cell dies and undergoes lysis.
71
From a 15year old boy suffering from ‘flu like’ illness, naked RNA molecules are
isolated. When these RNA molecules are introduced into cells derived from respiratory
tract, viral genome replication and viral protein synthesis is seen. The patient from
whom initial RNA molecules were isolated, is probably suffering from which of the
following infections?
Answers
A. Rota virus
B. Influenza virus type A
C. Rhinovirus type B
D. Respiratory syncytial virus
E. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1
Explanation;
For naked (nonenveloped) RNA molecules to induce viral protein synthesis in host
cells, it must act as mRNA capable of using host's intracellular machinery for
translation. This is possible when the viral RNA molecule is singlestranded and
positive sense (SS+). By positive sense, we mean that viral RNA should be of same
polarity as host mRNA. Such viruses, as they code for all the proteins they require for
replication, are able to reproduce on their own in host cell cytoplasm. In effect, it
implies that viral RNA extracted from the virion is infectious on its own. Among the
viruses listed, only Rhinovirus type B contains SS+ RNA. (Choice C). Generally
speaking, naked SS+ RNA molecules are infectious, whereas naked singlestranded
negative sense
(SS–) RNA molecules and the naked doublestranded RNA molecules are not.
Some other pathogenic, nonenveloped, single stranded, positive sense RNA viruses
belong to Picorna virus family (e.g. poliovirus, Coxsackie virus, Hepatitis A virus and
foot and mouth disease virus) and Caliciviridae family (Norwalk agent and Sopporo
virus)
Choice A: Rotavirus contains doublestranded enveloped RNA. It therefore is incapable
of inducing viral protein synthesis in a host cell without the help of a specific viral
RNA polymerase.
Choice B and D: Influenza A is an orthomyxovirus and Respiratory syncytial virus
(RSV) is a paramyxovirus that contains enveloped SS – RNA. In order for this virus to
replicate in a host cell, an RNAdependent RNA polymerase is needed.
Choice E: HIV is a retrovirus that contains DS+ RNA packaged with reverse
transcriptase (an RNAdependent DNA polymerase).
Educational Objective:
For a naked RNA molecule to induce viral protein synthesis in a host cell, it must be
able to act directly as mRNA using the host cellular machinery fro replication. Thus,
naked viruses that contain singlestranded positivesense RNA molecule can be
infectious on their own.
72
A 5yearold boy is found to have high serum levels of antibodies against polyribitol
ribose phosphate (PRP). This boy is not likely to suffer from a particular disease
caused by a microbe. What is the disease?
Answers
A. Malignant pustule
B. Pyelonephritis
C. Epigottitis
D. Miliary tuberculosis
E. Rheumatic fever
F. Aseptic meningitis
Explanation:
Epiglottitis is almost exclusively caused by Haemopilus influenzae type b and was
commonly seen in children between 2 and 7 years old prior to introduction of the
polysaccharide protein conjugate Hib vaccine in the late 1980s. H. influenzae was also
a common cause of meningitis prior to this vaccination.
Epiglottitis is usually an acute infection, with abrupt onset of obstructive laryngeal
edema. Patients present with symptoms of acute fever, inspiratory stridor, drooling,
dysphagia, dysphonia and positive thumb sign on lateral cervical xray (due to the
edematous epiglottis). The disease can be life threatening especially in children and
occurs due to intense cellulitis involving posterior part of the tongue and the epiglottis
that causes obstruction to airflow.
Invasive infection by these bacteria is usually caused by encapsulated type b strain of
H. influenzae. The capsule of H. influenzae is immunogenic and is a polymer of
ribosyl, ribitol and phosphate. It is referred to as polyriboseribitolphosphate (PRP).
Capsule is also the main virulence factor of these bacteria. Other virulence factors are
fimbriae, IgA proteases and outer membrane components. Antibodies to PRP facilitate
opsonization and complementdependent phagocytosis of bacteria. (Choice C)
To effectively prevent infection with H. influenzae type b individuals must mount an
antibody response against the capsular material. The rarity of infection in first two
months of life is due to presence of maternally derived antibodies. The first dose of H.
influenzae type b vaccine is given at 2 month of age.
Choice A: Malignant pustule is a painless ulcer with black eschar and local edema. It
is caused by Bacillus anthracis.
Choice B: Pyelonephritis is most commonly caused by E. coli; both in adults as well as
children and accounts for over 90% of cases in some studies.
Choice D: Miliary tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Their cell
wall contains several complex lipids (mycolic acids)
Choice E: Rheumatic fever is sequelae of untreated group A Streptococcal pharyngitis.
Choice F: Aseptic meningitis is usually caused by viruses and certain bacteria that
cannot be cultured on routine culture media. H. influenzae does not belong to this
group.
Educational Objective:
The H. influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine is composed of polyribosylribitolphosphate
(PRP), a component of the Hib capsule. It usually is conjugated with diphtheria or
tetanus toxoid. Immune activation with antibody production and generation of
memory Tlymphocytes against PRP provides lasting immunity against Hib in
children as young as 2 months old.
73
A 10month old child presents initially in outpatient clinic with fever, running nose
and sore throat. Two days later, he is brought to the emergency department with
complaints of persistent fever, dry brassy cough and difficulty in breathing. History of
a single episode of seizures is also present. Physical examination shows presence of
stridor and mild cyanosis. Which of the following pathogens can be responsible for this
type of clinical picture?
Answers
A. Calicivirus
B. Rhinovirus
C. Togavirus
D. Parvovirus
E. Paramyxovirus
Explanation:
The child presented initially with features of upper respiratory tract infection (URTI).
Most URTIs are caused by viruses. Bacterial etiology is present in about15 20% of
childhood cases and in 5 10% of adulthood cases of pharyngitis. Viruses responsible
for URTI are rhinovirus, corona virus, parainfluenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus,
influenza, adeno and metapneumovirus.
If a child who has been suffering from URTI develops a brassy cough with breathing
difficulty, then the possibility of acute laryngotracheobronchitis (croup) should be
considered. It usually develops 1 to 2 days after the onset of URTI. The dyspnea
associated with croup occurs when inflamed subglottic tissue obstructs the upper
airway. This manifests as inspiratory stridor. In croup, neck xray (AP view) shows
subglottic edema (hourglass sign). Croup can be caused by all the viruses mentioned
above; however, parainfluenza type 1 virus is the commonest cause. Parainfluenza
virus belongs to paramyxoviridae family (Choice E).
Choice A: Calicivirus are responsible for viral gastroenteritis
Choice B: Rhinovirus is the most common viral cause of upper respiratory infections
but is an uncommon cause of viral croup
Choice C: Togaviruses are responsible for rubella, Eastern, and Western equine
encephalitis.
Choice D: Parvovirus is responsible for aplastic crises in sickle cell anemia, erythema
infectiosum, and hydrops fetalis. Sometimes nonspecific URTI may be produced by
this virus
Educational Objective:
Dry hacking cough (brassy cough, seal’s bark cough), dyspnea and inspiratory stridor
in a child with a recent URTI is suggestive of viral laryngotracheobronchitis (croup)
The most common cause of croup is parainfluenza virus type1. Children with croup
need to be hospitalized and closely monitored.
74
A 26 yearold male from a developing country presents to the clinic with six months
history of productive cough, night sweats and lowgrade fever. His sputum was
cultured on blood agar and Sabraud’s medium. Creamy white colonies were seen after
3 days. On microscopy, they show budding yeast forms. When one colony was
incubated with serum for 2 hours at 37◦ C and examined under the microscope, it
showed presence of hyphal structures. The most likely site of colonization by this
organism before it was found in sputum is:
Answers
A. Bronchioles and small bronchi
B. Fibrous cavities in lung
C. Oral cavity
D. Inflamed lung parenchyma
E. Large bronchi and trachea
Explanation:
Presence of budding yeast and formation of hyphal structures on incubation in serum
(germ tube test) is indicative of fungus of Saccharomycetales group, of which candida
albicans is most commonly encountered. Candida species is assuming greater
importance as a human pathogen because of aging population, widespread use of
immunosuppressive for many diseases and increase in invasive procedures carried out
on patients. Candidiasis is the fourth commonest cause of nosocomial infection in
USA. C. albicans accounts for 50% cases of candidiasis, rest is due to nonalbicans
species like C.glabrata, C. parapsilosis and C. krusei. Germ tubes are specific for C
albicans. Very rarely, they are formed by C. dubliniensis. C. glabrata do not form germ
tubes and C. lusitaniae form very few.
C. albicans is the most common opportunist mycosis. It is also a frequent colonizer of
human skin and mucous membranes. (Candida contributes to the normal flora of skin.
mouth. vagina. and intestine.)
Superficial candida infections are associated with antibiotic use, corticosteroid use,
diabetes mellitus, HIV and other immunosuppressive illnesses. These superficial
infections include oral thrush, vulvovaginitis and cutaneous candidiasis. Disseminated
candidiasis occurs in neutropenic patients and most often affects the esophagus, heart,
liver and kidney.
Candida does not usually produce lung infestation. This patient's putrefactive
symptoms as well as the fact that he is originally from a developing country suggests
possibility of tuberculosis. Presence of candida in his sputum only indicates that his
oral cavity is colonized. (Choice C)
Choices A and E: The trachea, large and small bronchi are normally sterile
Choice B: Aspergillus fumigatus is a fungus that colonizes already existing lung
cavities. It forms a 'fungus ball" (aspergilloma) that may prooduce cough and
hemoptysis.
