Mandal-Ekofisk(!

) Petroleum System in the Central Graben of the North

Sea*
The Mandal-Ekofisk(!) petroleum system in the Central Graben of the North
Sea contains 3292 million m3 of in-place oil, 110 million m3 of in-place
condensate, and 1167 billion m3 of in-place gas in Devonian-Tertiary
reservoirs. The major reservoir is the Upper Cretaceous to basal Paleogene
chalk of the Ekofisk area in the southeastern part of the graben, with
607million m3 (46%) producible oil and gas as oil equivalent. Here, chalk is
the seal except where synsedimentary slumping coupled with an early influx
of oil creates reservoir rock. Permeability mainly results from on-structure
halokinetic fracturing. The second most important reservoir/ with 457 million
m3 (35%) producible oil equivalent, occurs in Paleocene sandstone where fan
turbidites are excellent reservoir rocks in the Forties-Montrose and Gannet
areas. Surrounding mudstones form the seal. A less significant reservoir rock,
with 231 million m3 (18%) producible oil equivalent, occurs at the Upper
Jurassic level in the shallow marine Fulmar and VIa sandstones immediately
underlying the source rock horizon (seal) on both the eastern and western
flanks of the Central Graben. Additional reserves are found in Permian and
Devonian reservoir rocks.

The oil, condensate, and gas originated from the Upper Jurassic-Lower
Cretaceous organic-rich marine mudstones of the Mandal Formation
(equivalent to the Kimmeridge Clay). Geochemical oil-source rock correlation
has been established and is backed up by the regional distribution of fields
relative to mature source rocks. Source rock thicknesses range from less than
100 m on flanks and highs, to greater than 1200 m in the axis of the Central
Graben. Thermal maturity modeling indicates that oil generation was
initiated by late Early Cretaceous in the mid-graben. Under steadily
increasing sedimentation rates, generation continues to the present day over
about 112/750 km2 of the Central Graben.

Expulsion efficiency from the MandaI Formation source rock is approximately

60%. Secondary migration is mainly vertical, the oil and gas moving through
salt- and fault-related fractures into a variety of reservoir rocks. The
generation-accumulation efficiency of 0.56% is obtained using Schmoker's
calculation for the petroleum system. The major control on the petroleum
system efficiency is the strong vertical component of secondary migration
through low permeability strata plus undiscovered reserves.

INTRODUCTION
The greater North Sea petroleum province, which includes the offshore areas
of Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands, lies mainly between the United
Kingdom and Norway (inset, Figure 33.1). This province has been subjected
to more than 30 years of intensive exploration by numerous companies,
resulting in a substantial amount of publicly available technical information.
For the greater North Sea province, about 5.56 billion m3 (35 billion bbl) of
oil, condensate, and natural gas liquids (5.56 billion m3) and about 7.67
trillion m3 (271 trillion ft3) of gas (7.15 billion m3 or 45 billion bbl of oil
equivalent) have been discovered as producible hydrocarbons (updated from
Brennand et aI., 1990). Most of this oil and gas originates from three major
petroleum systems: a dry gas system in the south and at least two oil systems
in the north.

The dry gas system in the southern North Sea petroleum province involves a
gas-prone source rock, the Upper Carboniferous (Westphalian) Coal
Measures, that charged mainly Lower Permian sandstone reservoirs. This
system is located in the Sole Pit Trough and Broad Fourteens Basin about 100
km south of the Central Graben and contains over 4.1 trillion m3 (145 trillion
ft3, or about 24 billion bbl oil equivalent) of nonassociated gas (Glennie,
1990b).

The northern North Sea petroleum province involves the Viking, Witch
Ground, and Central grabens, which straddle the U.K.-Norway offshore
boundary. The oil systems in the northern North Sea extend from the Central
Graben north to the Viking Graben and include a thick, rich Upper Jurassic to
basal Cretaceous oil-prone source rock (Cornford, 1990) that charged mostly
UpperCretaceous-Paleocene reservoir rocks in the Central Graben and
Jurassic reservoirs in the Viking Graben (Brown, 1991). The source rock is
named the Draupne Formation in northern Norwegian waters, the MandaI
and Farsund formations in Norwegian and Danish waters, and the
Kimmeridge Clay Formation in U,K. waters, Since the name MandaI
Formation is more widely used in the Central Graben, it is adopted as the
preferred nomenclature in this paper, Exploration of these northern North
Sea oil systems have identified some 4.77 billion m3 (30 billion bbl) of
recoverable oil and natural gas liquids and 3.57 trillion m3 (126 trillion fi3, or
about 21 billion bbl oil equivalent) of gas (Chew and Stephenson, 1986).
The North Sea has yielded a wide variety of hydrocarbons from heavy oil to
dry gas, with most production being a low sulfur, medium gravity crude oil.

