Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor Fundamentals

INTRODUCTION
Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are one of the motor types rapidly gaining
popularity. BLDC motors are used in industries such as Appliances, Automotive,
Aerospace, Consumer, Medical, Industrial Automation Equipment and Instrumentation.
As the name implies, BLDC motors do not use brushes for commutation; instead, they
are electronically commutated. BLDC motors have many advantages over brushed DC
motors and induction motors. A few of these are:
• Better speed versus torque characteristics
• High dynamic response
• High efficiency
• Long operating life
• Noiseless operation
• Higher speed ranges
In addition, the ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher, making it useful
in applications where space and weight are critical factors.
In this application note, we will discuss in detail the construction, working principle,
characteristics and typical applications of BLDC motors.

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLE

BLDC motors are a type of synchronous motor. This means the magnetic field generated
by the stator and the magnetic field generated by the rotor rotate at the same frequency.
BLDC motors do not experience the “slip” that is normally seen in induction motors.
BLDC motors come in single-phase, 2-phase and 3-phase configurations. Corresponding
to its type, the stator has the same number of windings. Out of these, 3-phase motors
are the most popular and widely used. This application note focuses on 3-phase motors.

Stator
The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with windings placed in the
slots that are axially cut along the inner periphery (as shown in Figure 3). Traditionally, the
stator resembles that of an induction motor; however, the windings are distributed in a
different manner. Most BLDC motors have three stator windings connected in star fashion.
Each of these windings are constructed with numerous coils interconnected to form a
winding. One or more coils are placed in the slots and they are interconnected to make a
winding. Each of these windings are distributed over the stator periphery to form an even
numbers of poles.
There are two types of stator windings variants: trapezoidal and sinusoidal motors. This
differentiation is made on the basis of the interconnection of coils in the stator windings to
give the different types of back Electromotive Force (EMF).
As their names indicate, the trapezoidal motor gives a back EMF in trapezoidal fashion and
the sinusoidal motor’s back EMF is sinusoidal, as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. In addition
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to the back EMF, the phase current also has trapezoidal and sinusoidal variations in the
respective types of motor. This makes the torque output by a sinusoidal motor smoother than
that of a trapezoidal motor. However, this comes with an extra cost, as the sinusoidal motors
take extra winding interconnections because of the coils distribution on the stator periphery,
thereby increasing the copper intake by the stator windings.
Depending upon the control power supply capability, the motor with the correct voltage rating
of the stator can be chosen. Forty-eight volts, or less voltage rated motors are used in
automotive, robotics, small arm movements and so on. Motors with 100 volts, or higher
ratings, are used in appliances, automation and in industrial applications.

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 60

Phase A-B

Phase B-C

Phase C-A

FIGURE 1: TRAPEZOIDAL BACK EMF

FIGURE 2: SINUSOIDAL BACK EMF

FIGURE 3: STATOR OF A BLDC MOTOR

Stamping with Slots

Stator Windings
Rotor
The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from two to eight pole pairs with
alternate North (N) and South (S) poles.
Based on the required magnetic field density in the rotor, the proper magnetic material is
chosen to make the rotor. Ferrite magnets are traditionally used to make permanent
magnets. As the technology advances, rare earth alloy magnets are gaining popularity. The
ferrite magnets are less expensive but they have the disadvantage of low flux density for a
given volume. In contrast, the alloy material has high magnetic density per volume and
enables the rotor to compress further for the same torque. Also, these alloy magnets
improve the size-to-weight ratio and give higher torque for the same size motor using ferrite
magnets.
Neodymium (Nd), Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) and the alloy of Neodymium, Ferrite and Boron
(NdFeB) are some examples of rare earth alloy magnets. Continuous research is going on to
improve the flux density to compress the rotor further.
Figure 4 shows cross sections of different arrangements of magnets in a rotor.
FIGURE 4: ROTOR MAGNET CROSS SECTIONS

Hall Sensors
Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled electronically. To
rotate the BLDC motor, the stator windings should be energized in a sequence. It is
important to know the rotor position in order to understand which winding will be energized
following the energizing sequence. Rotor position is sensed using Hall effect sensors
embedded into the stator.
Most BLDC motors have three Hall sensors embedded into the stator on the non-driving end
of the motor.
Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low
signal, indicating the N or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the combination of
these three Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of commutation can be determined.
FIGURE 5: BLDC MOTOR TRANSVERSE SECTION