Choice D: Many pathogens, including bacteria, viruses and fungi, can cause
inflammation of the lung parenclyna. Candida associated pulmonary disease is
however uncommon.
Educational Objective:
Candida albicans is a normal inhabitant of the GI tract (including the oral cavity) in
up to 10% of the population. Thus, it is a common contaminant of sputum cultures.
Isolation of candida from sputum does not indicate disease.
75
A 6monthold infant develops meningitis. Gramnegative coccobacilli were seen in his
CSF on Gram staining. Initially it was not possible to obtain the growth of this
microorganism on 5%sheep blood agar. However, luxurious growth of Gramnegative
coccobacilli was seen when CSF was cultured on same media along with a streak of
Staphylococcus aureus colonies. Staphylococci promote, growth of the bacteria by
supplementing
Answers:
A. Iron
B. Catalase
C. NAD.
D. ATP
E. Pyruvate
Explanation:
Subject: Haemophilus influenzae grown around a streak of Staphylococcus aureus
Subject: Haemophilus influenzae on chocolate agar plate
Haemophilus influenzae is a bloodloving organism and requires X factor (exogenous
haemin) and V factor (NAD or NADP) to support its growth. Pure 5% sheep blood agar
lacks sufficient nutrients to support the growth of Haemophilus species. It also does
not allow growth of haemophilus because of the presence of V factor inactivating
enzymes (NADase). Growth of Haemophilus influenzae can be achieved on 5% sheep
blood agar by cross streaking the medium with Staphylococcus aureus. Colonies of H,
influenzae will grow around the hemolytic S. aureus colonies, a phenomenon known as
satellitism. This occurs because staphylococcus secretes an excess of V factor. Due to
hemolysis of RBC (produced by staphylococcus), X factor is also released from lysed
erythrocytes. S aureus therefore provides the X and V factors necessary to support the
growth of Haemophilus influenzae in sheep blood agar.
Choice B: Catalase is an enzyme present in staphylococcus. Its presence is used to
differentiate the staphylococci from the streptococci.
Choice D: Pyruvate is the end product of glycolysis and is the starting substrate for
synthesis of glucose, lactate, fatty acids, amino acids and nucleic acids. It is used by all
pathogenic bacteria in metabolism of sugars for energy.
Choice E: Iron is an essential growth factor for many bacteria. It is present in all blood
agar media, as it is derived from iron contained in erythrocytes.
Choice F: Lactose fermentation as a source of energy is best studied in operation of lac
operon in E. coli. Lactose can bind specifically to the lac repressor, which thus gets
altered. This alteration allows RNA polymerase to attach to the promoter site and
transcribe the structural genes of the lac operon.
Educational Objective:
Haemophilus influenzae is a "blood loving" organism. Part of the laboratory
identification process of Haemophilus influenzae is demonstration of its requirement
for X factor and V factor for its growth. This can be achieved on 5% sheep blood agar
by streaking the media with staphylococcus aureus. Hemolysis produced by S. aureus
supplies the X factor, and V factor is secreted in excess by S. aureus itself. The
phenomenon is known as satellitism
76
A 5yearold boy presents to the clinic with history of pain in the ear region. His
physical examination shows features of acute otitis media. The tympanic membrane is
ruptured and pus is coming out. Microbiological examination of pus shows growth of
Haemophilus influenzae. However, patient’s immunization history is up to date and
includes vaccination for H. influenzae. What explains presence of otitis media caused
by these bacteria in this patient?
Answers
A Cellular immune functions are defective in this patient.
B Patient’s neutrophil functions are defective.
C The strain responsible for this patient's disease produces exotoxin
D The strain responsible for this patient's disease is unencapsulated
E Effective vaccine against Haemophilus influenzae is not available
Explanation:
Acute otitis media is seen particularly in children between 6 months and 12 years of
age. In the pediatric age group, S. pneumoniae (35%), H. influenzae (25%) and M.
catarrhalis (15%) are the predominant bacteria involved. Viruses alone or in
conjunction with bacteria are seen in 25% of cases. H influenzae is classified, or typed
into 6 serotypes (af) based on the antigenic structure of its polysaccharide capsule. H.
influenzae that do not possess polysaccharide capsule are called nontypeable. More
than 90% of H. influenzae strains isolated from middle ear aspirates of infected
children are nontypeable. Similarly, most cases of chronic bronchitis are associated
with nontypeable strains. Haemophilus influenzae is found exclusively in humans. It
resides principally in upper respiratory tract. About 25 to 80% people have non
capsulate strain and 5 to 10% have capsulate strain in their nasopharynx. Majority of
capsulate strains belong to serotype b. In unvaccinated individuals, invasive H.
influenzae infection can culminate in meningitis, epiglottitis, bacteremia, pneumonia,
septic arthritis and cellulitis. The polysaccharide capsule is the major virulence factor;
hence, immunization with H. influenzae type b conjugate vaccine (Hib vaccine) is
usually employed. However, Hib vaccine will not prevent infection by noncapsulate
(nontypeable) strains of H. influenzae. As mentioned earlier these strains are mostly
implicated in acute otitis media in children (Choice D)
Choice A: Haemophilus influenzae infection despite adequate vaccination does not
indicate defective cellular immunity as a Tcell response is generally not induced by
the conjugate vaccine. The conjugate vaccine stimulates Bcells.
Choice B: Haemophilus influenzae infection despite immunizations does not signify
defective neutrophil function, although poor neutrophil function or low neutrophil
count can predispose to this disease.
Choice C: Exotoxin is not produced by any strain of H. influenzae, typeable or not. The
vaccine for H. influenzae is directed against capsular polysaccharide and not against
any toxin.
Choice E: The proteinconjugated Hib vaccine is very effective in inciting immunity to
Haemophilus influenzae type b in children.
Educational Objective:
Nontypeable strains of Haemophilus influenzae are the strains that do not have
antiphagocytic polysaccharide capsule. This capsule is the major virulence factor of
this microorganism; hence, vaccine against the most prevalent capsulated bacteria (i.e.
Haemophilus influenzae type b) is usually employed for vaccination purposes.
However, immunity against nontypeable strains, as well as for typeable strains other
than type b, is not conferred by vaccination with the Hib vaccine.
77
A 2daynewborn develops lethargy, pyogenic skin lesions and respiratory distress.
Blood culture show growth of betahemolytic Grampositive cocci that are catalase
negative and bacitracinresistant. Which of the following measures could have
prevented this condition?
Answers
A. Penicillin at 30 weeks gestation
B. Maternal vaccination against group B streptococcus
C. Breast feeding restriction
D. Intrapartum penicillin or ampicillin
E. Postnatal immunoglobulin
Explanation:
The finding of Grampositive cocci in chains indicates presence of streptococcus, as
staphylococci classically form clusters. They cab be distinguished further by the
catalase reaction. Staphylococcus is catalase positive. Group A Streptococci
(S.pyogenes) and Group B streptococci (S. agalactiae) are betahemolytic, but
bacitracin resistance excludes S. pyogenes (GAS) and indicates S. agalactiae (GBS).
GBS is a leading cause of bacterial sepsis and meningitis in newborn and a major
cause of endometritis and fever in parturient women. The 2002 guidelines for
‘Perinatal group B Streptococus Prevention’ recommend universal prenatal screening
for group B streptococcal colonization of maternal vaginal and rectal tract at 3537
weeks gestation. In women positive for GBS or in women who have had an infection by
GBS in the past, intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis is indicated to prevent neonatal
GBS sepsis, pneumonia and meningitis. Others recommend antibiotic prophylaxis only
for highrisk patients (preterm delivery, early rupture of membranes, prolonged labor,
fever or chorioamnionitis). Incidence of group B streptococcal disease in babies less
than a week old is declining due to these recommendations. Penicillin remains the
first line agent for intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. Ampicillin is an acceptable
alternative. (Choice D)
Choice A: Early eradication of streptococci (at 30 weeks gestation) will not serve the
purpose, as the mother would again be vulnerable to reinfection after 4 weeks.
Choice B: Theoretically, immunization of women against S. agalactiae before or during
pregnancy could prevent intrapartum infection of the baby. It would be preferable
than antibiotic administration as it would prevent development of resistant strains.
However, the vaccine is not ready as yet.
Choice C: Breastfeeding should not be restricted under normal circumstances because
the human milk, specially the colostrum, provides some mucosal immune protection to
the newborn. Additionally, breastfeeding is recommended by the American Academy
of Pediatrics as the sole source of nutrition to all infants for the first six months
because to its superior nutritional content, its ability to invigorate the proper
development of the GI tract and for immune protection afforded to the baby by IgA
antibodies in human breast milk.
Choice E: Postnatal immunoglobulin administration would be a little late, since
infection can occur at an earlier period of parturition or in late gestation.
Educational Objective:
Universal prenatal screening for group B streptococcus colonization of anogenital
region by swab culture al 3537 weeks gestation is recommended to identify infected
women. They need be given intrapartum antibiotics as prophylaxis to prevent
neonatal GBS sepsis, pneumonia and meningitis
78
An 8yearold immigrant boy is brought to the emergency room with a swollen right
knee accompanied by fever and malaise. His joint movements are limited and very
painful. His past medical history is not significant Some of his vaccinations are not up
to date. His synovial fluid and blood culture grew gramnegative rods on hematin
enriched medium. The microorganism isolated above, is able to produce disease
because of the presence of which of the following components?