The geographic extent of the Mandal-Ekofisk petroleum system in the Central

Graben is defined as the area that includes the hydrocarbon accumulations
originating from the pod of mature MandaI Formation source rock in the
Central Graben as well as the pod of active source rock itself (Figure 33.1).
The oil-prone source rock, the MandaI Formation, is eroded just north of the
Forties field and is preserved in the Central Graben. To the southeast, the
boundary adopted here for the system is arbitrary since both source rock and
maturity extend into the Tail End Graben in Danish waters (Thomsen et aI.,
1987), The adoption of this arbitrary boundary is justified, as in this
southeastern end of the Central Graben, hydrocarbons move with a strong
vertical component following halokinetic or tectonic fracture conduits.

The level of thermal maturity of this source rock varies as shown by Thomas
et al. (1985b), who identified the Cod, Albuskjell, and Ekofisk "kitchens" in
the Central Graben area. These kitchens were named after the nearest rather
than the most significant hydrocarbon occurrence. However, the source rock
between these kitchens is thermally mature and has contributed petroleum
to the overlying reservoir rocks. On this basis, all of the kitchens are part of
the same petroleum system. Although the same thermal maturity pattern
continues into the Witch Ground Graben, Viking Graben, and Moray Firth
basin, the break in the source rock north of the Forties oil field determines
the geographic extent of this system.
The name adopted for this system is Mandal-Ekofisk because the MandaI
Formation (or Kimmeridge Clay Formation on the u.K. side) comprises the oil-
prone source rock, and the Ekofisk Formation within the Chalk Group, which
contains 62% of the system's reserves, is the major reservoir rock. An
excellent oil source rock correlation based on molecular and isotopic
correlations and source rock maturity relationships confirms the genetic
association between the reservoired oils and condensates and source rock
bitumen, bestowing the (!) symbol on this system.
A general stratigraphic review of North Sea geology has been reported in
Glennie (1990a), and details are provided by Ziegler (1982, 1988). Synoptic
reviews of most Norwegian fields are found in Spencer et al. (1987) and of
many u.K. fields in Abbotts (1991). A general account of hydrocarbon genesis
in the Central Graben has been given by Cayley (1987) and Spencer et al.
(1986b).

EXPLORATION HISTORY
The oil and gas fields of the Mandal-Ekofisk petroleum system in the Central
Graben are listed in Table 33.1 with their discovery date, operator, and most
accessible and recent published description. Figure 33.2 shows the history of
exploration in terms of the annual discovery of volumes of in-place oil,
condensate, and gas from 1968 to the present. Based on the discovery well,
early explorers discovered the vast majority of reserves. However, this is
misleading because of individual field size growth. For example, the first of
the five separate acccumulations in the Gannet complex was discovered in
1972, but substantial reserves have been added by subsequent drilling in the
period 1972-1982 (Armstrong et aI., 1987) and these are all attributed to
1972. Exploration in the offshore North Sea started with speculative wells
sparked by the Shell-Esso discovery of the Groningen gas field in the
Netherlands during 1959-1963. Additional successes in the southern gas
province in the 1960s soon followed (Brennand et aI., 1990). These
discoveries, coupled with technological advances in offshore drilling, led to
the first major oil discovery by the Phillips Norway group in December 1969
in the Central Graben (Pekot and Gersib, 1987). Oil was recovered from the
Danian Chalk Group, which wasn later to become the Ekofisk field. A year
later on the UK side, BP discovered oil in Paleocene sandstone to identify the
Forties field, further galvanizing exploration (Carman and Young, 1981).
In fact, the discovery of the Ekofisk field was predated by encouragement
from drill-stem tests that recovered oil from the Danian Chalk Group in the
Anne (now Kraka) field in the Danish offshore area in 1966 and the Valhal
field in the Norwegian offshore area in 1967. In 1968, gas was recovered
from Paleocene deep water sandstone reservoir rock in the Cod field that
straddles the U.K. and Norway offshore boundary. The diversity of age and
lithology of reservoir rocks in this novel petroleum province was hinted at in
this early stage by the discovery in 1971 of oil in Permian and Devonian rocks
in the Auk and Argyl fields, respectively. Few new field discoveries have been
made in the last decade.

