I.

CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview:
The functionality of Switched Reluctance Motor is already known for more
than 150 years, but only some vast improvements of the power electronics drive
technologies have made a great success of adjustable speed drives with Switched
Reluctance Motor.

Due to enormous demand for variable speed drives and development of power
semiconductors the conventional reluctance machine has been come into picture and
is known as Switched Reluctance Machine. The name “Switched Reluctance”, first
used by one of the authors of [1], describes the two features of the machine
configuration (a) switched,(b) reluctance.

Switched word comes into picture because this machine can be operated in a
continuous switching mode. Secondly reluctance word comes into picture because in this
case both stator and rotor consist of variable reluctance magnetic circuits or we can say
that it have doubly salient structure.

A SRM has salient poles on both stator and rotor. Each stator pole has a simple
concentrated winding, where the rotor does not contain any kind of winding or
permanent magnet [2]-[4]. It is made up of soft magnetic material that is laminated steel.
Two diametrically opposite windings are connected together in order to form the motor
phases. During the rotor rotation a circuit with a single controlled switch is sufficient
to supply an unidirectional current for each phase. For forward motoring operation the
stator phase winding must be excited when the rate of change of phase inductance is
positive. Otherwise the machine will develop breaking torque or no torque at all. As
SRM has simple, rugged construction, low manufacturing cost, fault tolerance
capability and high efficiency the SRM drive is getting more and more recognisation
1
among the electric drives. It also have some disadvantages that it requires an electronic
control and shaft position sensor and double salient structure causes noise and torque
ripple. SRMs are typically designed in order to achieve a good utilization in terms of
converter rating.

2
1.2 Advantages, Limitations and Applications of SRM.

1.2.1 Advantages:
In a SRM, only stator consists of phase windings while rotor is made of steel
laminations without any conductors or permanent magnet. So, the SRM has several
advantages over conventional motors.

(a) SRM drive maintain high efficiency over wide speed and load range because as
there is no winding present on rotor. So, cu loss, heat loss reduces in this case. So,
efficiency of SRM drive increases.
(b) As there is no windings or permanent magnets on its rotor, and there are no brushes
on its stator, along with its salient rotor poles make the SRM’s rotor inertia less than
that of its conventional motor. So, SRM can accelerate more quickly.
(c) As it does not have a brush commutator mechanical speed limit, no winding or
permanent magnet present on rotor. So, it can run up to high speeds. It can also
operate at low speeds providing full rated torque.
(d) As there are no windings or permanent magnet present on rotor so, the cost of the
SRM drive reduces.
(e) It follows four quadrant operations; it can run forward or backward direction. We can
call it as motoring or generating mode of operation.
(f) Rugged construction suitable for high temperature and vibrating zone.
(g) Most losses that will occur in SRM that must be in stator which can easily be cooled.
(h) Torque produced by SRM is independent of the polarity of the phase current,
allowing the use of simplified power converters with a reduced number of semi
converter switches.
1.2.2 Limitations of SRM:

Along with the above advantages SRM drives also has some limitations.
Following are some of the limitation of SRM drive.

(a) As SRM drive is having doubly salient structure which causes inherent torque ripple
and acoustic noise.
(b) The converter which is used in case of SRM drive that requires high KVA rating.
(c) As the inductance of the winding is very high and it is required to remove the stored
energy after excitation so, a large energy removal period is usually required limiting
the maximum current to relatively low range.
(d) SRM drive cannot operate directly from ac or dc supply and require current pulse
3
 signal for torque production.

The requirement of rotor position sensor, higher torque pulsation [5-7] and
acoustic noise [8-10] are the major drawbacks of SRM drive and that may limit the
SRM in some application.
1.2.3 Application of Switched Reluctance Motor Drives:

SRM drive has greater potential in motion control because it will give high
performance in harsh condition like high temperature and dusty environment [11-
13].

(1) Electric Vehicles

(2) Aerospace [14,15]
(3) Household appliances like washing machine and vacuum cleaners [16].
(4) Variable speed and servo type application
1.2.4 Direct Torque Control of Switched Reluctance Motor:

As SRM drive is having doubly salient structure thus it has high torque ripple
and acoustic noise problem. Various proposed methods are used in order to reduce
the torque ripple. One of the methods is by skewing the rotor which can minimize the
torque ripple [20], [21]. Similarly another method is direct torque control method of
SRM. DTC is the advanced vector control method. This method is used to control
the torque of SRM through the control of the magnitude of flux linkage and change
in speed (acceleration or deceleration) of the stator flux vector.

1.3 Motivation

1.3.1 Switched Reluctance Motor:

It works under reluctance principle. The main difference between the

synchronous reluctance machine and switched reluctance machine is that, if the
excitation of synchronous machine gets fail then it will act like synchronous
reluctance machine. So synchronous reluctance machine can only run if both the
stator and rotor poles are same. But the beauty of Switched Reluctance Motor is
that even though the poles of stator and rotor are different then also it will rotate by
following the reluctance principle. The first aim of SRM model is that whether it is

4
capable of representing both flux linkage and inductance profile characteristics. The
second aim is to design the machine which is capable of operating over a wide
speed range in all four-quadrants of the torque-speed graph. We can also achieve
high performance with SRM drives which offers high efficiency by using one of
the optimization technique [11,12]. The third aim of the

5
research is to improve the reliability, accurate positioning and evaluation of
performance characteristics.

1.3.2 Direct Torque Control of Switched ReluctanceMotor:

In order to improve the dynamic performance of switched reluctance motor
drives vector control technique is preferred. But the main disadvantage of vector
control technique is complexity of coordinate transformation. This problem can be
solved by using advanced vector control technique which is known as direct toque
control technique.