Answers
A. Capsule
B. Endotoxin
C. Fimbriae
D. Hemolysins
E. Hyaluronidase
F. Exotoxin
Explanation:
H. influenzae is a gramnegative bacillus, which may or may not show presence of a
polysaccharide capsule. Capsulated strains are subdivided into serotypes designated
a –f, depending on antigenic structure of their capsule. The six cappsular subtypes can
be identified by polymerase chain rection. Haemophilus influenzae is a bloodloving
organism and requires both X factor (exogenous hemin) and V factor (nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide) for its growth on culture media. Most infections are caused by H.
influenzae serotype b. Type b is the only H. influenzae whose capsule contains ribose
rather than hexose sugar and this feature may be related to the virulence of the
organism. The type b capsular material is a polymer consisting of ribose, ribitol and
phosphate, and is known as polyribosylribitol phosphate (PRP). The PRP capsule
prevents phagocytosis and intracellular killing by neutrophils and is essential for
virulence of this organism (Choice A). Antibodies to serotype b are shown to promote
opsonization, complement fixation and phagocytosis of H. influenzae.
Unencapsulated (nontypeable) H. influenzae are part of the normal flora of the upper
respiratory tract. They can produce only local infection such as sinusitis, otitis media
or bronchitis. Local disease is more likely in presence of an underlying abnormality.
Without the benefit of a capsule, these strains are unable to produce invasive diseases.
Choice B: Being gramnegative organisms, H. influenzae possess LPS endotoxin in
their cell membranes, but this endotoxin is not a major virulence factor. Endotoxin is
the major virulence factor in infections caused by N. meningitidis, Salmonella and E.
coli.
Choice C: Fimbriae are not present on H. influenzae. These proteinaceous projections
from bacterial cells mediate attachment to target tissues during the process of
establishing infection. Fimbriae play an important role in N. gonorrheae, N
meningitidis and E.coli infection.
Choice D: Hemolysins are not produced by Haemophilus influenzae
Choice E: The enzyme hyaluronidase is not present in Haemophilus influenzae. This
enzyme is important for pathogenesis of infections caused by Staphylococci and
Streptococci (group A and C).
Choice F: There are no strains of H. influenzae known to produce an exotoxin.
Educational Objective:
The pathogenicity of H. influenzae is dependent on the presence of the antiphagocytic
polysaccharide capsule. Type b is the most invasive and virulent strain of
Haemophilus influenzae. It has a capsule with ribose as the sugar rather than a
hexose. Unencapsulated (nontypeable) strains of these bacteria are part of the normal
flora and cause only local infections.
79
A 3yearold child has history of recurrent staphylococcal skin infections. Now he is
presenting with a liver abscess due to aspergillus infection. The patient is thought to
have a mutation of a structural component of a neutrophilic enzyme system that is
involved in microbicidal activities. This child would have increased vulnerability to
infections caused by
Answers
A. Giardia lamblia
B. Herpes simplex type I
C. Mycobactrium tuberculosis
D. Crypcococcus neoformans
E. Streptococcus pyogenes
F. Corynebacterium diphtheriae
G. Pseudomonas cepacia
Explanation:
This patient has chronic granulomatous disease (CGD), a condition caused by
mutation in genes encoding neutrophil NADPH oxidase system. NADPH oxidase is
involved in production of H2O2 , which itself is capable of destroying bacteria, albeit
slowly or it may enter H2O2 MPhalide system to form potent microbicidal substance,
hypochlorite. Patients with defects in NADPH oxidase are unable to generate
sufficient H2O2 , specially when the infecting organism is capable of producing
catalase. Patients with CGD are at increased risk for infections caused by:
Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas cepacia (Burkholderia cepacia), Serratia
marcescens, Nocardia species, Aspergillus species and Chromobacterium violaceum.
These organisms are all catalase positive and catalase decomposes H 2O2 (2H2O2 → O2 +
2H2O)
In CGD patients, the production rate of H2O2 and the downstream microbicidal HOCL
is imperiled. It appears that catalese positivity in infecting organismsis necessary but
not sufficient for opportunistic infections to occur, since the risk of infection with other
catalase positive microbes (such as M. tuberculosis, C.neoformans, and C. diptheriae)
is not increased in CGD (Choice G).
Choice C, D and F: All these microorganisms are catalase positive, but patients of
CGD do not have increased susceptibility to these organisms. This indicates that other
factors apart from catalase positivity are also essential for infectivity in a patient of
CGD.
Choice A, B and E: These microorganisms are catalase negative. Presence of catalase
enzyme is one of the essential prerequisites for microorganism to be able to produce
disease in patients of CGD.
Educational Objective:
Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) results from a genetic defect in NADPH oxidase
enzyme system. Normally NADPH oxidase participates in the killing of microbes
within neutrophil phagolysosomes. Patents with CGD develop recurrent pulmonary,
cutaneous, lymphatic and hepatic infections with a tendency for granuloma formation,
usually beginning in childhood. The infections are predominantly caused by S. aureus,
P. cepacia (Burkholderia cepacia), Serratia marcescens, Nocardia species, Aspergillus
species and Chromobacterium violaceum.
80
A 40yearold Asian immigrant presents to your clinic with complaints of productive
cough, lowgrade fever, night sweats and occasional hemoptysis. Sputum cultures
placed on a selective medium grow mycobacterium. On microscopic examination, the
bacteria are growing as parallel chains. This observed growth pattern, often correlates
with which particular property of the bacteria?
Answers
Acidfastness
Virulence
Multidrug resistance
Ability to survive within macrophages.
Growth rates
Explanation:
The clinical picture of this patient is typical of pulmonary tuberculosis. The growth
pattern of bacteria in vitro, as alluded to in the question, is described as serpentine
cords. It is indicative of elaboration of cord factor by these microorganisms. Cord factor
is a glycolipid (trehalose 6, 6’dimycolate). Experimental injection of this glycolipid in
mice is seen to inhibit neutrophil migration. It also promotes granuloma formation. In
vivo, cord factor is associated with the virulence of these bacteria. Mycobacterium that
do not possess this factor are unable to cause disease. More specifically, cord factor is
responsible for inactivating neutrophils, damaging mitochondria and inducing release
of tumor necrosis factor. Another virulence factor believed to be elaborated by
mycobacteria is sulphatides. Sulphatides inhibit fusion of secondary lysosomes with
mycobacteria contain phagosomes (Choice B).
Choice A: Acidfastness is a properly inherent to all mycolic acidcontaining
microorganisms including Mycobacterium and Nocardia.
Choice C: multiple drug resistance in mycobacteria arises due to spontaneous point
mutation in the genome. It is usually the result of monotherapy or due to poor
compliance with the treatment.
Choice D: Ability to survive within macrophages is a function of sulphatides as
described earlier.
Choice E: Growth rate is not responsible for the formation of cords by mycobacteria.
Educational Objective:
Virulent mycobacteria will grow as "serpentine" cords in vitro. This property is
dependant on elaboration of trehalose 6, 6’dimycolate by the bacteria and it correlates
with virulence of these microorganisms.
81
If a sample of contaminated soil is heated to 100°C for 15 minutes, which of the
following bacteria is likely to survive this treatment.
Answers
A. Bacillus anthracis
B. Streptococcus pyogenes
C. Escherichia coli
D. Pseudomonas aeruginosa
E. Listeria monocytogenes
Explanation:
Usually members of Bacillus and Clostridium family are the sporeforming bacteria
that are present in contaminated soil. Spores are resistant to heat and can survive
temperatures of 100°C. Hence, members of Bacillus and Clostridium family that are
present in soil would be able to withstand heating of soil up to 100°C. Spores not only
withstand high temperatures but they can also resist desiccation and disinfecting
chemical agents. Thus, autoclaving is the only method to destroy them (Choice A).
Choice B, C, D and E: These organisms do not form spores and would be killed if
heated upto 100°C
Educational Objective:
Sporeforming bacteria survive boiling. Bacillus anthracis and some members
Clostridium family are potentially pathogenic bacteria. They are found in soil and are
capable of forming spores.
82
A 45yearold male presents with features of advanced HIV infection (marked weight
loss, CD4 cell count < 100 cells/cmm). He complains of productive cough and chest pain
for which a bronchoscopy is done. His broncholalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid shows
presence of budding yeast forms with thick walls. These yeast cells stained intensely
with mucicarmine stain. Infection with this organism may also more commonly
manifest as
Answers:
A. Interstitial pneumonia
B. Oral plaques
C. Esophagitis
D. Meningitis
E. Skin infection
F. Sinusitis
Explanation:
Yeast forms whose capsule stain with mucicarmine stain is most often Cryptococcus
neoformans. Trichosporon beigelii and Blastomyces dermatidis are the other fungi
that show staining with mucicarmine. B. dermatidis shows broad based budding and
retracted cytoplasm. Trichosporon usually does not infect the lungs and has a different
morphology.
C. neoformans affects only immunocompromised patients. Generally, it is found in soil
contaminated by pigeon droppings. Usually it is acquired by inhalation; personto
person transmission does not occur. Risk factors other than HIV infection are diabetes,
immunosuppressive therapy, neoplasia and immunologic diseases. Following
inhalation the disease may remain localized in the lung or it may disseminate to
distant sites, depending on immune status of the patient. In immunodeficient
individuals, lungs shows diffuse involvement and is often accompanied by other
infections like P.carinii or CMV. The disease may spread to CNS where it produces
cryptococcal meningitis, which usually appears insidiously. Bone and joint infection
lead to abscess formation. Skin involvement presents as papules that ulcerate later on.