BASIN SETTING
The Central Graben developed as a failed rift during the Late Triassic and
Jurassic and lies between the Fenno-Scandian shield to the east and the u.K.
Caledonides to the west. Prior to this time, continental sedimentary rocks
were deposited over basement rocks. This basement is poorly defined, but
drilling to date has identified no significant trapped hydrocarbons in pre-
Caledonide (pre-Devonian?) rocks. Well penetrations to Devonian strata on
the Central Graben flanks have encountered reservoir rocks.

The basement rock of the Central Graben is the preDevonian metamorphic

rocks. The basin fill contains sedimentary rocks that range in age from
Devonian to Holocene and are divided into three sequences: a Devonian-
Middle Jurassic prerift sequence, an Upper Jurassic-basal Cretaceous synrift
unit, and a Lower Cretaceous-Holocene postrift sequence (Figure 33.3).
Figure 33.4 shows the source and reservoir rocks of the Mandal-Ekofisk
petroleum system relative to the stratigraphy and lithology of the Central
Graben. The source rock is the Upper Jurassic to basal Cretaceous MandaI
Formation marine shales, and the major reservoir rock is chalk of the Upper
Cretaceous and basal Tertiary Chalk Group, of which the Ekofisk Formation is
the most productive example. The reservoir sandstones of the Paleogene and
Upper Jurassic are the next most important, while minor reservoir rocks
range in age from Devonian to Triassic-Lower Cretaceous. The seals are often
intraformational. For example, the seal rock for the chalk reservoirs is the
same Upper Cretaceous and basal Tertiary chalk, but in an impermeable
facies. The Paleogene fan and turbidite sandstones are sealed by the
surrounding coeval shales. The Upper Jurassic sandstones are sealed by the
Upper Jurassic mudstones of the MandaI and Farsund formations, while the
Devonian and Permian reservoirs of the Auk and Argyll area are sealed by an
unconformable layer of Upper Cretaceous chalk. Given a single source rock of
Late Jurassic and earliest Cretaceous age and subsequent continuous
sedimentation, the overburden rock was deposited from the Early
Cretaceous to Holocene.