1.4 Objectives
i. To study principle of operation of switched reluctance motor drive and obtain the
mathematical model of SRM.
ii. In order to design the various phases of SRM and observe what are the major changes
that may be occurred in various phases of SRM.
iii. To observe by changing the turn-on and turn-off angle how its characteristic changes.
iv. To observe by using PID controller how the reference speed track the actual speed.
v. To implement an advance vector control technique known as DTC technique in order to
reduce the torque ripple in case of SRM.
1.5 Thesis Outline
This thesis contains six chapters and that are given below.
Chapter 1 Presents a brief idea about switched reluctance motor drive. It contains
the introduction, advantages, disadvantages, application, control strategy,
motivation and objectives.

Chapter 2 The principle of operation of SRM, elementary operation of SRM,

Converter topology for SRM drive, various voltage state.

Chapter 3 Mathematical modelling of SRM, its torque equation, PID controller,

block diagram representation of SRM.

Chapter 4 Simulation modelling and results of 3-phase,4-phase,5-phase switched

reluctance motor drive.

Chapter 5 Direct Torque Control of 3-phase switched reluctance motor drive and
its simulation results.

6
Chapter 6 Gives the overall conclusion and scope for future work of the project.

7
 II. CHAPTER 2

2. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF THE SWITCHED RELUCTANCE

MOTOR

2.1 Introduction
The machine operation and salient feature can be deduced from the torque
expression. The torque expression is nothing but the relationship between machine
flux linkages or inductance and rotor position. The torque v/s speed characteristics
of the machine operation in all of its four quadrants can be derived from the
inductance v/s rotor position characteristics of the machine. Switched Reluctance
Machine can be designed of any phases. For single phase machine it have low
performance but high volume application.

2.2 Switched Reluctance Motor Configuration

Switched Reluctance Motor can be made up of laminated stator and rotor cores
with Ns =2mq poles on the stator and Nr poles on rotor.

Where m is number of phases and each phase made up of concentrated

windings placed on 2q stator poles. Switched reluctance motor is having salient pole
stator with concentrated winding and salient pole rotor with no winding or
permanent magnet. As both stator and rotor have salient pole structure, hence we
can say that switched reluctance motor is having doubly salient structure which is
single excited with different number of stator and rotor poles. It is constructed in
such a manner that in no way the rotor poles in a position wher the torque due to
current in any phase is zero. The common stator/rotor pole configuration are
6/4,8/6,10/8. In stator the coils on two diametrically opposite poles are connected in
series in order to form single phase. So, 6/4 stator/rotor pole configuration means
that represent the 3-phase configuration of switched reluctance motor drive.

8
Similarly 8/6 and 10/8 stator/rotor pole configuration represents the 4 and 5 phase
configuration of switched reluctance motor drive.

9
 (i) Fig.2.1 6/4 switched reluctance motor configuration

Similarly for 8/6 SRM configuration it have 8 stator and 6 rotor poles and in 10/8 SRM
configuration it have 10 stator pole and 8 rotor poles are present.

2.3 Principle of operation:

An electromagnetic system in order to form stable equilibrium position gives

rise to minimum magnetic reluctance is the main principle of operation of switched
reluctance motor. When the two diametrically opposite poles are excited, the
nearest rotor poles are attracted towards each other, in order to produce torque.
When the two rotor poles gets aligned with the stator pole then it gets de energise
and the adjacent stator pole gets energise to attract another pair of rotor poles.
According to this principle switched reluctance motor gets run.

When both the stator and rotor poles gets aligned with each other then that
position is known as aligned position. The phase inductance during the aligned position
reaches its maximum value known as La as the reluctance reaches its minimum value.
The phase inductance decreases gradually as the rotor poles move away from its aligned
position. When the rotor poles get completely unaligned or misaligned from stator poles
1
0
then the phase inductance at that moment reaches its minimum value known as Lu.
Reluctance in this case reaches its maximum value.

1
1
2.4 Elementary Operation of Switched Reluctance Motor:

c' c'

b'
b'

a'
a'

(a) (b)

Fig.2.2 Operation of SRM (a) Phase ‘c’ aligned (b) Phase ‘a’ aligned
' ’
& r and stator poles C &
 In the fig.(a) the rotor poles r C are aligned. By applying
1
1

the current to phase ‘a’ with current direction as shown in fig. the flux is established
‘ '
through stator poles a & a and rotor poles r & r which tend to pull the rotor poles r
2 2 2
' ‘
& r towards the stator poles a & a respectively. When they are aligned then stator
2

current of phase a gets turned off as shown in fig. (b).

 Now the stator winding b is excited, pulling r ' '

1 & r towards b & in a clockwise
b ’
1
direction. Likewise, energization of c phase winding results in the alignment of r2 & r
2

1
2
 ’,
with c & c respectively.
0
 It takes 3 phase energization to move the rotor by 90 , and one revolution of rotor
movement is affected by switching currents in each phase as many times as there are

1
3
 no. of rotor poles. The switching of currents in the sequence of acb results in
the reversal of the rotor rotation.

2.4 The Relation Between Inductance And Rotor Position (Non Linear Analysis):

(ii) Fig.2.3 Basic Rotor Position in A Two Pole SRM

The relationship between the flux linkages and the rotor position as a
function of current gives rise to the characteristics of torque. The stator and rotor pole
arc and the number of rotor poles helps to determine the changes in the inductance
profile.

Followings are some angles that can be derived from figures 2.3 and figure 2.4.
1
4
 
12   

1 

2 ....................................... (2.1)
   
p r 
s r

 
2 1 s .............................................. (2.2)

3
 2
  r
 s
 ............................................. (2.3)
 
4 3 s ............................................ (2.4)

 
2 
............................................ (2.5)
5 4 1
p r

Wher and are stator and rotor pole arcs respectively is the number
and p r
s r
e of rotor

poles.