Presumptive diagnosis can be obtained by staining the CSF with India ink and it
shows a distinct halo (due to presence of capsule) around yeast form. More specific
latex agglutination tests and EIA assays are also available (Choice D)
Choice A: Cryptococcal pulmonary disease produces granulomas. It usually does not
cause interstitial pneumonia.
Choice B: White oral plaques are a common manifestation of Candida infection (oral
thrush).
Choice C: Esophagitis in an immunodeficient patient is most commonly caused by
Candida infection
Choice E: Cryptococcus may cause cutaneous mycosis that manifests with papules,
Pustules, nodules and ulcer. However, cutaneous cryptococcal disease is rare and
occurs in about 10% of cases.
Choice F: Mucormycosis classically affects the paranasal sinuses. Mucormycosis
occurs in immunocompromised patients and is strongly associated with diabetes
mellitus and diabetic ketoacidosis. Aspergillus is another fungus that may cause
sinusitis.
Educational Objectives:
Meningitis is the most common presentation of cryptococcus neoformans infection,
which occurs in immunosuppressed patients. It can be diagnosed by India ink staining
of the CSF. Cryptococcal pneumonia is diagnosed by mucicarmine staining of lung
tissue and BAL fluid.
83
A 44yearold male is having HIV infection from last eight years. He is on
antiretroviral therapy for last 6 years. Now, he presents to the hospital with
complaints of cough and lowgrade fever. He has lost 10 pounds of weight in last 6
months. On examination, he has hepatospenomegaly. A light microscopic image of his
bone marrow aspirate is shown below.
What organism is seen in the graphic above?
Answers
A. Sporothrix schenkii
B. Coccidiodes immitis
C. Candida albicans
D. Aspergillus fumigatus
E. Cryptococcus neoformans
F. Histoplasma capsulatum
Explanation:
This image shows small ovoid bodies within a macrophage. Of the choices listed, only
Histoplasma capsulatum can survive intracellularly and produce systemic disease. In
immunocompetent individuals, H. capsulatum infection is either asymptomatic or it
may produce a selflimiting pulmonary disease in form of a granulomatous
inflammation. In immunodeficient individuals and rarely in young patients, this
organism may produce an acute disseminated disease. This can be rapidly progressive
and fatal. Rarely a chronic form of disseminated disease may be seen in previously
healthy persons. Disseminated histoplasmosis causes hepatosplenomegly because of
its predilection for the reticuloendothelial system. Ulcerated lesions on the tongue are
also very characteristic of disseminated histoplasmosis.
Chest xray of a patient with disseminated histoplasmosis may show diffuse
pulmonary infiltrates with marked lymphadenopathy. In chronic lung disease, the
radiographic changes resemble those of pulmonary tuberculosis. Examination of lung
biopsy specimens and bone marrow aspirates reveals oval or round yeasts like forms
within macrophages. They need to be distinguished from cells of C. glabrata, B.
dermatitidis and P. marneffei. As H. capsulatum is a dimorphic fungus, culture on
Sabrauds medium will show growth of hyphal form. Histoplasma antigen can be
assayed in blood or urine and is useful both for diagnosis and for monitoring treatment
response. (Choice F)
Choice A: Sporothrix schenkii is a dimorphic fungus. Yeast form shows a characteristic
cigar shaped bud. It usually produces lesions on the skin. In immunodeficient persons,
disseminated disease may be seen.
Choice B: Coccidioides immitis also causes disseminated mycosis in immunodeficient
patients. In tissue sections, it is seen as large spherules containing endospores.
Choice C: Candida albicans is the most frequent opportunistic fungal agent. It is
extracellular and forms yeast and pseudohyphae.
Choice D: Aspergillus fumigatus is a monomorphic fungus. It is seen in tissues as
septate hyphae with Vshaped branching.
Choice E: Cryptococcus neoformans shows yeast cells that stain intensely with
mucicarmine stain.
Educational Objective:
H. capsulatum can survive intracellularly within macrophages. It causes a
disseminated mycosis in immunocompromised patients and constitutes one of the
AIDS defining conditions. The clinical features include systemic symptoms (fever and
weight loss), painful oral ulcers, lymphadenopathy and hepatosplenomegaly,
84
Some animals were given subcutaneous injection of certain Grampositive bacteria. An
antibiotic was then administered to them. After a few days, certain grampositive
bacilli were isolated from the wound site. When placed in a hypotonic solution, these
microorganisms underwent rapid disintegration due to swelling. Which of the
following antibiotic was used in this experiment?
A. Ciprofloxacin
B. Cefuroxime
C. Chloramphnenicol
D. Azithromycin
E. Doxycycline
Explanation:
Grampositive organisms have a cytoplasmic membrane composed of a phospholipid
bilayer as well as a peptidoglycan cell wall outside of cell membrane. The
peptidoglycan wall provides the shape to the bacterium as well as resistance to
osmotic stress. They also protect the bacterium agents the immune system and in
many instances play an important role in pathogenecity of these organisms. Under
normal circumstances and within a certain range, Grampositive organisms would not
be destroyed by changes in tonicity of the surrounding environment, because of their
intact peptidoglycan wall. In the experiment described above, the bacteria were
destroyed when placed in a hypotonic solution. Therefore, it can be safely inferred that
these bacteria had some deficiency in their peptidoglycan cell wall. The only antibiotic
mentioned in the list above that acts against cell wall synthesis is Cefuroxime. This is
a secondgeneration cephalosporin. Cephalosporin’s are betalactam antibiotics and
are related to penicillin. Vancomycin is another example of an antibiotic that inhibits
cell wall synthesis (Choice B)
Choice A: Ciprofloxacin belongs to fluoroquinolone class of antibiotics. These
antibiotics act by inhibiting bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, thereby
leading to bacterial DNA damage
Choice C: Chloramphenicol is an antiribosomal antibiotic that acts to inhibit bacterial
ribosomes. Its use is limited by its toxicity, which includes a doserelated
myelosuppression leading to anemia as well as aplastic anemia, the most feared side
effect of this drug
Choice D: Azithromycin is a macrolide antibiotic that acts by inhibiting the bacterial
50 S ribosomal subunit. This inhibits protein chain formation in the bacteria
Choice E: Doxycycline is an antibiotic that acts by inhibiting bacterial 30S ribosomal
subunit and therefore bacterial protein synthesis.
Educational Objective:
Penicillins, Cephalosporins and Vancomycin are able to disrupt the peptidoglycan cell
wall of Grampositive and Gramnegative organisms. Exposure of bacteria to these
antibiotics depletes their cell wall. As a consequence, such bacteria are unable to
handle osmotic stresses.
85
A 30yearold man develops an ulcerative lesion on the skin over his shinbone from
last two months. Base of the ulcer is covered with dirty white exudate.Microscopic
examination of exudate shows acute inflammatory exudate, necrotic material and few
illdefined granulomas. Histologicalexamination after silver methenamine stain shows
presence of yeast cells with a single broad based bud. Another rpiece of tissue from the
same specimen was placed in a specific medium at 24○ C. this procedure showed
growth of hyhal forms. The patient is most likely infected with
Answers
A. Blastomyces dermatitidis
B. Malessezia furfur
C. Cryptococcus neoformans
D. Aspergillus fumigatus
E. Rhizopus species
F. Candida glabrata
Explanation:
Certain fungal species display variable morphology when growing in different
environment at different temperatures and alternate between the yeast and the mold
forms. Such fungi are called dimorphic. They grow as hyphal structures at 2530°C
and as yeasts at body temperature (36 37°C). In tissues, they are usually seen as
yeasts. Four species of dimorphic fungi are of medical significance. Their
characteristics are shown in the following table.
Of the possibilities listed above, only B.dermatitidis is a dimorphic fungus (Choice A)
Choice B: Malassezia furfur produces cutaneous mycosis. Skin scrapings show short
hyphae and spores, an appearance that is likened to ‘spaghetti and meatballs’
Choice C: Cryptococcus neoformans shows yeast forms in clinical specimens. Yeasts
show intense staining with mucicarmine stain. Pseuedohyphae may be seen.
Choice D: Aspergillus fumigatus shows only septate hyphal form in tissues along with
‘fruiting forms’. It mainly affects immunocompromised patients.
Choice E: Rhizopus, Mucor and Absidia are the saprophytic fungi that cause
mucormycosis in immunosuppressed patients. It shows broad nonseptate hyphae in
tissue specimens
Choice F: Candida glabrata is a component of normal human flora. It causes
disseminated infection in immunocompromised individuals. In tissue specimens it is
seen as budding yeast with pseudohyphae
Educational Objective:
Dimorphic fungi grow as molds at 2530°C and as yeast at body temperature (3537C).
Medically important dimorphic fungi include Sporothrix, Coccidioides, Histoptasma
and Blastomyces species.
86
A 40 yearold Caucasian male presents with a history of long standing cough and
weight loss. His chest xray shows presence of pulmonary infiltrates. His past medical
and personal history is unremarkable. A transbronchial biopsy was obtained and it
shows presence of granulomas. Which of the following agents can produce this clinical
picture?