Structural History
When the Central Graben formed is still debated (Ziegler, 1982, 1988; Kooi et
a1., 1989). Generally, it is thought that the crust thinned and domed in the
Middle Jurassic, from which a graben developed in the Late Jurassic. The
thermal sag phase controlled sedimentation from the Early Cretaceous to the
present day (Figure 33.3). This simple case of rift evolution was used by
McKenzie (1978) to develop a general crustal-stretching model, later tested
and refined by Sclater and Christie (1980), Wood and Barton (1983), and
Barton and Wood (1984). A palinspastically restored stratigraphic section is
presented by Thorne and Watts (1989). Subsequent models claim the rift
formed earlier, in the Triassic (Fisher and Mudge, 1990), in Permian (Glennie,
1990c) or in the Carboniferous (Haszeldine and Russell, 1987).
However, all these models accept that the major graben developed during
the Jurassic and that the thickest
Permian-Triassic lay to the east of the younger Central Graben (Figure 33.3).
Structurally, the graben itself is simple, but because of periodic salt
movements during the Early Triassic, Late Jurassic, Late Cretaceous, and
Tertiary, the graben fill is complex (Taylor, 1990). The oil fields in Upper
Cretaceous chalk reservoirs in the southern part of the Central Graben have
developed over salt swells and pillows, with most fields in the entire Central
Graben being affected to some degree by halokinesis. The unusual reservoir
geometry in the Clyde and Fulmar oil fields on the southwestern flank of the
graben demonstrates a subtle influence of halokinesis (Stevens and Wallis,
1991), while the VIa oil field trend on the northeastern flank contains
structural domes associated with salt swells and diapirs (Spencer et aI.,
1986b). The structure of the Tertiary sandstone reservoir of the Cod gas field
also formed in response to underlying salt piercement (D'Heur,1987b).
Based on reflection seismic profiles, a boundary fault occurs along the
southwestern margin of the Central Graben which displaces sedimentary
rocks of Early Cretaceous age and older. Where this boundary fault is
displaced by a series of offset (transfer) faults, oil-bearing structural traps are
found, such as in the Auk and Argyl fields (Gibbs, 1989). The northeastern
Central Graben margin has less definition at the basal Cretaceous because
this flank of the graben is formed by flexure plus a series of smaller dip-slip
faults rather than a single major fault. To the northwest, the fault-bounded
intragraben horst of the Forties-Montrose High has produced structural
traps, or drape closure, at the Paleogene stratigraphic level.
Today, the geologic development of the Central Graben is incomplete. As
pointed out by Nielsen et al.
(1986), the average sedimentation rates of 14 m/m.y. in the Paleocene and
23 m/m.y. in the Eocene-Miocene have accelerated to 100 m/m.y. in the
Pliocene-Pleistocene and to 148m/my in the Quaternary. The differences in
shape of the burial history curves in the various grabens farther north in the
North Sea are described by Cornford and Brooks (1989) in terms of a
southward migration of the locus of deposition with time. This ever
increasing thickness of overburden rock impacts oil and gas generation by
controlling the movement of the oilprone source rock into and through the
oil and gas windows. By modifying basin geometry, it changes migration
paths and trap configurations.
Stratigraphy
Figure 33.4 shows a generalized stratigraphic column for the Central Graben
with the source rocks, reservoir rocks, and field names (see also Table 33.1).
In terms of reservoir rocks, the fields of the Mandal-Ekofisk petroleum
system fall into three main groups: (1) Jurassic, Permian, and Devonian
sandstones and carbonates (pre- and synrift); (2) Upper Cretaceous-Lower
Paleocene chalk (postrift); and (3) Upper PaleoceneEocene sandstones
(postrift). Given the widespread source rock for this petroleum system, the
essential elements and processes controlling the distribution of oils in these
three reservoirs are presented in a temporal way (Figure 33.5).
Basement Rock
Pre-Devonian basement rocks are not penetrated by wells in the Central
Graben. By analogy with the flanking rocks in the United Kingdom and
southern Norwegian onshore area, the basement rocks are preCambrian,
Cambrian-Ordovician, and Silurian sedimentary rocks that were
metamorphosed during the Caledonian orogeny and intruded by late
Caledonian granite.
Prerift Sedimentary Rocks
The prerift stratigraphy of the Central Graben comprises mainly nonmarine
Devonian siliciclastics and Carboniferous sandstones and mudstones,
together with Lower Permian sandstones of the Rotliegendes Group and
Upper Permian evaporites (salts, anhydrites, etc.) of the Zechstein Group.
The Auk and Argyl fields on the southwestern flank of the rift graben have
reservoir rocks of Permian age with ancilliary reserves of Devonian and
Cretaceous age.
The Triassic sequence is dominantly red-bed mudstones and siltstones, with
some sandstones. The Lower Triassic Skagerrak Formation contains minor
reservoir sandstones in the oil fields within the VIa trend (Home, 1987). In
the area of the Josephine oil field, the sandstone in the Middle Triassic
Josephine Member is reported as a good-quality reservoir (Fisher and
Mudge, 1990).
Except for the locally preserved Gassum and Fjerritslev formations, the Lower
Jurassic appears to be missing over most of the area either due to
nondeposition or to erosion. During the Middle Jurassic, the Central Graben
was at least one provenance area for the deltaic Brent sandstone, the major
reservoir rock in the Viking Graben. Within the Central Graben, it is
represented locally by the Bryne Formation, which may contain a gas-prone
source rock.

Synrift Sedimentary Rocks

When the up-doming collapsed and active rifting began in the Upper Jurassic,
the synrift sedimentary rocks accumulated. The significance of the synrift
sediments is that they include the only significant hydrocarbon source rock in
the Mandal-Ekofisk petroleum system (Figure 33.5). From the way they infill
the extensional paleotopography, the Upper Jurassic sequence are
considered the beginning of the synrift sequence (Figure 33.3). Where thin
<Covering the footwalls of the rotated graben blocks), the Upper Jurassic
appears to be a condensed mudstone sequence, rather than having been
uplifted and eroded.
The rift formed a deep water basin that filled with mudstone of the Upper
Jurassic Haugesund, Farsund, and MandaI Formations (Heather and
Kimmeridge Clay Formations of the United Kingdom; Stow and Atkin, 1987).
This mudstone unit includes the only significant oil-prone source rock
recognized in the Central Graben (Cornford, 1990). Source rock deposition
during the Late Jurassic and earliest Cretaceous resulted from the fortuitous
combination of high sedimentation rates of claysized siliciclastic material,
high planktonic productivity in the near-surface water, and development of
an anoxic environment at the sediment-water interface (Figures 33.6A and 0.
The dosing of the oxygenated seaway connecting the Tethyan sea to the
southeast and the Boreal sea to the north resulted in the development of
anoxia during the Late Jurassic within the North Sea grabens and flanking
basins (Figure 33.6B). Evidence for the break in the Tethyan-Boreal
connection from Kimmeridgian to Valanginian time is found in the
development of separate stratigraphies (Figure 33.60). Cessation of
interocean exchange, coupled with deepening of the water in the graben and
flank basin areas, facilitated development of stratified, stagnant water
favoring organic matter preservation.
Locally derived Upper Jurassic coarse-grained siliciclastic sandstones of the
Eldfisk Formation (informally called the Fulmar sandstones in the United
Kingdom) constitute locally important reservoir rocks on the southwestern
flank of the newly formed rift (Table 33.1). Examples are the Fulrnar (Helm et
al., 1990; Stockbridge and Gray, 1991), Duncan (Robson, 1991), and Clyde oil
fields (Stevens and Wallis, 1991). On the Norwegian rift margin, the Ula trend
contains shallow marine sandstones of the Upper Jurassic Ula Formation
(Spencer et al., 1986b; Home 1987; Larter et al., 1990).