1
5
(iii) Fig.2.4 Inductance Profile for Switched Reluctance Motor

1
6
1. 0-θ1 and θ4-θ5: In this region both the stator and rotor poles are not aligned with each
other. Thus inductance in this case is minimum and almost constant. The inductance in
this portion is minimum and is known as unaligned inductance which is also called as
Lu. This region does not contribute any role in torque production.

2. θ1-θ2: In this region the rotor pole starts overlapping on to the stator pole. So, the flux
path in this region is predominantly through stator and rotor laminations. So, the
inductance gets increased with respect to rotor position and that gives rise to positive
slope. During this period the current produced in the winding produces the motoring
torque or positive torque. When the rotor pole completely overlaps the stator pole at that
period this region comes to an end.

3. θ2-θ3: In this region the rotor pole completely overlap the stator pole. This region gives
rise to predominantly high flux path. So, effect on inductance in this region is very high
and it is constant. This inductance is also known as aligned inductance and can be
represented as La. As torque is the function of rate of change of inductance with respect
to rotor position and in this region inductance is constant . So, torque is zero in this case
even though current present in this interval.
4. θ3-θ4: In this region the rotor pole is moving away from the stator pole. This region is
very much similar with the region like θ1-θ2 but in reverse manner. In this case as the
misalignment of rotor pole increases with respect to stator pole the inductance get
decreases and it gives rise to negative slope. So, the negative torque will be produced in
this region, which is nothing but the generation of electrical energy from the mechanical
input to the switched reluctance machine.
So, from the above analysis we will get that it is not possible to achieve the
ideal inductance profile in actual motor due to saturation.

10
2.5 Converters For Switched Reluctance Motor Drive:

2.5.1 Power Converter Topology:

In order to achieve the smooth rotation and optimal torque output the phase-
to-phase switching in the switched reluctance motor drive is required with
respect to rotor position. The phase-to-phase switching logic can only be
realized by using the semi converter device. We can also say that the power
semi converter device topology put a great impact on switched reluctance
motor’s performance.

As the torque produced in the switched reluctance motor drive is independent

of the excitation current polarity. So, it requires only one switch per phase
winding. Where as for other ac machine it requires two switches per phase in
order to control the current. For ac motor the winding is also not present in
series with the switches, which gives rise to irreparable damage in shoot-through
fault. But in case of switched reluctance motor as the winding is present in series
with the switch, so, during shoot-through fault the rate of rise in current can be
limited or reduced by using winding inductance and provides time to protective
relay in order to isolate the faults. Switched reluctance motor drive is more
reliable because in this case all the phases are independent of each other. Even
though if some problem will occur to switched reluctance motor and one
winding gets damaged then also switched reluctance motor can provide the
uninterrupted operation with reduced power output.

2.6 Asymmetric Bridge Converter:

In case of switched reluctance motor, we are using the number of half bridge
converters which are same as the number of phases. So, as one phase of the switched
reluctance motor is connected with the asymmetric bridge converter, similarly the rest
are also connected. For example for three phase switched reluctance motor we are
using three half bridge converter because from three half bridge converter we are
getting six outputs and at the input of switched reluctance motor it have six input ports.
As shown in figure below for each phase we are using asymmetric bridge converter
11
which contain two IGBT’s and two diodes and the phase winding is connected between
them. When both Sa1 and Sa2 switch gets turn on then current will circulate through
phase ‘A’. But when current exceeds the commanded value then Sa1 and Sa2 gets
turned off. At that moment energy stored in the winding will keep the current in the
same direction by making D1 and D2 forward bias. So, the winding gets discharge
and this will decrease the current below the commanded value.

12
Similarly the other phases are also operated like phase ‘A’ operated. Following is
the complete diagram of the inverter circuit that is used for switched reluctance
motor drive.

La Lc

(iv) Fig.2.5 Asymmetric H-bridge Drive Circuit For SRM

The above fig. represent the asymmetric H-bridge for SRM.’L’ and ‘R’ denote
inductance and resistance of the phase winding. The operation of the above fig. can be
explained below.

’
Let say the rotor pole r1 and r is aligned with the stator pole c and c’ then now S
1 a1 a2

and S are turned on in order to excite the a-phase so as to produce the rotation in the positive
direction. Reluctance torque is generated so that stator pole a, a’ and rotor pole r2, r2’ face
each other, and the

rotor rotates in clockwise direction. Then other phases are excited so as to align the next
stator pole to rotor pole and in this manner the switched reluctance motor starts rotating.
13
 The switched reluctance motor torque ‘T’ is generally expressed as follows
assuming a linearly magnetic circuit with ia, ib and ic denoting the respective phase
currents.

1L L L 
T
2
a 2
 b 2
 c ……………………… (2.6)
 i i i 
2  a
 b
 c

 

This equation effective only when the magnetic circuit is linear.

14
2.7 Stator Current Control By Modified Hysteresis Band Control:

The asymmetric H-bridge shown in figure can apply a three level voltage to the
stator winding i.e. (+E,0,-E).

Positive voltage mode: When both switches Sa1 and Sa2 are turned on, source voltage E is
applied to the winding. As a result winding current increases. In this case voltage V=E and
current flows in downward direction as shown in the below figure.

(v) Fig.2.6(a) Positive voltage mode

Negative Voltage Mode: When both switches Sa1 and Sa2 are turned off while current flows
in the winding, the two diodes conduct electricity voltage –E is applied to the winding and
the current decreases. In this case voltage V=-E and current direction remains same but its
value reduces.