Answers
A. Mucor species
B. Candida albicans
C. Pneumocystis jiroveci (carinii)
D. Blastomyces dermatitidis
E. Aspergillus fumigatus
Explanation:
Of the choices listed above, only Blastomyces dermatitidis can produce granulomatous
inflammation in an immune competent individual. Endemic areas of this fungus are
areas adjacent to Mississippi and Ohio River, areas northwest of the great lakes in
Canada and areas within Africa. A history of travel to an endemic area can often be
elicited. There are no specific risk factors for infection with B. dermatitidis, although
HIV infection predisposes to disseminated form of this disease. The fungus exists in
environment in mold form, found in soils’ organic matter. The infection is transmitted
by inhalation of the fungus from soil. Persontoperson transmission is not seen. After
entering the lungs, it transforms into yeast form (thermal dimorphism).
Blastomyces dermatitidis may be asymptomatic in an immunocompetent person or it
may produce a flulike illness or a more severe infection with productive cough and
hemoptysis. The infection may become chronic, when it is characterized by granuloma
formation. Infection can spread by hematogenous route to skin, subcutaneous tissue,
bones and oropharynx. Sputum examination shows round yeast with thick, refractile
walls. Yeast may show a single, broadbased bud. Insitu hybridization tests for tissue
sections and complement fixation tests for serum are also available (choice D).
Choice A: Mucormycosis (Zygomycosis) usually produces rhinocerebral disease.
Sometimes it may manifest as a pulmonary disorder and presents as pneumonia. On
histology, the fungus is angioinvasive and elicits acute necrotizing inflammatory
response. Granulomas are absent.
Choice B: Candida albicans is an opportunistic pathogen. It may cause a superficial
infection in an immunocompetent host (e.g. vulvovaginitis). Systemic disease,
however, occurs only in the immunosuppressed patients.
Choice C: Pneumocystis jiroveci causes pulmonary disease in immunocompromised
patients like HIV infected individuals or transplant recipients on immunosuppressive
drugs.
Choice E: Aspergillus fumigatus is an opportunistic pathogen. It causes invasive
aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients, in patients with old lung cavities and in
asthmatic patients.
Educational Objective:
Blastomyces dermatitidis can cause pulmonary disease in the immunocompetent
hosts. In immunocompromised individuals, it may lead to disseminated mycosis.
87
A 40 year old Caucasian male presents with chronic symptoms referable to his
respiratory system. Microscopic examination of lung tissue shows mixed inflammatory
cell infiltrate alongside spherules packed with endospores. Which of the following
events is likely to be present in this patient’s history?
Answers
A. Chemotherapy for leukemia
B. Cave exploration in Ohio
C. Travel to Arizona
D. Exposure to pigeon droppings
E. Previous history of cavitary tuberculosis
F. Long history of bronchial asthma
Explanation:
Chronic lung disease due to an infection that shows presence in tissue of spherules
packed with endospores is indicative of Coccidiodes immitis infection. This is a
dimorphic fungus that has a mold form (hyphae) in cultures at 25 ○ C and a yeast form
(spherules with endospores} at body temperature (3740○ C). it I a fungus endemic in
USA (Lower Sonoran Life zone of California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah and New Mexico),
Mexico and South American peninsula.
C. immitis is transmitted by inhalation of spores (arthoconidia). Once inside the lungs,
the spores turn into spherules that contain endospores. The spherules subsequently
rupture and release endospores that disseminate to other organs and tissues. The
disease may develop in up to 40% individuals who inhale these spores from
contaminated soil. C. immitis causes lung disease that may be asymptomatic or it may
produce flulike symptoms. Skin lesions can also occur (erythema nodosum or
erythema multiforme). Immunosuppressed patients may develop systemic
coccidiodomycosis (Choice C)
Choice A: Neutropenic patients are at high nsk for developing opportunistic mycosis by
Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus and Mucor.
Choice B: Histoplasma capsulatum is endemic to the Mississipi and Ohio River
basins. It is found in bird and bat droppings. Patients with histoplasmosis often have a
history of caving.
Choice D: The yeast form of cryptococcus neoformans is present in pigeon droppings.
This fungus causes pulmonary disease and meningoencephalitis in immunodeficient
patients.
Choice E: Aspergillus fumigatus can colonize old lung cavities (e.g. formed by
tuberculosis) to form a ‘fungal ball’ (aspergilloma).
Choice F: Patients of bronchial asthma are at risk of developing an allergic reaction to
Α fumigatus called allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis.
Educational Objective:
Coccidioides immitis is a dimorphic fungus endemic to the southwestern U.S. It exists
in the environment as a mold that forms spores. These spores are inhaled and turn
into spherules in the lungs.
88
A group of biologists had gone on exploration of some caves near Ohio River in eastern
United States in search of a new species of birds. After about 6 months, some of them
present to the hospital with fever, cough, chest pain and malaise. Pulmonary
infiltrates and hilar lymphadenopathy was seen on chest xrays. A transbronchial lung
biopsy was done and a fungus was detected. What morphological form is likely to be
seen in this fungal disease?
Answers
A. Budding yeast with a thick capsule
B. Septate hyphae with dichotomous branching
C. Ovoid cells within macrophages
D. Pseudohyphae and blastoconidia
E. Multinucleated spherules
Explanation:
History of cave exploration in eastern USA preceding onset of a pulmonary disease
should raise suspicion of infection with the fungus, Histoplasma capsulatum.
H. capsulatum is a thermally dimorphic fungus and is amongst the commonest agent
to produce a fungal disease in endemic areas. Other thermally dimorphic fungi are
Blastomyces dermatitidis, Coccidiodes immitis and Sporothrix schenkii. Each of these
fungi has a restricted geographical distribution in USA. Knowledge about geographical
localization of different fungi can help in arriving at the correct diagnosis.
H. capsulatum is found as a mold in soil. It is also present in bird and bat droppings
It is transmitted by the respiratory route when bird or bat droppings containing fungal
spores are inhaled. In lungs, the fungus is ingested by macrophages, and is seen on
light microscopy as small intracellular oval bodies (Choice C). Cellular immune
reactions are provoked by presence of this fungus and the usual outcome is a
granulomatous tissue response. Because the fungus targets histiocytes and the
reticuloendothelial system, it may cause lymphadenopathy and hepatosplenomegaly.
Extent of exposure to the causative agent and immune status of the patient will
determine the clinical manifestation to this fungus. In immunodeficient persons,
disseminated histoplasmosis can occur. In otherwise healthy individuals,
asymptomatic infection, acute flulike syndrome or protracted lung disease that
eventually heals by calcification can be seen. Some other manifestations of infection
are granulomatous and fibrosing mediastinitis and chronic pulmonary histoplasmosis.
Choice A: Cryptococcus neoformans takes the form of budding yeast with a thick capsule.
This yeast also grows abundantly in soil containing bird (pigeon) droppings
However; this fungus tends to cause disease in immunocompromised individuals.
Choice B: Aspergillus fumigatus causes pulmonary disease in immunocompromised
persons. This fungus is seen in tissue sections as septate hyphae with Vshaped
branching
Choice D: Candida species are yeasts that form pseudohyphae. Blastoconidia are spores
that grow as buds on fungal hyphae. Candida infection is usually not associated with
pulmonary infiltrates or lymphadenopathy
Choice E: Spherule packed with endospores is found in coccidioides immitis infection,
Like Histoplasma, coccidioides can cause pulmonary disease in immunocompetent
persons. Coccidioides is endemic to the southwestern U.S.
Educational Objective:
Histoplasma capsulatum is a thermally dimorphic fungus that in tissue sections is
seen as intracellular yeasts within macrophages. It affects the lungs and
reticuloendothelial system. It is present in bird and bat droppings, and is endemic to
the Mississippi and Ohio River basins.
89
A 35yearold male with past history of pulmonary tuberculosis that was treated
adequately, now presents to your office because of occasional hemoptysis. Apical region
of his left lung had to be resected and it showed presence yellowish gray friable
material filling a fibrous cavity, but the mass was not attached to the wall of the
cavity. On microscopy, friable mass consisted of a tangled collectin of hyphae. This
patient’s condition would best be described as:
Answers
A. Colonizing
B. Disseminated
C. Contagious
D. Allergic
E. Necrotizing
F. Invasive
Explanation:
A ball of fungal elements in a cavitary lesion of lung is most likely to be due to
colonization by Aspergillus fumigatus. Rarely fungal balls can be produced by
Pseudallescheria, Sporothrix and Coccidioides. Aspergillus fumigutus is a mold that is
widely present in organic matter. It forms septate hyphae that branch at 45° angles
(Vshaped branching). Normally, when spores of Aspergillus are inhaled, they are
cleared by mucus and ciliated epithelium of the respiratory tract. However, in
presence of cavitary lesions in the lung, in an immunocompetent individual (E.g. old
tubercular cavities, bronchiectatic cavities, bronchial cyst etc), inhaled spores of
Α. fumigatus may colonize the dead space and grow to form a fungal ball
(aspergilloma). On chest xray, an aspergilloma will appear as a radiopaque structure
that shifts when the patient changes his position. In aspergilloma, tissue invasion is
not seen (Choice A). In immunocompromised individuals, Aspergillus fumigatus may
produce disseminated disease with involvement of lung, brain and other organs. In
such persons, the fungus can also gain entry through abraded skin and then gets
disseminated to other organs. Hypersensitivity reactions to aspergillus occur in
patients with asthma, producing a condition called allergic bronchopulmonary
aspergillosis. Invasive aspergillosis occurs in immunosuppressed and neutropenic
patients.
Choice B: In immunodeficient persons, Aspergillus may invade blood vessel wall and
then spread hematogeneously.