Stator Windings

Hall Sensors Rotor Magnet S

Accessory Shaft Rotor Magnet N

Driving End of the Shaft

Hall Sensor Magnets

Figure 5 shows a transverse section of a BLDC motor with a rotor that has alternate N
and S permanent magnets. Hall sensors are embedded into the stationary part of the
motor. Embedding the Hall sensors into the stator is a complex process because any
misalignment in these Hall sensors, with respect to the rotor magnets, will generate an
error in determination of the rotor position. To simplify the process of mounting the Hall
sensors onto the stator, some motors may have the Hall sensor magnets on the rotor, in
addition to the main rotor magnets. These are a scaled down replica version of the rotor.
Therefore, whenever the rotor rotates, the Hall sensor magnets give the same effect as
the main magnets. The Hall sensors are normally mounted on a PC board and fixed to
the enclosure cap on the non-driving end. This enables users to adjust the complete
assembly of Hall sensors, to align with the rotor magnets, in order to achieve the best
performance.
Based on the physical position of the Hall sensors, there are two versions of output. The
Hall sensors may be at 60° or 120° phase shift to each other. Based on this, the motor
manufacturer defines the commutation sequence, which should be followed when
controlling the motor.
See the “Commutation Sequence” section for an example of Hall sensor signals and
further details on the sequence of commutation.

Theory of Operation
Each commutation sequence has one of the windings energized to positive power (current
enters into the winding), the second winding is negative (current exits the winding) and the
third is in a non-energized condition. Torque is produced because of the interaction between
the magnetic field generated by the stator coils and the permanent magnets. Ideally, the
peak torque occurs when these two fields are at 90° to each other and falls off as the fields
move together. In order to keep the motor running, the magnetic field produced by the
windings should shift position, as the rotor moves to catch up with the stator field. What is
known as “Six-Step Commutation” defines the sequence of energizing the windings. See the
“Commutation Sequence” section for detailed information and an example on six-step
commutation.
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TORQUE/SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
Figure 6 shows an example of torque/speed characteristics. There are two torque
parameters used to define a BLDC motor, peak torque (TP) and rated torque (TR). During
continuous operations, the motor can be loaded up to the rated torque. As discussed earlier,
in a BLDC motor, the torque remains constant for a speed range up to the rated speed. The
motor can be run up to the maximum speed, which can be up to 150% of the rated speed,
but the torque starts dropping.
FIGURE 6: TORQUE/SPEED CHARACTERISTICS