Postrift Sedimentary Rock

Subsidence due to cooling of the basement rock along the North Sea graben
axis during the Early Cretaceous reconnected the Tethyan and Boreal water
masses, recreating an oxygenated seaway. During this subsidence, organic-
lean mudstone and siltstone with some sandstone accumulated. Although
reservoir rock of this age is found north of the Central Graben, no significant
commercial accumulations have been reported in the
Valhall, Sola, or Rodby formations. Minor oil production, however, is
attributed to an unusual Albian-Aptian carbonate breccia in the Auk field
(Trewin and Bramwell, 1991). In the Late Cretaceous-early Paleocene, rising
sea level, active phytoplankton (Globigerina) growth in the surface waters,
and continued broad regional subsidence favored deposition of chalk over
the entire Central Graben area. These rocks constitute the most important
reservoir in the Mandal-Ekofisk petroleum system. A fine-grained carbonate
ooze accumulated on the sea floor and, where unstable on the basin flanks,
slumped down from the northeast into the deep water axis of the graben,
where autochthonous, slump, debris flow, and turbidite facies are recognized
(Kennedy, 1987; Taylor and Lapre, 1987). These chalks are major reservoir
rocks (Table 33.1), particularly in the greater Ekofisk area where
synsedimentary slumping fostered the preservation of primary porosity.
Other chalk reservoirs are the Tommeliten, Albuskjell, and West Ekofisk gas-
condensate fields,and the Edda, Ekofisk, Eldfisk, Hod, Tor, and Valhal oil
fields, which ali lie in the southeastern part of the Central Graben (D'Heur,
1986). In addition, the Chalk Group is an important part of the overburden
rock, as its deposition initiated generation of petroleum from the underlying
source rock in the deepest parts of the Central Graben.
The Rogaland Group, deposited during the remainder of the Paleocene and
into the early Eocene, marks a major change in sedimentation from the chalk.
Marine siliciclastic sandstone with some fine mud, often in the form of
submarine fans, was introduced sporadically from the west and northwest
into the graben (Lovell, 1990). Thus, fields with a Rogaland Group sandstone
reservoir all lie in the northwestern part of the Central Graben (Figure 33.1).
It has been suggested that these fans are related to the updoming or
rejuvenation of the Greenland-Caledonian hinterland prior to the opening of
the North Atlantic (Thompson and Gibson, 1991). The sandstones in these
fans are the second most important reservoir horizon of the Mandal-Ekofisk
petroleum system. In addition, the Rogaland Group created additional
overburden rock, burying a wider area of the Mandai Formation and hence
increasing the volume of mature source rock.
A deep water submarine fan has long been accepted as the depositional
model for the Rogaland Group sandstone reservoir rocks. Recognized fan
facies include marine deltaic, shelf-slope, and upper, middle, and lower fan
assemblages (Stewart, 1987). An example of this association is the Forties
field where, paradoxically, the thickest upper and middle fan deposits
unconformably overlie the Forties-Montrose High, presumably a subdued
structure during the Paleogene. Near the base of the section, the Forties field
reservoir sandstone is a turbidite fan that grades to a debris flow toward the
top (Wills and Peattie, 1990). This field developed structural closure from two
processes: (1) rejuvenation of the tectonically positive Forties-Montrose
High, which formed a drape over the previously deposited fan, and (2)
differential compaction of the dominantly interfan mud sequence around the
thick pod of sand (Wills, 1991). The Montrose field represents a middle fan
facies of a stratigraphically older fan system (Crawford et aI., 1991), while the
Cod field accumulated in a more distal fan facies (D'Heur, 1987b). These
fields have reservoirs in submarine fans that run down the axis of the Central
Graben. A separate, lateral submarine fan contains the upper reservoir rocks
of the Gannet field pools, with the South Gannet pool in a proximal position
and the Central and North Gannet pools in middle fan facies (Armstrong et
aI., 1987). The Hordaland Group was deposited during the Eocene-Oligocene.
This dominantly mudstone unit provides additional thickening to the
overburden rock and acts as a seal to the Rogaland Group reservoirs. Oil
shows (but no significant accumulations) in the coarser units of the
Hordaland Group attest to limited vertical migration possibilities. The top of
the Hordaland Group is marked by a regionally extensive Miocene
unconformity (Figures 33.3 and 33.4) (Nielsen et al.,1986). From the late
Miocene to the Holocene, the sedimentation rates of mudstone have
continued to increase (Nielsen et aI., 1986). These mudstones have
significantly thickened the overburden rock, substantially broadening the
area and hence the volume of mature source rock.