Choice C: Aspergillosis is not contagious. Aspergillus fumigatus is present in the
environment and causes opportunistic infection in immunocompromised individuals.
Choice D: Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis occurs in patents with asthma.
Choice E: In immunocompromised individuals, invasive aspergillosis can produce
necrotizing lesions of surrounding tissue
Choice F Invasive Aspergillus can become disseminated Aspergillus hematogenously
and can affect any organ system.
Educational Objective:
Aspergillus fumigutus causes opportunistic infections in immunodeficient and
neutropenic patients (invasive aspergillosis). Invasive aspergillosis can become widely
disseminated. Aspergillus fumigatus can also colonize old cavities producing
aspergilloma. In asthmatic patients, it produces allergic bronchopulmonary
aspergillosis.
90
A 44yearold, HIV positive man presents with complaints of suddenonset fever,
chills, cough, and leftsided chest pain that worsens on deep breathing. Physical
examination reveals features of pulmonary consolidation in lower part of the left lung.
No other infection is present. His most recent CD4 T lymphocyte count is 760
cells/cmm. He is on antiretroviral therapy. Which of the following organisms may be
responsible for his respiratory symptoms?
Answers
A. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
B. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
C. Streptococcus pnuemoniae
D. Pneumocystis jiroveci
E. Legionella pneumophila
F. Staphylococcus aureus
G. Moraxella catarrhalis
Explanation:
This patient is having symptoms referable to the respiratory system, which can be
explained by presence of lobar consolidation seen on his chest xray. His HIV positive
status should make one vigilant to be on lookout for the presence of opportunistic
infections. It is unlikely that the patient is having pulmonary tuberculosis because of
acute onset of his respiratory symptoms. His pneumonia can be because of
encapsulated bacteria to which HIV positive patients are especially susceptible. Or it
may be due to opportunistic pathogens like P. carinii, fungi or some viruses. Patients’
CD4 cell count is within normal range (normal = 400 to 1400 cells/cmm). Opportunistic
pulmonary infections in HIV positive individuals tend to occur when CD4 cell count
falls below 200 cells/cmm. This suggests that his pneumonic state is more likely to be
caused by encapsulated bacteria. HIV positive patients are especially prone to develop
infections with S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae. This is because of deranged B cell
function and functional defects in neutrophils, secondary to altered cellular immunity.
It is observed that HIV positive patients have sixfold increase in the incidence of
pneumococcal pneumonia, and this may be seen in patients with relatively intact
immune system (Choice C).
Choice A: M. tuberculosis is not likely in this patient as his symptoms are acute in
nature.
Choice B, D and E: These organisms are opportunistic pathogens and usually tend to
produce infection when CD4 cell count is below 200 cells/cmm.
Choice F: M.catarrhalis infection tends to occur in patients older than 50 years, those
with long history of cigarette smoking and those with underlying diseases like COPD.
Educational Objective:
The most common cause of community acquired pneumonia in immunocompetent
individuals (and that includes HIV positive patients with normal CD4 cell count) is
streptococcus pneumonia. HIV positive patients are susceptible to pulmonary infection
by capsulated microorganisms.
91
A 1year old infant presents to the hospital with symptoms pertaining to oral thrush,
pneumonia, wasting and severe lymphopenia. His mother has intravenous drug
addiction problems. She did not avail any prenatal care during her pregnancy. Nor has
the child undergone any postnatal evaluation. Now her mother wants‘quick fix’ for her
child’s problems. She refuses to have any investigations performed on herself or her
child. Which of the following prenatal interventions is likely to have prevented this
malady?
Answers:
A. Inteferons
B. Prenatal vitamins
C. Live attenuated vaccine
D. Viral component vaccine
E. Viral enzyme inhibitor drugs
F. Cellular receptor inhibitor drugs
G. Killed vaccine
Explanation:
The infant’s present predicaments of oral thrush, wasting and pneumonia, in a setting
of severe lymphopenia and a drug addict mother, is highly suggestive of HIV infection
and its vertical transmission to the baby. The risk of HIV infection occurring in an
infant, born to an HIVpositive mother, who received no prenatal and postnatal
antiretroviral therapy, is estimated to be between 15 to 30%. Higher rates of vertical
transmission of HIV are seen in presence of high maternal viral load, low CD4+
counts, low HIV p24 antibody levels, presence of STDs and other factors that expose
the fetus to mother’s blood and genital secretions for prolonged period. If maternal
HIV load is greater than 100,000 copies of HIV RNA per milliliters of blood, the rate of
vertical transmission is 40%. Risk of vertical transmission can be reduced by
zidovudine treatment of HIV infected mother, beginning in the second trimester of
pregnancy and continued up to 6 weeks following birth. Other measures recommended
are, minimal exposure of fetus to mother’s secretion and blood during childbirth,
avoidance of breast feeding and intermittent administration of ART to the infant
(Choice E).
Choice A: Interferon therapy is useful in treatment or hepatitis B and C virus
infection, hairy cell leukemia, condyloma acuminatum and Kaposi sarcoma. Its role in
prevention of HIV infection is not known.
Choice B: Maternal vitamin A deficiency is associated with higher rates of vertical
transmission of HIV. But vitamin A supplements during pregnancy will not completely
eradicate chances of vertical transmission.
Choices C, D and G: Currently no effective vaccination is available against HIV
infection.
Choice F: HIV virus gains entry to the host cells (mostly CD4+ Tlymphocytes) with
the help of gp121 and gp41 molecule on its surface that binds to the CD4 molecule on
the host cell. However, studies proving efficacy of fusion inhibitor drugs in prevention
of vertical transmission of HIV, are lacking.
Educational Objective:
Studies have shown that ART prophylaxis during pregnancy with the nucleoside
analogue zidovudine, a retroviral reverse transcriptase inhibitor, reduces the risk of
vertical transmission of HIV infection.
92
A 30yearold man with a past history of laparotomy, following motor vehicle accident
4 years ago, develops fulminant infection. His blood culture shows growth of
Streptococcus pneumoniae. He dies despite best efforts to eradicate the infection.
Which protective mechanism was most likely to be defective in this patient that
contributed to the dismal outcome?
Answers
A. Phagocyte function
B. Complement fixation
C. Interferon release
D. Opsonization
E. Bacterial clearance
F. Intracellular killing of bacteria
Explanation:
The patient had a motor vehicle accident for which an emergency laparotomy was
performed. It is likely that a spleenctomy was done, which will explain this patient’s
susceptibility to pneumococcal infection. Apart from many other functions that the
spleen sub serves, one of its important roles is to provide assistance to the body in
eliminating microorganisms.
The white pulp of the spleen consists of lymphoid tissue, phagocytes and dendritic
cells. These cells contribute in ingesting antibody coated bacteria and presenting
them to Tcells residing in spleen, in order to quickly mount an immune response.
Nearly half of the body's total immunoglobulins are produced by the splenic B
lymphocytes. A significant portion of neutrophils of the sequesterd pool is normally
present in spleen. They are promptly available when need arises.
Asplenic patients are predisposed to sepsis with encapsulated bacteria such as S.
pneumoniae, H. influenzae, and N. meningitidis. This happens because of decreased
ability to recognize and clear these organisms (Choice E). Vaccination against these
three organisms is recommended for asplenic patients. Apart from these pyogenic
bacteria, asplenic patients are also susceptible to infection by unusual organisms like
Babesia and Capnocytophaga canimorsus. Increased susceptibility to infection in
asplenic patients may be seen even 25 years after the loss of this organ.
Choice A: Defective phagocytic function is seen in Chediak Higashi syndrome. In this,
there is reduced fusion of phagosomes to lysosomes, an essential step in microbial
degradation.
Choice B: Deficiencies of key components of the complement cascade can lead to
increased susceptibility to infection. Deficiency in formation of membrane attack
complex is for unknown reason, associated with a high incidence of infection by only
N.meningitidis.
Choice C: Interferon is released from virusinfected cells. It produces activation of
macrophage and cytotoxic TLymphocytes. Defects in interferon release lead to
increased susceptibility to viral infections.
Choice D: Opsonization is the process by which antibodies and complement make
foreign material more prone to phagocytosis and destruction. Spleen is not involved
per se in the opsonization process.
Choice F: Defect in intra cellular killing of microorganisms is typically seen in Chronic
Granulomatous Disease (CGD). Such patients are more prone to infection by catalase
positive organisms
Educational Objective:
The spleen serves both as a site of antibody synthesis and as a reservoir of phagocytic
cells capable removing circulating pathogens. Asplenic patients are more prone to
infection caused by encapsulated organisms such as S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae and
N. meningitides.
93
A 25yearold female who has been a recipient of a kidney transplant two years back
develops fever, cough and chest pain. Xray chest shows pulmonary infiltrates in lower
part of the left lung. She is put on broadspectrum antibiotics. As there is no
significant improvement in her condition, a bronchoscopy is done. Bronchoalveolar
lavage fluid obtained during the procedure is examined microscopically. Some yeast
like structures were seen, which stained intensely with mucicarmine stain, as shown
below. What is the likely diagnosis?
Answers:
A. Coccidiodes immitis
B. Candida albicans
C. Rhizopus species
D. Aspergillus fumigatus
E. Cyptococcus neoformans
F. Blastomyces dermatitidis
G. Histoplasma capsulatum
Explanation:
Fungi showing positive staining by mucicarmine stain are Cryptococcus neoformans,
Trichosporon beigelii and Blastomyces dermatitidis. Mucicarmine stains the
polysaccharide capsule of C. neoformans. The capsule is a major virulence factor of
this pathogen. In addition to positive mucicarmine staining, C. neoformans shows
narrow based budding.