PeakP
T
Torque

Torqu
e Intermittent
Torque Zone
Rated
TR
Torque
Continuous
Torque Zone

Rated Maximu
mSpee
Spee Speed d
d
Applications that have frequent starts and stops and frequent reversals of rotation with
load on the motor, demand more torque than the rated torque. This requirement comes
for a brief period, especially when the motor starts from a standstill and during
acceleration. During this period, extra torque is required to overcome the inertia of the
load and the rotor itself. The motor can deliver a higher torque, maximum up to peak
torque, as long as it follows the speed torque curve. Refer to the “Selecting a Suitable
Motor Rating for the Application” section to understand how to select these
parameters for an application.
COMPARING BLDC MOTORS TO OTHER MOTOR TYPES
Compared to brushed DC motors and induction motors, BLDC motors have many
advantages and few disadvantages. Brushless motors require less maintenance, so they
have a longer life compared with brushed DC motors. BLDC motors produce more
output power per frame size than brushed DC motors and induction motors. Because the
rotor is made of permanent magnets, the rotor inertia is less, compared with other types
of motors. This improves acceleration and deceleration characteristics, shortening
operating cycles. Their linear speed/torque characteristics produce predictable speed
regulation. With brushless motors, brush inspection is eliminated, making them ideal for
limited access areas and applications where servicing is difficult. BLDC motors operate
much more quietly than brushed DC motors, reducing Electromagnetic Interference
(EMI). Low-voltage models are ideal for battery operation, portable equipment or medical
applications.
TABLE 1: COMPARING A BLDC MOTOR TO A BRUSHED DC MOTOR
Feature BLDC Motor Brushed DC Motor
Commutation Electronic commutation based on Hall Brushed commutation.
position sensors.
Maintenance Less required due to absence of Periodic maintenance is required.
brushes.
Life Longer. Shorter.
Speed/Torque Flat – Enables operation at all speeds Moderately flat – At higher speeds,
Characteristics with rated load. brush friction increases, thus reducing
useful torque.
Efficiency High – No voltage drop across Moderate.
brushes.
Output Power/ High – Reduced size due to superior Moderate/Low – The heat produced
Frame Size thermal characteristics. Because by the armature is dissipated in the air
BLDC has the windings on the stator, gap, thus increasing the temperature
which is connected to the case, the in the air gap and limiting specs on
heat dissipation is better. the output power/frame size.
Rotor Inertia Low, because it has permanent Higher rotor inertia which limits the
magnets on the rotor. This improves dynamic characteristics.
the dynamic response.
Speed Range Higher – No mechanical limitation Lower – Mechanical limitations by the
imposed by brushes/commutator. brushes.
Electric Noise Low. Arcs in the brushes will generate
Generation noise causing EMI in the equipment
nearby.
Cost of Building Higher – Since it has permanent Low.
magnets, building costs are higher.
Control Complex and expensive. Simple and inexpensive.
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Control A controller is always required to keep No controller is required for fixed
Requirements the motor running. The same speed; a controller is required only if
controller can be used for variable variable speed is desired.
speed control.

TABLE 2: COMPARING A BLDC MOTOR TO AN INDUCTION MOTOR

Features BLDC Motors AC Induction Motors
Speed/Torque Flat – Enables operation at all Nonlinear – Lower torque at lower
Characteristics speeds with rated load. speeds.
Output Power/ High – Since it has permanent Moderate – Since both stator and
Frame Size magnets on the rotor, smaller size can rotor have windings, the output power
be achieved for a given output power. to size is lower than BLDC.
Rotor Inertia Low – Better dynamic characteristics. High – Poor dynamic characteristics.
Starting Current Rated – No special starter circuit Approximately up to seven times of
required. rated – Starter circuit rating should be
carefully selected. Normally uses a
Star-Delta starter.
Control A controller is always required to keep No controller is required for fixed
Requirements the motor running. The same speed; a controller is required only if
controller can be used for variable variable speed is desired.
speed control.
Slip No slip is experienced between stator The rotor runs at a lower frequency
and rotor frequencies. than stator by slip frequency and slip
increases with load on the motor.
COMMUTATION SEQUENCE
Figure 7 shows an example of Hall sensor signals with respect to back EMF and the phase
current. Figure 8 shows the switching sequence that should be followed with respect to the
Hall sensors.
The sequence numbers on Figure 7 correspond to the numbers given in Figure 8.
Every 60 electrical degrees of rotation, one of the Hall sensors changes the state. Given this,
it takes six steps to complete an electrical cycle. In synchronous, with every 60 electrical
degrees, the phase current switching should be updated. However, one electrical cycle may
not correspond to a complete mechanical revolution of the rotor. The number of electrical
cycles to be repeated to complete a mechanical rotation is determined by the rotor pole
pairs. For each rotor pole pairs, one electrical cycle is completed. So, the number of
electrical cycles/rotations equals the rotor pole pairs.
Figure 9 shows a block diagram of the controller used to control a BLDC motor. Q0 to Q5 are
the power switches controlled by the PIC18FXX31 microcontroller. Based on the motor
voltage and current ratings, these switches can be MOSFETs, or IGBTs, or simple bipolar
transistors.
Table 3 and Table 4 show the sequence in which these power switches should be switched
based on the Hall sensor inputs, A, B and C. Table 3 is for clockwise rotation of the motor
and Table 4 is for counter clockwise motor rotation. This is an example of Hall sensor signals
having a 60 degree phase shift with respect to each other. As we have previously discussed
in the “Hall Sensors” section, the Hall sensors may be at 60° or 120° phase shift to each
other. When deriving a controller for a particular motor, the sequence defined by the motor
manufacturer should be followed.
Referring to Figure 9, if the signals marked by PWMx are switched ON or OFF according to
the sequence, the motor will run at the rated speed. This is assuming that the DC bus
voltage is equal to the motor rated voltage, plus any losses across the switches. To vary the
speed, these signals should be Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) at a much higher frequency
than the motor frequency. As a rule of thumb, the PWM frequency should be at least 10
times that of the maximum frequency of the motor. When the duty cycle of PWM is varied
within the sequences, the average voltage supplied to the stator reduces, thus reducing the
speed. Another advantage of having PWM is that, if the DC bus voltage is much higher than
the motor rated voltage, the motor can be controlled by limiting the percentage of PWM duty
cycle corresponding to that of the motor rated voltage. This adds flexibility to the controller to
hook up motors with different rated voltages and match the average voltage output by the
controller, to the motor rated voltage, by controlling the PWM duty cycle.
There are different approaches of controls. If the PWM signals are limited in the
microcontroller, the upper switches can be turned on for the entire time during the
corresponding sequence and the corresponding lower switch can be controlled by the
required duty cycle on
PWM.
The potentiometer, connected to the analog-to-digital converter channel in Figure 9, is for
setting a speed reference. Based on this input voltage, the PWM duty cycle should be
calculated.
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Closed-Loop Control
The speed can be controlled in a closed loop by measuring the actual speed of the
motor. The error in the set speed and actual speed is calculated. A Proportional plus
Integral plus Derivative (P.I.D.) controller can be used to amplify the speed error and
dynamically adjust the PWM duty cycle.
For low-cost, low-resolution speed requirements, the Hall signals can be used to
measure the speed feedback. A timer from the PIC18FXX31 can be used to count
between two Hall transitions. With this count, the actual speed of the motor can be
calculated.
For high-resolution speed measurements, an optical encoder can be fitted onto the
motor, which gives two signals with 90 degrees phase difference. Using these signals,
both speed and direction of rotation can be determined. Also, most of the encoders give
a third index signal, which is one pulse per revolution. This can be used for positioning
applications. Optical encoders are available with different choices of Pulse Per
Revolution (PPR), ranging from hundreds to thousands.
FIGURE 7: HALL SENSOR SIGNAL, BACK EMF, OUTPUT TORQUE AND PHASE
CURRENT
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FIGURE 8: WINDING ENERGIZING SEQUENCE WITH RESPECT TO THE HALL SENSOR