Return Current Mode: Either of switches Sa1 and Sa2 is turned off while current flows in the
winding. When Sa1 turned off, the diode shown in the above diagram conducts electricity.
Zero voltage is applied across the winding and current decreases. However this decrease is
smaller than in the negative voltage mode.

15
 As inductor is a storing device in this mode it discharges through one of the
switch and diode. So voltage applied across phase winding is zero, but the current
direction remains same. So only unipolar current produces inside switched reluctance
motor in order to produce unidirectional torque.

16
 (vi) Fig.2.6(b) Negative Voltage Mode

17
(vii) Fig. 2.6(c) Return Current Mode

18
 CHAPTER 3

3. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING AND CONTROL OF SWITCHED

RELUCTANCE MOTOR DRIVE
3.1 Mathematical Modeling of Switched Reluctance Motor Drive

The equivalent circuit for the switched reluctance motor can be derived by
neglecting the mutual inductance between the phases as follows. Applied voltage to
a phase can be derived as the sum of the resistive voltage drop and the rate of
change of flux linkages with respect to time and it is given as

d ( ,
V  R i
i) ……………………… (3.1)
s
dt
Where ‘Rs’ is the resistance per phase and ‘ ’ is flux linkage per phase.

L( ,i)i ……………………………………………….. (3.2)

Where ‘L’ is the inductance dependent on the rotor position & the phase
current. The phase voltage equation is given by,

d{L( ,i)i} di d dL( ,i)

V  Rs i  sR i  L( ,i) i .
dt dt dt (3.3)
d
di dL( ,i)
 R i  L( ,i)  i
s m
dt d

19
 In this equation all the three terms on the right hand side represent the
resistive voltage drop, inductive voltage drop and induced emf respectively and the
result is equivalent to the series excited dc motor voltage equation.

The induced emf ‘e’ is obtained

as,
ik
i ................................. (3.4)
dL( , i)
e m b m
d

20
 Where Kb may be construed as an emf constant similar to that of dc series
excited machine and is given as,

dL( , i)
k 
b
d ........................................ (3.5)

Substituting for flux linkages in the voltage equation and multiply with the current results
in instantaneous i/p power given by,

dL( , i) di
P  Vi  R i2  i2  L( , i)i
............. (3.6)
i s
dt dt

So, the equivalent circuit diagram for single phase SRM is given by,

Fig.3.1 Single-Phase Equivalent circuit of Switched Reluctance Motor

In order to get meaningful inference the above equation need to express with known variables

d 1
L( , i)   L( , i)i 
2 di 1 2 dL( , i)
......... (3.7)

dt  2 i  dt 2 i dt
 

21
Substituting the above equation into (3.6) then we will get,

dL( , i)
d 1 2
2

2
 L( , 1  ....... (3.8)
i)

dt  2
P Ri i  2i
i s dt
 

22
 Where, ‘ P i ’ is the instantaneous power input which can be expressed as the sum of
2

the winding resistive losses represented Ri

, the rate of change of field energy i.e
as
2 s
d 1 and air gap power 1’ i.e represented as 2 dL( ,i)
i) L( , ‘ .

dt  2 
i P a
2i dt
 


Time can also be represented in terms of rotor position and speed which is given below,

t ............................................ (3.9)
m

The air gap power can be represented as,

1 dL( ,i) 1 dL( , i) d 1 2 dL( , i)

   i
2 2
P i i  (3.10)
a m
2 dt 2 d dt 2 d

The air gap power can also be represented as the product of the electromagnetic
torque and rotor speed and is given by,

P  T
a m e ...................................... (3.11)

By equating the above two equation we will get,

1 dL( ,i)

2
T i .............................. (3.12)
e
2 d

So, this shows that the electromagnetic torque is independent of current direction as T e
is

directly proportional to . So, whatever may be the current value positive or negative the
2
i

23
 dL( , i)
.
torque it will produce the unidirectional torque. But T e is directly d
proportional to
dL( , i)
So, d > 0 then, it will produce positive torque and electrical power is converted into
if
dL( , i)
mechanical power output (motoring) d < 0 then, it will produce the negative
and if

torque and mechanical power is converted into electrical power (generating).

This completes the development of the equivalent circuit and equation for
evaluating electromagnetic torque and input power to the switched reluctance motor
for both dynamic and steady state operation [1].

24
3.2 PID Controller:

Due to simple control structure, Easy of design and inexpensive cost the
conventional proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller is most widely used
in the industry. More than 90% of the control loops were of the PID types. As the
formulas of PID controller are very simple and can be easily adopted by various
controlled plant.

PID controller helps to correct the error between the reference variable and
the actual variable. So, that the system can adjust the process accordingly. The
general structure of PID controller is given below.

Fig.3.2 Structure of PID controller

25
 For PID control the actuating signal consists of proportional error signal
added with derivative and integral of the error signal.

The transfer function for the above block diagram i.e for PID controller is given as,


k i
……………. (3.13)

 1 s
G PID k p  k d 
s 
 

26
 Where ‘ k p ’ can be represented as proportionality gain, ‘ k d ’ as derivative gain

constant and ‘ k i ’ as the integral gain constant.

3.3 Function of Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller:

3.3.1 Proportional Gain Constant:

In proportional control the actuating signal for the control action in control
system is proportional to the error signal. The error signal is being the difference
between the reference input signal and the feedback signal obtained from the output.

For satisfactory performance of a control system a convenient adjustment has

to be made between the maximum overshoot and steady state error. By the help of
proportional constant without sacrificing the steady state accuracy, the maximum
overshoot can be reduced to same extent by modifying the actuating signal.