MANDAL-EKOFISK(!) PETROLEUM SYSTEM

No previous workers have attempted to discuss the North Sea in general or
the Central Graben in particular in terms of a petroleum system, although
Demaison and Huizinga (1991) in their general review of petroleum system
types established the Central Graben as a vertically drained, high impedance
system. Damtoft et al. (1987) described most elements of the petroleum
system in the Danish Central Trough (Tail End Graben) to the south. The
earliest volumetric calculations were published by Fuller (1975, 1980) for the
entire North Sea petroleum province, and in particular, for basins and
grabens in the northern North Sea. In a paper describing the Valhall oil field,
Leonard and Munns (1987) defined a drainage area and thickness for the
Mandai Formation source rock underlying the field. Using an average of 5-6
wt. %TOC, they estimated post-middle Miocene generation of 3.5 billion m3
of oil, giving an overall efficiency factor for the field of 8% for expulsion,
migration, and entrapment. The temporal relationship of the elements of and
processes in the Mandal-Ekofisk system are discussed later (Figure 33.5).
Petroleum Source Rock
The only significant petroleum source rock recognized in the Central Graben
is the organic-rich shale of the MandaI Formation. In the Central Graben, the
organicrich facies ranges in age from late Volgian to Ryazanian, representing
the upper part of the Kimmeridge Clay-Draupne Formation farther north
(Dore et al., 1985) and being stratigraphically higher than the Kimmeridge
Clay of the u.K. onshore. A study of the Central Graben by Hall and Bjomy
(1991) suggests that the Farsund and Haugesund formations are part of the
same source rock interval (Figure 33.4).
The Mandal Fonnation was deposited in an ann of the northern Boreal sea at
a time when a combination of high surface water productivity, anoxia at
depth, and high sedimentation rate produced an excellent source rock
(Figure 33.6). In the graben areas, the organic matter in this source rock is
mainly type IT kerogen (Demaison et al., 1984; Cooper and Barnard, 1984;
Cornford 1990) and consists mostly of bacterially degraded algal debris with
minor amounts of terrestrial debris, some oxidized. The oil-prone nature of
the organic matter decreases rapidly outside the main Central Graben area,
in particular toward the northeastern Norwegian-Danish flank, where the
more stratigraphically restricted Tau Fonnation is the only oil-prone unit
(Thomsen et al., 1983).