C. neoformans usually affects immunocompromised patients, usually those with
defects in cellmediated immunity. It is transmitted via the respiratory route and may
cause pulmonary disease. Involvement of the lung is usually asymptomatic, but
pneumonialike symptoms may be produced. Chest xray findings are nonspecific, and
may show infiltrates or nodules. Diagnosis is made by identifying the fungus in
sputum, bronchoalveolar washings, or tissue samples. Gomori’s methenamine silver
(GMS) and mucicarmine stains are used for identification. However, unencapsulated
variants will not stain with mucicarmine. They are stained by Masson’s Fontana stain.
C. neoformans is a neurotropic fungus. Subacute or chronic meningoencephalitis is
the most common neurological manifestation of this disease. Prognosis is largely
dependant on immune status of the patient. In severely immunocompromised persons,
mortality may approach 50%. It is very difficult to eradicate this organism in AIDS
patient (Choice E)
Choice A: Coccidiodes immitis causes lung disease in immunocompetent people and
disseminated mycosis in immunocompromised individuals. In tissue samples, it
appears as large, irregularly sized, thickwaved spherules that contain multiple
endospores.
Choice B: Candida albicans shows yeast like forms and pseudohyphae.
Choice C: Rhizopus shows broad nonseptate hyphae with branching at right angles.
Choice D: Aspergillus fumigatus branching septate hyphae and fruiting buds.
Choice F: Blastomyces dermatitidis cause both lung disease and disseminated mycosis.
Microscopically, it appears as round yeast with broadbased budding and a thick,
doublyrefractile wall.
Choice G: Histoplasma capsulatum is a dimorphic fungus that causes tuberculosislike
pulmonary disease. It is faintly stained in tissue sections appearing as multiple small,
ovoid yeast forms in histiocytes.
Educational Objective:
Cryptococcus neoformans is a pathogenic fungus that has a polysaccharide capsule.
The capsule appears red on mucicarmine stain and as a clear unstained zone in India
ink preparation. Few other fungi also stain by mucicarmine stain, but their
morphology is different
94
A 38yearold male suffering from bronchial asthma shows presence of proximal
bronchiectasis and pulmonary infiltrates on his chest xray. His differential blood
count shows 18% eosinophilia. He has recurrent episodes of dyspnea, which is relieved
by inhalation of bronchodilators. His serum shows presence of precipitating antibodies
to a certain microorganism. This patient's condition is most likely due to colonization
by:
A. Legionella pneumophila
B. Strongyloides stercoralis
C. Pesudomonas aeruginosa
D. Streptococcus pneumoniae
E. Adenovirus
F. Aspergillus fumigatus
Explanation:
Presence of eosinophilia, proximal bronchiectasis and pulmonary infiltrates indicate
presence of a subacute or chronic inflammatory pathology due to a hypersensitivity
reaction. Of the choices listed above, Aspergillus fumigatus is the organism most likely
to colonize cavities and produce ongoing inflammation, thereby exacerbating tendency
for proximal bronchiectasis. Aspergillus fumigatus is a low virulence fungus that
generally does not cause significant infections except in immunocompromised or
debilitated patients. It may however colonize the bronchial mucosa and complicate
asthma or cystic fibrosis via a hypersensitivity reaction. The result is allergic
bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA). ABPA occurs in 5% to 10% of steroid
dependent asthmatics. Patients with this condition have very high levels of serum IgE,
eosinophilia and IgE plus IgG serum antibodies to Aspergillus. There is intense airway
inflammation and mucus plugging with episodes of exacerbations and remissions.
Repeated exacerbations may produce transient pulmonary infiltrates and proximal
bronchiectasis (Choice F).
Choice A: Legionella commonly produces lesions in immunocompromised hosts.
Bronchial asthma is not a predisposing factor for this infection.
Choice B: Strongyloidiasis can cause pulmonary symptoms including transient
pneumonia as the larvae are migrating through lungs during completion of their life
cycle. They may produce eosinophilia, but bronchiectasis is not a complication of this
parasitic infestation.
Choice C: Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an aerobic Gramnegative bacillus that is a
frequent and sometimes a deadly, pulmonary pathogen in patients with cystic fibrosis
or neutropenia. In patients of cystic fibrosis, it may be isolated from lungs in almost all
cases.
Choice D: Uncomplicated pneumococcal lung disease usually resolves completely
without causing structural changes in lung. Hence, presence of bronchiectasis and
eosinophilia is unlikely to be caused by S. pneumoniae.
Choice E: Adenovirus can exacerbate asthmatic symptoms, but per se, they do not
produce bronchiectasis.
Educational Objective:
Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) due Aspergillus fumigatus may
complicate bronchial asthma. The disease may produce transient but recurrent
pulmonary infiltrates that eventually end up as proximal bronchiectasis.
95
There has been an outbreak of methicillin resistant Staphylococcal infection in a
hospital, which is suspected to be of noscomial origin. Laboratory personnel are
instructed to collect sample from hospital staff for purpose of identification of carriers.
Sample from which site would be most appropriate for this purpose?
Answers:
A. Oropharynx
B. Hands
C. Anterior nares
D. Perineurn
E. Axilla
Explanation:
Humans are a natural reservoir for S aureus. More than 90% of staphylococci are
resistant to penicillin and more than 50% have become methicillin resistant (MRSA).
Resistance to methicillin is mediated by mecA gene, which encodes for an altered
penicillin binding protein. This allows bacterial wall peptidoglycan synthesis in
presence of methicillin. MRSA can be hospital acquired or community acquired.
Colonization of the nasopharynx is most common site in asymptomatic carriers. It is
this site that is sampled most often by epidemiologists, wishing to study S. aureus
carrier state. In the general population, 25 30% of individuals have nasal colonization
with staphylococcus. Nasal carriage increases the risk noscomial infections in
hospitals, particularly in intensive care or surgical units.
Educational Objective:
In the general population at any given time, 2530% of individuals have nasal
colonization with MRSA. The anterior nares are the most common site of colonization
for both methicillinsensitive and methicillin resistant S. aureus
96
A 20yearold pregnant woman, who is a migrant from a developing country, develops
lowgrade fever and maculopapular rashes during the first trimester. The rash is seen
first over her face, and it then spreads to the trunks and extremities in the next 48
hours. Physical examination shows post auricular lymphadenopathy. There is mild
thrombocytopenia. The rashes lasted for about 3 days. Due to this disease, some
immediate complication can be seen in the mother (first column) and certain
congenital anomaly may occur in the infant (second column). Identify the correct row.
Answers
Mother Infant
A. Polyarthralgia macrocephaly
B. Meningitis malformed teeth
C. Polyathralgia deafness
D. Deafness bow legs
E. Pneumonia cataracts
Explanation:
Rubella and Rubeola (measles) are two acute exanthematous viral diseases whose
rashes begin on the face and spread downwards. In view of the patient’s immigration
history, the possibility of her not being vaccinated against mumps, measles and
rubella need to be kept in mind. Clinical findings of a patient with rubella include
maculopapular rashes, posterior cervical and postauricular lymphadenopathy, fever
and coryza. Polyarthritis occurs in about 25% of the patients. Rubella without rashes
is also possible. Rubella, as such does not produce significant morbidity. Post
infectious encephalopathy may occur rarely. However, occurrence of Rubella in
pregnancy particularly in first trimester can have devastating effect on the fetus.
Fetal infection in first trimester leads to congenital rubella in 80% of cases. Congenital
rubella can produce early onset cataracts, micropthalmia, and glaucoma, hearing
defects, congenital heart diseases and psychomotor retardation. The diagnosis can be
confirmed by a specific test for IgM rubella antibody or by isolation of the virus
(Choice C)
Choice A, B, D and E: Rubella infection does not produce meningitis, deafness or
pneumonia in adults. Congenital rubella does not show macrocephaly, bowlegs or
malformed teeth.
Educational Objective:
Maternal rubella infection produces a lowgrade fever, a maculopapular rash with
cephalocaudal progression, and posterior, postauricular and suboccipital
lymphadenopathy. 25% of adult women patients develop polyarthritis. Polyarthralgia
can be seen in greater proportion. Congenial rubella syndrome is associated with
sensory neural deafness, cataracts, and congenital heart diseases.
97
A 31year old female presents to the fertility clinic with complaints of inability to
conceive. She is married for last three years and is not using, contraceptives of any
kind. Her male partner has been evaluated and no abnormality is detected. Prior to
her marriage, the woman was using oral contraceptives for past 12 years. She had
lower urinary tract infection 3 years ago for which ceftriaxone was given for 5 days.
No other significant history is elicited. What can be the possible reason for her
inability to conceive?