3.3.2 Integral Gain Constant:

For integral control action the actuating signal consists of proportional-error

signal added with integral of the error signal.

By the help of an integrator, it reduces the steady state errors through low
frequency compensation. By the help of this integral term the actual variable will
track the reference variable more quickly.

3.3.3 Derivative Gain Constant:

For the derivative control action the actuating signal consists of proportional
error signal added with derivative of the error signal.

By the help of a differentiator it improves the transient response through high

frequency compensation. The steady state error is not affected by derivative control
action. As the derivative of the error is used in actuating signal and as such if the
error varies with time, then in that case the derivative control reduces the error.

So, PID control combines the advantages of proportional, derivative and integral

27
control actions. In a closed loop system by changing one of the k p
k ,k
d i
variable from ,

how the effect of other two variables will change that can be summarized in the table below.

28
 Gain/Effect Rise Time Over Shoot Settling Time Steady State
Error

k Decrease Increase Small change Decrease

p

k i
Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate

k d
Small change Decrease Decrease Small change

Table 3.1 Effects of k p, k d , k i on a closed loop system

3.4 Block Diagram Representation of Switched ReluctanceMotor Drive:

Figure.3.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRADITIONAL FEEDBACK CONTROL

This will give the closed loop control of switched reluctance motor. So, the
actual speed will track the reference speed. So, machine will always remain in
synchronism. In place of speed controller we are using PID controller and the output
of this we are getting the error signal. That will move to the multiplexer along with 8
which gives the reference current signal, this should be compared with the actual
current signal in order to get the error current signal that is to be used as the gate
20
pulse to the power converter. For 3-phase machine we are using 3 half bridge
converters, for 4-phase ‘4’ and for 5-phase ‘5’ half bridge converters are used in
order to get required amount of input to switched reluctance motor.

21
 III. CHAPTER 4

4. MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF SRM DRIVE

4.1. Switched Reluctance Motor Specification:

Stator Resistance : 0.01

ohm/phase Friction : 0.01 N
ms

Inertia : 0.0082 kg.m2

Initial Speed : 0 rad/sec
Position : 0 rad
Unaligned Inductance : 0.7 mH
Aligned Inductance : 20 mH
Maximum Current : 450
Amps

Maximum Flux Linkage : 0.486 Weber-turn

4.2. . Modelling of Three Phase Switched Reluctance Motor Drive:

In figure 3.3 that is the block diagram of switched reluctance motor, we are
using the speed controller. Here the speed controller is nothing but the PID
controller whose input is the speed error that is the difference between the speed
reference and the filtered speed feedback signal and its output is unmodified torque

22
command. Then that torque command goes to current command controller and
feedback from position sensor gives rise to reference current that compare with the
actual current signal that will feedback from Switched reluctance motor output gives
the current error signal that goes to hysteresis band controller. That signal acting as
the gate signal for converter. A dc supply has given to converter that converts to 2
level ac signals. Here we use 3 half bridge converters in order to produce 3 phase ac
signal. That should be the input for Switched reluctance motor. At Switched

23
reluctance motor output we are getting flux linkage, current, output torque as well
as actual speed of motor.

1) 4.2.1 Simulation Results for Three Phase Switched Reluctance Motor:

Various characteristics for 3-phase switched reluctance motor has given below,

500
Voltage(volt

0
s)

-500
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08
Time(secs)

(i) Figure.4.1. Voltage v/s Time characteristics

This is nothing but the output voltage of converter which becomes the
input voltage for the three phase switched reluctance motor drive. This shows
that the three phase voltages are 1200 apart from each other.

200

150
Torque(N.m)

100

50
24
 0

-50
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Time(secs)

(ii) Figure.4.2 Torque v/s Time characteristics

25
 Here torque is directly proportional to square of the current, so, torque is independent
dL
of current direction but it depends upon the
. If it is positive then torque is positive
d
otherwise the torque is negative. This torque contains lots of noise and harmonics.

0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3
F lu x L i n k a g e ( v . s )

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

-0.05
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(secs)

(iii) Figure.4.3 Flux Linkage v/s Time characteristics

50

40

30
cu rren t(am p )

20

10

-10
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(sec)

(iv) Figure.4.4 Current v/s Time characteristics

26
 Here as flux linkage and currents are proportional to each other so as flux
linkage will vary according to that current will vary. Initially current is very high
because of inrush current, then it lies within 10 to 20 ampere.

27
 1200
Actual Speed
Reference Speed

1000

800

Sp e e d (r p m )
600

400

200

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(secs)

(v) Figure4.5 Speed v/s Time characteristics

0.2

0.15
I n d u c ta n c e (H )

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(secs)

(vi) Figure.4.6 Inductance v/s Time characteristics

Here the relation between the speed and inductance is that when the actual
speed will track the reference speed at that moment the inductance remains constant.

28
Initially inductance gets varies when it track at that moment inductance gets settle
down and remains constant.

Figure 4.6 shows that the inductance of stator phase winding is the function of
angular position of the rotor. It can also be observed that the unaligned inductance
is 0.8 mH and aligned inductance is 18 mH.

29
2) 4.3 Modelling Four Phase Switched Reluctance Motor Drive:

It is similar to 3 phases SRM, the only difference is that inside of the power
converter block in order to produce 4 phase ac supply it will use 4 half bridge
converters. Which helps to produce 4 phase voltages which are 900 apart from each
other and that becomes the input voltage for four phase switched reluctance motor
drive? The advantage is that we can track the reference speed as quickly as possible
if the no. of phases increases.