Organic Matter Richness and Type

A histogram showing the range of total organic carbon (TOC) values reported
in the literature on the MandaI Formation of the Central Graben has an
average TOC of 5.5 wt. %(Figure 33.7A). An average TOC of 5-6 wt. % is
reported for a thick mudstone underlying the Valhall field (Leonard and
Munns, 1987), while Cayley (1987) reports an average TOC of 8 wt. % with a
maximum of >15 wt. % for the Central Graben as a whole. Damtoft et al.
(987) contoured average TOC values in excess of 5 wt. % for the northern
sector of the adjacent Danish Tail End Graben. TOC values reported for deep
wells can be substantially lower because expulsion of oil and gas reduces the
residual TOC level, thus a correction must be made (as discussed later). The
local term "hot shale" is used to describe the most organic rich units of the
Upper Jurassic mudstones and is derived from the high natural gamma ray
wireline log response (often in excess of 200 API units). In the MandaI
Formation, this has been shown to originate from the high uranium, thorium,
and potassium contents, with uranium up to 40 ppm in the Central Graben
(Stow and Atkin, 1987). Bjorlykke and Finstad (1975) noted contributions to
the total natural gamma ray response of 61% from uranium (5.27 ppm), 33%
from thorium 00.46 ppm), and 6% from potassium (1.34 ppm) in the MandaI
Formation shales of the Valhall field well N2/ 11-1. Discrete TOC values can
be generalized across the entire source rock section using wireline log
responses (Cornford, 1990). A plot of natural gamma ray response and
measured TOC values from Central Graben wells shows a lower gamma ray
response per unit roc than in the Viking Graben (Cornford, 1990). However,
from the present author's experience, the gamma (or spectral gamma) log
response correlates well with TOC but poorly with kerogen type. Kerogen
type can be determined from the 52 peak from Rock-Eval pyrolysis and TOC,
which are used to calculate the hydrogen index (HI). Plotting the 52 peak
with TOC produces a plot that has a slope of the HI and an intercept on the
roc axis (Figure 33.78). While the slope of the lines represents the inertinite-
free HI, the intercept has been found to represent the amount of dead
carbon or inertinite (plus residual carbon in postmature samples) rather than
the sorptive capacity of the mineral matrix, as claimed by Langford and
BlancValeron (1990). Here, the MandaI Formation kerogens contain 1-3 wt.
%dead carbon. The modified van Krevelen diagram indicates that most
MandaI Formation samples are type II kerogen, with some type I (Figure
33.7C). This designation is confirmed by organic petrography of the MandaI
Formation and other Upper Jurassic North Sea kerogens, where abundant
amorphous liptinite occurs together with minor particulate algal debris,
vitrinite, and inertinite (Cornford, 1990).
The average pyrolysis HI of the MandaI Formation source rock in the Central
Graben is in the range of 50Q-600 mg/g TOC when immature «2 km) and falls
below 100 mg/g TOC by about 5 km (16,400 ft) burial when exhausted
(Figure 33.7D). Maps have been produced of original source rock richness
based on organic petrography and kerogen type (e.g., Demaison et al., 1984;
Cooper and Barnard, 1984), but correction for the effects of maturation on
these parameters is not always made. In some field studies, kerogens are
described as type III when they are probably late mature type II. A study of
the MandaI Formation by Bailey et al. (1990) at 3700-3800 m depth in a
single well in the Ekofisk area shows average pyrolysate values of about 20
kg/t, with values as high as 70 kg/to Using the previous information, an
average immature HI of 550 mg/g TOC and an average TOC value of 5.5 wt. %
give an average potential yield of 30.25 kg/to To a first approximation, this
pyrolysate yield can be taken to represent the gross hydrocarbon yield of the
MandaI Formation source rock.

Source Rock Thickness

The thickness of the source rock interval is difficult to assess because the
sediment filled in the irregular topography produced by the pull-apart and
the movement of the underlying evaporites (Figure 33.8). The rapid changes
in source rock thicknesses are best observed on seismic profiles because
wells are drilled mainly on structural highs and tend to penetrate the thinner
sequences (Figure 33.3). The isopach map of Spencer et al. (1986b) combines
the Upper and Middle Jurassic, but the majority of the section is source rock
(Figure 33.8). For example, Well N2/11-1 encountered about 1200 m (3940
ft) of organic-rich shale (average 5-6 wt. %TOC) at the south end of the
graben axis (Leonard and Munns, 1987). Also, at the north end of the graben
axis to the east of the Gannet field, the source rock reaches at least 922 m
(3025 ft) in thickness. The isopach map of the Kimmeridge Clay and the
Heather Formation of Cayley (1987) shows a major thickening underlying the
Joanne field in the u.K. sector. The southern extension of this source rock is
mapped as the Farsund Formation in the Danish Tail End Graben by Damtoft
et al. (987), where thicknesses up to 1419 m (4656 ft) have been penetrated
with the drill bit still in the formation.
Maturation and Generation
The thermal maturity at the top of the MandaI Formation source rock is best
mapped using the near basal Cretaceous seismic reflector and well control.
Detailed thermal maturity maps in the Central Graben have been made by
Barnard and Cooper (1981), Spencer et al. (1986b), Cayley (1987), and Buhrig
(1989). A synthesis of this information was used to construct the thermal
maturity map in Figure 33.9). This map is based on relating oil and gas
generation levels to vitrinite reflectance values (Table 33.2) using peak oil
generation of 0.6-0.9% Ro. Extrapolation of maturity levels from
weillocations are estimated using reflection seismic data (Figure 33.3)and
Platte River's BasinMod® modeling software. Such modeling requires
stratigraphic, lithologic, geothermal, and thermal maturity information.
Stratigraphy and lithology are combined to generate a burial history diagram
(Figure 33.10A). Before maturity can be calculated, the burial history plot
must have a thermal grid superimposed (Figure 33.10A).