Hall put Phase nt

Sequence Sensor In Curre
Active PWMs
#
A B C A B C
1 0 1 1 PWM5(Q5) PWM2(Q2) Off DC- DC+
 2 1 1 1 PWM1(Q1) PWM2(Q2) DC+ DC- Off
3 1 1 0 PWM1(Q1) PWM4(Q4) DC+ Off DC-
4 1 0 0 PWM3(Q3) PWM4(Q4) Off DC+ DC-
5 0 0 0 PWM3(Q3) PWM0(Q0) DC- DC+ Off
6 0 0 1 PWM5(Q5) PWM0(Q0) DC- Off DC+
FIGURE 9: CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM

TABLE 3: SEQUENCE FOR ROTATING THE MOTOR IN CLOCKWISE DIRECTION

WHEN
VIEWED FROM NON-DRIVING END
Hall put Phase nt
Sequence Sensor In Curre
Active PWMs
#
A B C A B C
1 0 0 1 PWM1(Q1) PWM4(Q4 DC+ Off DC-
)
2 0 0 0 PWM1(Q1) PWM2(Q2 DC+ DC- Off
)
3 1 0 0 PWM5(Q5) PWM2(Q2 Off DC- DC+
)
4 1 1 0 PWM5(Q5) PWM0(Q0 DC- Off DC+
)
5 1 1 1 PWM3(Q3) PWM0(Q0 DC- DC+ Off
)
6 0 1 1
PWM3(Q3) PWM4(Q4 Off DC+ DC-
)
TABLE 4: SEQUENCE FOR ROTATING THE MOTOR IN COUNTER-CLOCKWISE
DIRECTION WHEN VIEWED FROM NON-DRIVING END
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WHAT IS BACK EMF?
When a BLDC motor rotates, each winding generates a voltage known as back
Electromotive Force or back EMF, which opposes the main voltage supplied to the windings
according to Lenz’s Law. The polarity of this back EMF is in opposite direction of the
energized voltage. Back EMF depends mainly on three factors:
• Angular velocity of the rotor
• Magnetic field generated by rotor magnets
• The number of turns in the stator windings