3) 4.3.1 Simulation Results for Four Phase Switched Reluctance Motor:

Various characteristics for 4-phase switched reluctance motor has given below,

200
0
Va

-200
200
Vb

0
Voltage (volts)

-200

200
Vc

0
-200

200
Vd

0
-200
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15
Time(secs)
(i) Figure.4.7 Voltage v/s Time characteristics

Here the four output voltage of inverters Va, Vb, Vc and Vd are 900 apart from
each other, which gives supply to the 4-phase switched reluctance motor.

800

700

600

500
T o rque (N .m )

400

300

200

30
 100

-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(secs)

(ii) Figure.4.8 Torque v/s Time characteristics

31
 Here torque is directly proportional to square of the current, so, torque is independent
dL
of current direction but it depends upon the
. If it is positive then torque is positive
d
otherwise the torque is negative. This torque contains lots of noise and harmonics
but that must be less than 3-phase switched reluctance motor.

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
F lu x L in k a g e (v . s )

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

-0.1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(secs)

(iii) Figure.4.9 Flux Linkage v/s Time characteristics

50
Ia vs t
Ib vs t
40 Ic vs t
Id vs t
C u rr e nt(a m p )

30

20

10

-10
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(secs)

(iv) Figure.4.10 Current v/s Time characteristics

32
 The flux linkage and currents are proportional to each other so that they will
vary almost similarly with respect to time axis. Initially current is very high because
of inrush current, then it lies within 5 to 10 ampere.

33
 1200
ActualSpeed
Reference Speed

1000

800

Sp e ed (r p m )

600

400

200

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(secs)

(v) Figure.4.11 Speed v/s Time characteristics

La vs t
0.02 Lb vs t
Lc vs t
Ld vs t

0.015
I nductance (H )

0.01

0.005

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time(secs)

(vi) Figure.4.12 Inductance v/s Time characteristics

Here the relation between the speed and inductance is that when the actual
speed will track the reference speed at that moment the inductance remains constant.
Initially inductance gets varies when it track at that moment inductance gets settle
down and remains constant. As it’s a 4-phase machine so, it consists of four
inductances having some phase difference. But this will fluctuate till actual speed
track the reference and finally its settle down. As it is a 4- phase switched reluctance
34
motor, so in this case the reference speed will track the actual speed more quickly in
comparision to 3-phase switched reluctance motor. In this case the actual speed will
track the reference speed nearly 0.1 sec.

Figure 4.12 shows that the inductance of stator phase winding is the function
of angular position of the rotor. It can also be observed that the unaligned
inductance is nearly

0.8 mH and aligned inductance is 17 to 18 mH.

35
4) 4.4 Modelling Five Phase Switched Reluctance Motor Drive:

Here the speed controller is nothing but the PID controller whose input is the
speed error that is the difference between the speed reference and the filtered speed
feedback signal and its output is unmodified torque command. Then that torque
command goes to current command controller and feedback from position sensor
gives rise to reference current that compare with the actual current signal that will
feedback from SRM output gives the current error signal that goes to hysteresis
band controller. That signal acting as the gate signal for converter. A dc supply has
given to converter that converts to 2 level ac signals. Here we use 5 half bridge
converters in order to produce 5 phase ac signal. That should be the input for
switched reluctance motor. At switched reluctance motor output we got flux linkage,
current, output torque as well as actual speed of motor. It helps to produce 5-phase
voltage which is 720 apart from each other. The advantage is that we can track the
reference speed as quickly as possible if the no. of phases increases.

5) 4.4.1 Simulation Results for Five Phase Switched Reluctance Motor:

Various characteristics of 5 phase switched reluctance motor has given below,

36
 (i) Figure.4.13 Voltage v/s Time characteristics

Here the 5 output voltage of inverters Va, Vb, Vc, Vd and Ve are 720 apart from
each other, which gives supply to the 5-phase switched reluctance motor.

37
 1200

1000

800

T o r q u e (N .m )
600

400

200

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(secs)

(ii) Figure.4.14 Torque v/s Time characteristics

Here torque is directly proportional to square of the current, so, torque is independent
dL
of current direction but it depends upon the
. If it is positive then torque is positive
d
otherwise the torque is negative. This torque contains lots of noise and harmonics
but that must be less than 3-phase and 4-phase switched reluctance motor.

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
F lu x L in k a g e (v .s )

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

38
 -0.1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(secs)

(iii) Figure.4.15 Flux Linkage v/s Time characteristics

39
 50
Ia vs t
Ib vs t
Ic vs t
40 Id vs t
Ie vs t

30
C urrent(am p)
20

10

-10
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(secs)

(iv) Figure.4.16 Current v/s Time characteristics

The flux linkage and currents are proportional to each other so that they will
vary almost similarly with respect to time axis. Initially current is very high because
of inrush current, then it lies within 5 ampere.

1200
Actual speed
Reference speed

1000

800
S p e e d (r p m )

600

400

200

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(secs)

(v) Figure.4.17 Speed v/s Time characteristics

As it is a 5-phase switched reluctance motor, so in this case the reference

speed will track the actual speed more quickly in comparision to 4 and 3-phase
30
switched reluctance motor. In this case the actual speed will track the reference
speed nearly 0.02 sec.

31
 0.02

0.015
I n d u c t a n c e (H )

0.01

0.005

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time(secs)

(vi) Figure.4.18 Inductance v/s Time characteristics

Here the relation between the speed and inductance is that when
the actual speed will track the reference speed at that moment the
inductance remains constant. Initially inductance gets varies when it
track at that moment inductance gets settle down and remains constant.
As it’s a 4-phase m/c so it consists of 4 inductances having some
phase difference. But this will fluctuate till actual speed track the
reference and finally its settle down.