Answers
A. Advanced matemal age
B. Conception attempted during inappropriate time of menstrual cycle.
C. Inadequaute antibiotic therapy
D. Oral contraceptiveinduced ovarian failure
E. Antisperm antibodies
Explanation:
Tubal disease is responsible for about 20% cases of infertility due to causes pertaining
to the female partner. The most common cause of infertility related to tubal causes is
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). PID is most frequently caused by N. gonorrheae
and Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Other microorganisms include anaerobes,
Haemophilus influenzae, enteric gramnegative bacilli and streptococci. In many parts
of the world, M. tuberculosis is an important pathogen in causation of PID. Infection
by N.gonorrhoeae/ C. trachomatis can often be asymptomatic. When symptomatic,
they will initially cause a purulent urethritis followed by ascension of the infection to
the cervix. Infection that is more widespread can involve endometrium, fallopian tubes
and peritoneal cavity. Thin cervical mucus, vaginal douching, and open cervical os
during menstruation tend to encourage ascension of infection. PID can also occur
secondarily to peritoneal infection like acute appendicitis or due to hematogenous
spread as in tuberculosis. Invasive intrauterine procedures, intrauterine devices or
hysterosalpingography also contribute in causation of PID.
Treatment of gonococcal PID must always include treatment for C. trachomatis as
well. A third generation cephalosporin will treat the gonococcal infection and further
treatment by clindamycin or doxycyclin for C. trachomatis is indicated. Metranidazole
may be given for anaerobic infection. In this case, the patient was only treated with a
cephalosporin to which C.trachomatis is not responsive. This can lead to tubal
inflammation, scarring and infertility (Choice C).
Choice A: Advanced maternal age becomes a factor in the ability to conceive after the
age of 35 years. The decrease in fecundity after this age in many women is due to
aging of the oocytes.
Choice B: A woman is most likely to conceive when cohabitation is around the
ovulation time. As the women is trying to conceive for last three years, this factor
must have been taken into account
Choice D: Oral contraceptive use is not associated with ovarian failure. Ovarian
failure can occur approximately 2 years earlier in women who are smokers. Treatment
like radiation therapy and chemotherapy can induce ovarian failure
Choice E: Antisperm antibodies may be present in male serum or seminal fluid or
female serum and cervical mucus. They may occur in testicular trauma, viral orchitis
or after bacterial infection of genitourinary tract. However, the history in this couple
does not support this etiology.
Educational Objective:
Pelvic inflammatory disease is most frequently caused by N gonorrheae and
C. trachomatis. If urethritis due to these pathogens is not treated adequately, it may
lead to PID with subsequent scarring of fallopian tube and infertility.
98
A 30yearold immigrant from Africa presents to the clinic after getting his fingers
burnt, though he does not feel much pain at the scalded site. On examination,
proximal to the burnt site, some hypopigmented patches are present. The ulnar nerve
is found to be thickened. A nerve biopsy was done and it showed granulomatous
inflammation with presence of many bacteria invading schwann cells. What is the
likely causative organism?
Answers
A. Campylobacter fetus
B. Borellia burgdorferi
C. Corynebacterium diphtheriae
D. Mycobacterium leprae
E. Treponema pallidum
Explanation:
Leprosy or Hansen’s disease is a deforming infection primarily of the skin and nerves
that is caused by Mycobacterium leprae. Transmission is believed to occur through the
respiratory route but direct cutaneous contact has not been excluded as a mode a
transmission. Infection is also seen on coming in contact with armadillo in southwest
USA. Leprosy has a wide range of clinical manifestations that vary depending on the
extent of cellmediated immune response to the organism.
Most severe form of leprosy is called lepromatous leprosy. It occurs in patients with a
weak cellmediated immune response to the bacteria. As a result, leprae bacilli may
disseminate widely in the body. M. leprae grows best at temperatures that are slightly
lower than core body temperature. This explains primary localization of the disease to
the skin, superficial nerves, eyes and testis. Lepromatous leprosy manifests clinically
as diffuse skin thickening and cutaneous hypopigmentation and plaques (often
accompanied by loss of hair), leonine facies, paresis and regional anesthesia of motor
and sensory nerves, testicular destruction and blindness.
The least severe form of leprosy is often selflimited and is called tuberculoid leprosy.
In this subtype, the infection is limited by an intact cellmediated immune system.
Mild skin plaques develop that are associated with hypopigmentation, loss of hair
follicles, and focally decreased sensation. Features intermediate between the
tuberculoid and lepromatous forms are often seen (Choice D).
Choice A: Campylobacter fetus is a Gramnegative rod responsible for mild enteritis in
immunocompetent patients and mild systemic bacteremic illness in
immunocompromised patients
Choice B: Borrelia burgdorferi is the spirochete responsible for Lyme disease.
Symptoms of Lyme disease are a characteristic skin rash, fever, myalgias and malaise.
Systemic disease can progress to cause arthritis, facial paresis and cardiac
manifestations
Choice C: Corynebacterium diptheriae is a gram negative rod responsible for
diphtheria.
Choice E: Trepopema pallidum is the spirochete responsible for syphilis. Skin
involvement is in form of chancres, gummas or plaques depending on the stage of the
disease. It does not produce skin anesthesia.
Educational Objective:
Leprosy or Hansen disease is a systemic illness caused by Mycobacterium leprae. The
severity of disease depends on the extent of the cellmediated immune response to the
bacteria. .
99
A 30yearold male presents to the clinic complaining of fever, malaise, inguinal
lymphadenopathy, pain in joints and maculopapular rashes over the body. The rashes
are more prominent on hands and feet. During investigation, a test was carried out in
which, patients serum was added to a suspension containing cardiolipin, lecithin and
cholesterol. Within minutes, extensive flocculation was seen. What should be the
approach in management of this patient?
Answers:
A. Investigate for the presence of bacterial toxins
B. Investigate for the presence of cold agglutinins
C. Investigate for the presence of rheumatoid factor
D. Investigate for the presence of spirochaetal antibodies
E. Investigate for the presence of fungal antibodies
Explanation:
The investigation described above shows presence of nontreponemal antibodies in
serum of the patient. Commonly it is known as VDRL test or rapid plasma reagin test.
It is positive in late primary, secondary and tertiary syphilis but may be negative in
early primary, late latent and late tertiary syphilis. Apart from syphilis, the test may
also be positive in acute viral illnesses, in infection by M.pneumoniae, Chlamydia, and
malaria and sometimes in late pregnancy. If this test remains positive for longer than
6 months, apart from untreated syphilis, conditions that need to be considered are,
collagen vascular diseases, hepatitisC infection and leprosy.
This test is considered as a nontreponemal serologic test because it does not detect
treponemal organisms or antibodies directed against treponemal organisms. Instead,
it detects antibodies to human cellular lipids released into the bloodstream due to cell
destruction caused by T pallidum. Because these tests are easy to perform and are
inexpensive, they are the first line of investigation in suspected cases of treponemal
infection. If a nontreponemal test is positive, confirmation is obtained by carrying out
specific treponemal test like fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test (FTA
ABS) (Choice D).
Choice A: T. pallidum do not produce toxins, hence investigating for toxins would not
be of much help.
Choice B: Cold agglutinins are characteristic of M. pneumoniae infection. Presence of
cold agglutinins can be tested by placing patient’s plasma at 4○ C in a refrigerator. It
will show clotting.
Choice C: Rheumatoid factor (RF) is an antiIgG antibody used in evaluation of
patients with autoimmune diseases, especially rheumatoid arthritis (RA).
Choice E: Fungal antibodies can be used as a method of diagnosing some acute
infection caused by fungi (e.g. Histoplasmosis)
Educational Objective:
In patients suspected to be suffering from treponemal disease, nonspecific
nontreponemal antibody tests like VDRL or RPR are first employed as a screening
investigation. Confirmation is obtained by utilizing more specific tests like, FTAABS
and TPHA.
100
A 4yearold Asian immigrant is brought to clinic with complaints of high fever, nasal
discharge, dry cough, excessive tear formation and discomfort in bright light. When
examined, his oral mucosa shows presence of white spots against an erythematosus
background. What other physical findings are likely to appear in this patient within 2
3 days?
Answers
A. Jaundice
B. Bronchiolitis
C. Profuse diarrhea
D. Parotitis
E. Skin rash
Explanation:
This patient’s clinical picture raises suspicion of infection by rubeola virus (measles).
Rubeola virus is a member of paramyxovirus family. Some salient features of this
infection are:
1. Nearly all nonimmune infected individuals develop the disease.
2. Following an episode of measles, persons show nearly complete resistance to
reinfection.
3. It is a highly contagious disease and nearly all susceptible children are likely
to contract the disease on exposure.
4. Only one antigenic type of virus is seen.
5. In malnourished children having poor medical facilities, the disease can be life
threatening.
Some common clinical manifestation of the disease are, cough coryza, conjunctivitis
and Koplik’s spot. Koplik’s spots appear about 2 days before appearance of rashes.
Rashes are maculopapular; appear first on face followed by trunk and extremities. In
malnourished children, measles can be complicated by bacterial superinfections and
pneumonia. Rarely encephalitis and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis may develop
(Choice E)
Choice A: Hepatitis viruses can cause jaundice but not typically associated with cough,
rhinitis or buccal lesions,
Choice B: Occasionally, patients with rubeola with develop pneumonia or
laryngotracheobronchitis (croup). Bronchiolitis is typically not seen. Respiratory
syncytial virus (RSV) can cause an upper respiratory tract infection that progresses to
bronchiolitis, but RSV is not associated with buccal lesions.
Choice C: Rotavirus often causes an upper respiratory tract infection followed by
diarrhea.
Choice D: Measles is not commonly associated with parotitis. Parotitis is seen in
mumps.
Educational Objective:
The tetrad of cough, coryza conjunctivitis and Koplik’s spots (CCCK) is diagnostic of
measles (rubeola) infection. Koplik’s spots are tiny white or bluegray lesions on the
buccal mucosa that precede the maculopapular skin rash by 23 days.