Back EMF = (E) ∝ NlrBω

EQUATION 1:

where:
N is the number of winding turns per
phase,
l is the length of the rotor,
r is the internal radius of the
rotor, B is the rotor magnetic
field density and ω is the
motor’s angular velocity
Once the motor is designed, the rotor magnetic field and the number of turns in the stator
windings remain constant. The only factor that governs back EMF is the angular velocity
or speed of the rotor and as the speed increases, back EMF also increases. The motor
technical specification gives a parameter called, back EMF, that can be used to estimate
back EMF for a given speed.
The potential difference across a winding can be calculated by subtracting the back EMF
value from the supply voltage. The motors are designed with a back EMF constant in
such a way that when the motor is running at the rated speed, the potential difference
between the back EMF and the supply voltage will be sufficient for the motor to draw the
rated current and deliver the rated torque. If the motor is driven beyond the rated speed,
back EMF may increase substantially, thus decreasing the potential difference across the
winding, reducing the current drawn which results in a drooping torque curve. The last
point on the speed curve would be when the supply voltage is equal to the sum of the
back EMF and the losses in the motor, where the current and torque are equal to zero.
 Sensorless Control of BLDC Motors
Until now we have seen commutation based on the rotor position given by the Hall
sensor. BLDC motors can be commutated by monitoring the back EMF signals instead of
the Hall sensors. The relationship between the Hall sensors and back EMF, with respect
to the phase voltage, is shown in Figure 7. As we have seen in earlier sections, every
commutation sequence has one of the windings energized positive, the second negative
and the third left open. As shown in Figure 7, the Hall sensor signal changes the state
when the voltage polarity of back EMF crosses from a positive to negative or from
negative to positive. In ideal cases, this happens on zero-crossing of back EMF, but
practically, there will be a delay due to the winding characteristics. This delay should be
compensated by the microcontroller. Figure 10 shows a block diagram for sensorless
control of a BLDC motor.
Another aspect to be considered is very low speeds. Because back EMF is proportional to
the speed of rotation, at a very low speed, the back EMF would be at a very low amplitude to
detect zero-crossing. The motor has to be started in open loop, from standstill and when
sufficient back EMF is built to detect the zero-cross point, the control should be shifted to the
back EMF sensing. The minimum speed at which back EMF can be sensed is calculated
from the back EMF constant of the motor.
FIGURE 10: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SENSORLESS CONTROL

With this method of commutation, the Hall sensors can be eliminated and in some motors,
the magnets for Hall sensors also can be eliminated. This simplifies the motor construction
and reduces the cost as well. This is advantageous if the motor is operating in dusty or oily
environments, where occasional cleaning is required in order for the Hall sensors to sense
properly. The same thing applies if the motor is mounted in a less accessible location.
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SELECTING A SUITABLE MOTOR RATING FOR THE APPLICATION
Selecting the right type of motor for the given application is very important. Based on the
load characteristics, the motor must be selected with the proper rating. Three parameters
govern the motor selection for the given application. They are:
• Peak torque required for the application
• RMS torque required
• The operating speed range

Peak Torque (TP) Requirement

The peak, or maximum torque required for the application, can be calculated by summing
the load torque (TL), torque due to inertia (TJ) and the torque required to overcome the
friction (TF).
There are other factors which will contribute to the overall peak torque requirements. For
example, the windage loss which is contributed by the resistance offered by the air in the air
gap. These factors are complicated to account for. Therefore, a 20% safety margin is given
as a rule of thumb when calculating the torque.

EQUATION 2:

∴ TP = (TL + TJ + TF) * 1.2

The torque due to inertia (TJ) is the torque required to accelerate the load from standstill or
from a lower speed to a higher speed. This can be calculated by taking the product of load
inertia, including the rotor inertia and load acceleration.