Figure 4.18 shows that the inductance of stator phase winding

is the function of angular position of the rotor. It can also be observed
that the unaligned inductance is nearly 0.8 mH and aligned inductance

32
 FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER

5.1 Introduction

Most of the real-world processes that require automatic control are non-linear in nature.
That is, their parameter values alter as the operating point changes over time or both. In case of
conventional control schemes, as they are linear, a controller can only be tuned to give good
performance at a particular operating point or for a limited period of time. The controller needs
to be retuned if the operating point changes with time. This necessity to retune has driven the
need for adaptive controllers that can automatically retune themselves to match the current
process characteristics.

Analytical techniques may fail to give a precise solution in a controlling process. Where
as an expert or a skilled human operator, without the knowledge of their underlying dynamics of
a system can control a system more successfully. So it is worth simulating the controlling
strategy based upon intuition and experience can be considered a heuristic decision or rule of
thumb decision. This can be possible through the Fuzzy controller.

Fuzzy logic is an innovative technology that enhances conventional system design with
engineering expertise. Using fuzzy logic, we can circumvent the need for rigorous mathematical
modeling

A human operator is far more successful in controlling a process than a controller

designed by modern analytical technique. So it is worth simulating the control strategy based
upon intuition and experience and can be considered as heuristic decision or rule of thumb
decision.

In academic and technological arena, Fuzzy is a technical term that deals with ambiguity
or vagueness based on human intuitions.

Professor Lotfi A Zadeh introduced the concept of fuzzy sets, according to him. Fuzzy
logic is a mathematical imprecise description.

During the past several years, FLC has emerged as one of the most active area of research
for the application of fuzzy set theory. A fuzzy set is a generalization of the concept of an

33
ordinary set in which the membership function (MF) values can be only one of the two values, 0
and 1. A fuzzy set can be defined as below.

Fuzzy set A in a universe of discourse U is characterized by a MF A: U  [0] [1] and

associates with each element x of U a number A (x) in the interval [0 1] representing the degree
of membership of x in A.

5.2 Definition of Fuzzy Sets

Let X is a collection of objects, and then a fuzzy set is defined to be a set of ordered pairs.
A = {(x, A(x)), x  X}, where A(x) is called the membership function x in A. The numerical
interval X that is relevant for the description of a fuzzy variable is commonly named as universe
of discourse. The membership function A(x) denotes the degree to which x belongs to A and is
normally limited to values between 0 and 1. A value of A(x) close to one means it is very
likely for x to be in A and a value of A(x) near to zero denotes non-membership. In case that
the values of membership function are limited to zero or one, then A becomes a crisp or non-
fuzzy set.

5.3 Fuzzy Set Operations

It is well known that the membership functions play an important role in fuzzy sets.
Therefore it is not surprising to define fuzzy set operators based on their corresponding
membership functions. Operations like AND, OR and NOT are some the most important
operations of the fuzzy sets.

Suppose A and B are two fuzzy sets with membership functions A(x) and B(x)
respectively then.

a) The AND operator or the intersection of two fuzzy sets is the membership functions
of the intersection of these two fuzzy sets.
C = (AB), is defined by

C(x) = min { A(x), B (x) }, x  X 5.1

b) The OR operator or the union of two fuzzy sets is the membership function of the
union of these two fuzzy sets.
D (AB), is defined by

34
 C(x) = max { A(x), B (x) }, x  X 5.2

The NOT operator or the complement of a fuzzy set is the membership function of
the complement of A is A1 is defined by

A1 (x) = {1 – A (x)}, x  X 5.3

c) Fuzzy relation:
A fuzzy relation R from a and b can be consider as a fuzzy graph and characterized by
membership function R (x, y) which satisfies the composition rules as follows.

R (x) = max {min [R (x, y), A (x)]}, x  X 5.4

5.4 Fuzzy Controller Model

Fuzzy modeling is the method of describing the characteristics of a system using fuzzy
inference rules. The method has a distinguishing feature in that it can express linguistically
complex non-linear system. It is however, very hand to identify the rules and tune the
membership functions of the reasoning. Fuzzy Controllers are normally built with fuzzy rules.
These fuzzy rules are obtained either from domain experts or by observing the people who are
currently doing the control. The membership functions for the fuzzy sets will be derive from the
information available from the domain experts and/or observed control actions. The building of
such rules and membership functions require tuning. That is, performance of the controller must
be measured and the membership functions and rules adjusted based upon the performance. This
process will be time consuming.

The basic configuration of Fuzzy logic control based as shown in Fig. 5.1 consists of four
main parts i.e. (i) Fuzzification, (ii) knowledge base, (iii) Inference Engine and (iv)
Defuzzification.

35
 Fig. 5.1 Structure of Fuzzy Logic controller

5.4.1 Fuzzification

Fuzzification maps from the crisp input space to fuzzy sets in certain, input universe of
discourse. So for a specific input value x, it is mapped to the degree of membership A(x). The
fuzzification involves the following functions. Measures the value of input variables.

1. Performs a scale mapping that transfers the range of values of input variables into
corresponding universe of discourse.
2. Performs the function of fuzzification that converts input data into suitable linguistic
variables, which may be viewed as labels of fuzzy sets.
The input variables to fuzzifier are the crisp controlled variables. Selection of the control
variables relies on the nature of the system and its desired output. It is more common in the
literature to use the output error and the derivative of output. Each of the fuzzy logic control
(FLC) input and output signal is interpreted into a number of linguistic variables. The number of
linguistic variables specifies the quality of control which can be achieved using the fuzzy
controller. As the number of linguistic variables increases, the computational time and required
memory increases. Therefore a compromise between the quality of control and computational
time is needed to choose the number is seven. Each linguistic variables NB, NM, NS, ZE, PS,
PM, PB which stands for negative big, negative medium, negative small, zero positive small,

36
positive medium, positive big respectively. For simplicity it is assumed that the membership
functions are symmetrical and each one overlaps the adjacent functions by 50% i.e., triangle
shaped function, the other type of functions used are trapezoidal-shaped and Bell-shaped. Figure
3.2 shows the seven linguistic variable and the triangular membership function with 50% overlap
and the universe of discourse from – a to a.