Present-Day Heat Flow

For the Central Graben, the present-day geothermal gradient of 4()"C/km is
known from drill-stem tests and reservoir temperature measurements and
represents a heat flow of 53 mW1m2 (Figure 33.10B; Table 33.1). This value
is consistent with a generalized set of matrix thermal conductivities
attributed to the various lithologies using an exponential compaction
algorithm (Sclater and Christie, 1980). The present-day geothermal gradient
does vary within the Central Graben area (Cornford, 1990), with values
ranging from 35' to 45'C/km. Reworking old data, Thorne and Watts (1989)
attributed values of 1.2-1.4 HFU (heat flow units, Ilcal/cm2 sec, equal to 50-
59 mW1m2) to the Central Graben area. Leadholm et a1. (1985) contoured
heat flow in the northern part of the Central Graben at greater than 1.6 HFU
(67 mW1m2) and geothermal gradients of 35°-40°C/km. These values imply a
very low mean thermal conductivity of 1.67-1.91 WIm "C for the overall
sediment column since heat flow (mW1m2) equals thermal conductivity
(W1m 'C) times the geothermal gradient CC/km), Spencer et a1. (1986b)
report heat flows of 40-45 mWIm2 on the northeastern flank, increasing to
50 mW1m2 in the Central Graben, while much higher values (62-80 mW1m2)
have been reported for the Sole Pit Trough gas area south of 55N latitude
(Oxburgh and Andrews-Speed, 1981). To the south in the Tail End Graben,
low values of 1.10 HFU (46 mW1m2) are modeled for the Lulu-1 well for the
present day, with lower values in the past (Thomsen et al.,1990). Since it is
temperature and hence gradient that is measured, the discrepancies
between the regional heat flow values appear to relate to the wide range of
bulk thermal conductivities used for individual lithologies or for the whole
sedimentary column. On the basis of oxygen isotopes, sea floor temperatures
in the North Sea have changed considerably from the Neogene 08°C) to
subzero temperatures in the Quaternary (Ice Ages), and finally to 6°C for the
present-day interglacial (Table 33.3) (Cornford,1990).

Paleoheat Flow
The paleogeothermal gradient and heat flow are more problematic to
establish than present-day heat flow, but a decreasing heat flow with time
from the Late Jurassic crustal thinning and rift event is thought to have
occurred, As concluded later, a lower heat flow value is used for the Late
Cretaceous and most of the Tertiary to obtain a calibration with measured
thermal maturity values. The model allows the high heat flow of the Middle
Jurassic to dissipate over 60 m.y. (Table 33.3). Due to rapid and accelerating
burial, the present-day thermal maturity of the source rock is insensitive to
preTertiary heat flow and tectonic events. The role of salt (with a high
thermal conductivity) in perturbing a simple heat flow model is poorly
understood, although thermal anomalies have been noted adjacent to salt
diapirs. Calibration with measured thermal maturity parameters is obtained
by taking vitrinite reflectance values from the trends of a number of wells
and relating them by depth to the section modeled with BasinMod (Figure
33.1OC). No acceptable calibration can be obtained using a heat flow of 53
mW1m2 during the Tertiary. A plausible (but not unique) calibration is
obtained by reducing the heat flow to 45 mW1m2 from the late Miocene to
the middle Cretaceous. The depth to the top of the oil window (-3000 m)
(Figure 33.1OA) is generalized over the basin fill using a seismically generated
depth map of the near basal Lower Cretaceous (Spencer et al., 1986a). As
there is little present-day uplift and erosion in the Central Graben, any level
of thermal maturity within the basin fill results from Tertiary and Quaternary
overburden rock (Figure 33.10A). The onset of oil generation in an area
where the source rock is at its deepest burial in the Central Graben is
modeled in Figure 33.10A. The timing of generation at this middle basin
location is shown to be 70-10 Ma (Figure 33.10D), with generation expressed
in terms of cubic meters of hydrocarbon per cubic meter of rock. This
information is displayed on the generation, migration, and accumulation
track in the petroleum system events chart of Figure 33.5.