EQUATION 3:

TJ = JL + M * α where:
JL + M is the sum of the load and rotor inertia and α is the required acceleration

The mechanical system coupled to the motor shaft determines the load torque and the
frictional torque.
RMS Torque Requirement (TRMS)
The Root Mean Square (RMS) torque can be roughly translated to the average
continuous torque required for the application. This depends upon many factors. The
peak torque (TP), load torque (TL), torque due to inertia (TJ), frictional torque (TF) and
acceleration, deceleration and run times.
The following equation gives the RMS torque required for a typical application where TA
is the acceleration time, TR is the run time and TD is the deceleration time.

EQUATION 4:

TRMS = √ [{TP2 TA + (TL + TF)2 TR +

(TJ – TL – TF)2 TD}/(TA + TR + TD)]
Speed Range
This is the motor speed required to drive the application and is determined by the type of
application. For example, an application like a blower where the speed variation is not
very frequent and the maximum speed of the blower can be the average motor speed
required. Whereas in the case of a point-to-point positioning system, like in a high-
precision conveyer belt movement or robotic arm movements, this would require a motor
with a rated operating speed higher than the average movement speed. The higher
operating speed can be accounted for the components of the trapezoidal speed curve,
resulting in an average speed equal to the movement speed. The trapezoidal curve is
shown in Figure 11.
It is always suggested to allow a safety margin of 10%, as a rule of thumb, to account for
miscellaneous factors which are beyond our calculations.

Maximum
Speed

Average Motor Speed

Speed

TA TR TD

Time

FIGURE 11: TRAPEZOIDAL SPEED CURVE

TYPICAL BLDC MOTOR APPLICATIONS
BLDC motors find applications in every segment of the market. Automotive, appliance,
industrial controls, automation, aviation and so on, have applications for BLDC motors. Out
of these, we can categorize the type of BLDC motor control into three major types:
• Constant load
• Varying loads
• Positioning applications

Applications With Constant Loads

These are the types of applications where a variable speed is more important than keeping
the accuracy of the speed at a set speed. In addition, the acceleration and deceleration rates
are not dynamically changing. In these types of applications, the load is directly coupled to
the motor shaft. For example, fans, pumps and blowers come under these types of
applications. These applications demand low-cost controllers, mostly operating in open-loop.

Applications With Varying Loads

These are the types of applications where the load on the motor varies over a speed range.
These applications may demand a high-speed control accuracy and good dynamic
responses. In home appliances, washers, dryers and compressors are good examples. In
automotive, fuel pump control, electronic steering control, engine control and electric vehicle
control are good examples of these. In aerospace, there are a number of applications, like
centrifuges, pumps, robotic arm controls, gyroscope controls and so on. These applications
may use speed feedback devices and may run in semi-closed loop or in total closed loop.
These applications use advanced control algorithms, thus complicating the controller. Also,
this increases the price of the complete system.
Positioning Applications
Most of the industrial and automation types of application come under this category. The
applications in this category have some kind of power transmission, which could be
mechanical gears or timer belts, or a simple belt driven system. In these applications, the
dynamic response of speed and torque are important. Also, these applications may have
frequent reversal of rotation direction. A typical cycle will have an accelerating phase, a
constant speed phase and a deceleration and positioning phase, as shown in Figure 11. The
load on the motor may vary during all of these phases, causing the controller to be complex.
These systems mostly operate in closed loop. There could be three control loops functioning
simultaneously: Torque Control Loop, Speed Control Loop and Position Control Loop.
Optical encoder or synchronous resolvers are used for measuring the actual speed of the
motor. In some cases, the same sensors are used to get relative position information.
Otherwise, separate position sensors may be used to get absolute positions. Computer
Numeric Controlled (CNC) machines are a good example of this. Process controls,
machinery controls and conveyer controls have plenty of applications in this category.

SUMMARY
In conclusion, BLDC motors have advantages over brushed DC motors and induction
motors. They have better speed versus torque characteristics, high dynamic response, high
efficiency, long operating life, noiseless operation, higher speed ranges, rugged construction
and so on. Also, torque delivered to the motor size is higher, making it useful in applications
where space and weight are critical factors. With these advantages, BLDC motors find wide
spread applications in automotive, appliance, aerospace, consumer, medical,
instrumentation and automation industries.