Fig 5.2 Triangular membership functions

5.4.2 Knowledge Base (KB)

Knowledge base comprises of the definitions of fuzzy MFs for the input and output
variables and the necessary control rules, which specify the control action by using linguistic
terms.

It consists of a database and linguistic control rule base.

1. The database provides necessary definitions, which are used to define linguistic
control rules and fuzzy data, manipulation in a FLC.
2. The rule base characterizes the control goals and control policy of the domain experts
by means of a set of a set of linguistic control rules.

37
5.4.3 Inference Mechanism

The Decision – Making Logic Which plays an essential role and contains a set of fuzzy
if-then rules such as

IF x is A and y is B then z is C

Where x, y and z are linguistic variables representing two input variables and one control
output: A, B and C are linguistic values.

It is kernel of an FLC, it has the capability of simulating human decision making based
on fuzzy control actions employing fuzzy implication and the rules of inference in fuzzy logic.

In general, fuzzy systems map input fuzzy sets to output fuzzy sets, fuzzy rules are the
relation between input/output fuzzy sets. They are usually in the form if A. (set of conditions are
satisfied ) then B, (set of consequences can be inferred). Each rule defines a fuzzy path in the
Cartesian product A x B (system state space). The antecedents of each fuzzy rule describe a
fuzzy input region in the state space.

For a system of two-control variable with seven linguistic variables in each range, this
leads to a 7x7 decision table. The knowledge required to generate the fuzzy rules can be derived
from an off – line simulation, an expert operator and/or a design engineer. Some knowledge can
be used on the understanding of the dynamic system under control. A lot of effort has been
devoted to the creation of the fuzzy rules.

Normally rule definition is based on the operator’s experience and the engineer’s
knowledge. However, it has been noticed in practice that for monotonic systems a symmetrical
rule table is very appropriate, although some times it may need slight adjustment based on
behavior of the specific system. If the system dynamics are not known or if the system is highly
non – linear, trial and error procedure and experience play an important role in defining the rules.

5.4.4 Defuzzification

Defuzzification covers the linguistic variables to determine numerical values. Centroid

method of defuzzification is used in this study.

(1) A scale mapping, which converts the range of values of input variables into
corresponding universe of discourse.

38
 (2) Defuzzification, which yields a non-fuzzy control action from an inferred fuzzy
control action.
We defuzzify the output distribution B to produce a single numerical output, a single
value in the output universe of discourse Y = {y1, y2…yp}. The information in the output
waveform B resides largely in the relative values of membership degrees. The simplest
deuzzificatioin scheme chooses that, element Ymax. That has maximal membership put in the
output fuzzy ser B. MB (ymax) = max mB (yj); 1  j k

The maximum membership defuzzificatioin scheme has two fundamental problems.

First, the mode of the B distribution is not unique. In practice B is often highly asymmetric;
even if it is unimodal infinitely many output distributions can share the same mode. The
maximum membership scheme ignores the information in much of the waveform B. The natural
alternative is the fuzzy centroid defuzzificatioin scheme. The regions in which the control
actions are overlapped depending upon their membership function. The area thus obtained is
divided into narrow strips of equal width of each vertical line, the membership function and the
corresponding point on the universe of discourse is evaluated. The centroid is calculated using
the formula given below. The graphical representation of centriod is shown in Fig. 5.3 below.

B= p
j=1Yj mB (yj) / pj=1mB (yj) 5.5

Where mB(yj) = membership function of the jth strip. yj = Corresponding Crisp value of jth strip. p
= number of strips.

39
 Fig 453 A graphical representation of Centriod

This value is actually the deterministic input required to regulate the process. The entire
universe of discourse is then divided into seven triangles, equal in area, each representing the
region of the linguistic variables as in fuzzification.

The fuzzy centroid is unique and uses all the information in the output distribution B.
Computing the centroid is only step in the defuzzification process, which requires simple
division.

5.5 Fuzzy Logic Controller

Fuzzy logic is a new control approach with great potential for real time applications Fig 5.3
shows the structure of the fuzzy logic controller (FIS-Fuzzy inference system) in MATLAB
Fuzzy logic toolbox. .Load voltage and load current taken as input to fuzzy system. For a closed
loop control, error input can be selected as current, voltage or impedance, according to control
type . To get the linearity triangular membership function is taken with 50% overlap. The output
of fuzzy controller taken as the control signal and the pulse generator provides synchronous

40
firing pulses to thyristors as shown in fig 6.4. The Fuzzy Logic is a rule based controller, where a
set of rules represents a control decision mechanism to correct the effect of certain causes
coming from power system. In fuzzy logic, the five linguistic variables expressed by fuzzy sets
defined on their respective universes of discourse. Table-I shows the suggested membership
function rules of FC-TCR controller. The rule of this table can be chosen based on practical
experience and simulation results observed from the behavior of the system around its stable
equilibrium points.

Fig 5.4 Structure of fuzzy logic controller

41
 Table I 5.1 Membership function rules

Load
voltage
NL NM P PM PB
NL PB PB NM NM NL
Load NM PB PB NM P NL
current
P P PM NM NM P
PM NM P NM NM PM
PB NL NM NM NL NL

42