Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Volume 2014, Article ID 962510, 13 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/962510

Research Article
The Effect of Nanofluid Concentration on
the Cooling System of Vehicles Radiator

M. Ali, A. M. El-Leathy, and Z. Al-Sofyany

Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia

Correspondence should be addressed to M. Ali; mali@ksu.edu.sa

Received 13 March 2014; Revised 23 May 2014; Accepted 25 May 2014; Published 12 August 2014

Academic Editor: Sergio Nardini

Copyright © 2014 M. Ali et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Experimental investigation on forced convection heat transfer is applied to vehicles’ radiator filled with AL2 O3 water nanofluid with
different concentrations: 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% by volume. The experiments are done for three cases, each case corresponds
to different heat load, coolant flow rate, and air flow rate to simulate the vehicle engine cooling system at various loads relevant
to the cooling system of Toyota Yaris 2007. The coolant and air heat transfer coefficients, Nusselt numbers, heat rate lost by the
coolant and absorbed by the air, heat exchanger effectiveness, overall heat transfer coefficients, Reynolds number, and the pumping
power are calculated. Log mean temperature difference (LMTD) and effectiveness-number of transfer units (𝜀-NTU) are used to
determine the outside air heat transfer coefficient. Results show gradual enhancement in the heat transfer with concentrations 0.1%,
0.5%, and 1% by volume (optimum at 1%); however deterioration occurs at concentrations 1.5% and 2%.

1. Introduction challenges. Nanofluids are a new class of solid-liquid compos-

ites consisting of nanometer sized (<100 nm) solid particles
Cooling is one of the most important technical challenges suspended in heat transfer fluids such as water and ethylene
facing numerous industries such as automobiles, electronics, and propylene glycol. Several researchers showed that the
and manufacturing. New technological developments are convective heat transfer coefficient increases substantially for
increasing thermal loads and requiring faster cooling. The nanofluids. The heat rejection requirements of automobiles
conventional methods in increasing the cooling rate (fins and trucks are continually increasing due to the trends toward
and microchannels) are already stretched to their limits. more powerful outputs.
Hence, there is an urgent need for new and innovative Heat transfer directly affects the engine performance, fuel
coolants to achieve this high performance cooling. Ther- efficiency, materials selection, and emission. The benefits of
mal conductivities of traditional heat transfer fluids, such improved heat exchangers and heat transfer devices using
as engine coolants, are very low. With increasing global nanofluids are as follows: reduced weight, which will improve
competition, industries have a strong need to develop energy fuel economy; smaller components, which take up less room
efficient heat transfer fluids with significantly higher thermal under the hood and allow for greater latitude in aerodynamic
conductivities than the available fluids. Also, governmental styling; more effective cooling, and increased component life.
agencies (in some countries) like the Environmental Pro- Additionally, mining activities will be lower as less metal is
tection Agency are imposing more stringent criteria for required, minimizing the environmental impact and saving
pollution and automobile emissions. The new coolants with energy in metal production. By reducing the size, the solid
their higher thermal performance could reduce the overall waste disposal problem is diminished at the end of the useful
size of heat exchanger/radiator and may decrease vehicle life cycle of heat transfer systems. Masuda et al. [1] have
fuel consumption. Nanofluids are a novel concept. They obtained improvement in the thermal conductivity and vis-
are heat transfer fluids containing suspended nanoparticles, cosity of liquid by dispersing ultrafine particles and reported
which have been developed to meet more demanding cooling that the addition of 4.3 vol.% AL2 O3 nanoparticles to water
2 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

increases the thermal conductivity of the nanofluid by 30%. investigation of heat transfer in confined laminar radial flows
The use of particles of nanometer dimension was first studied using alumina/water nanofluid was reported by Gherasim
by a research group at the Argonne National Laboratory. et al. [13]. Their results have shown that heat transfer was
Choi and Eastman [2] have shown that the innovative new enhanced with the use of this type of nanofluid and the mean
class of heat transfer fluids can be engineered by suspending Nusselt number was found to increase with particle volume
metallic nanoparticles in conventional heat transfer fluids. fraction and Reynolds number. Recently, Peyghambarzadeh
They have also shown that the resulting nanofluids are et al. [14, 15] have reported an experimental study on forced
expected to exhibit high thermal conductivities compared to convective heat transfer in a water based nanofluid compared
those of currently used heat transfer fluids. Their theoretical to that of pure water in an automobile radiator. Their results
results of the thermal conductivity of nanofluids using copper have shown that, for fully turbulent regime, application of
nanoparticles in water have indicated the potential benefits of nanofluid with low concentrations of 1 vol.% can enhance the
using such nanofluids. Choi and Eastman [2] were probably heat transfer efficiency up to 45% in comparison with pure
the first (up to our knowledge) who called fluids with particles water.
of nanometer dimensions “nanofluids.” Compared with sus- For the sake of verifying and comparing the present
pended particles of millimeter-or-micrometer dimensions, experimental results for pure water the following conven-
nanofluids show better stability and rheological properties tional correlations for predicting the channel heat transfer
and dramatically higher thermal conductivities. Recently, coefficient for laminar flow are cited.
modern technology makes it possible to produce a variety of
stabilized nanofluids. Because of their excellent characteris- (a) Sieder-Tate correlation (cited in [16]):
tics, the nanofluids find wide applications in enhancing the 0.14
heat transfer, even for microscale heat transfer as reported Re2 ⋅ Pr2 ⋅ 𝐷𝐻,2 1/3 𝜇2,𝑚
Nu = 1.86 ⋅ ( ) ⋅( ) . (1)
by Lee and Choi [3]. Application of nanoparticles provides 𝐿2 𝜇2,𝑤
an effective way of improving heat transfer characteristics of
fluids (Eastman et al. [4]). Particles < 100 nm in diameter This correlation has been recommended by Whitaker [17] for
exhibit properties different from those of conventional solids. the value of {[Re2 ⋅ Pr2 /(𝐿 2 /𝐷𝐻,2 )]1/3 (𝜇2,𝑚 /𝜇2,𝑤 )0.14 } ≥ 2.
Compared with micron sized particles, nanophase powders
have much larger relative surface areas and great potential for (b) Shah and Sekulic correlation (cited in [18]):
heat transfer enhancement. Lee et al. [5] worked on 4.3 vol.%
AL2 O3 nanoparticles in water similar to Masuda et al. [1] but 2𝑎 2𝑎 2
Nu = 8.235 [1 − 10.6044 ⋅ ( ) + 61.1755 ⋅ ( )
did not find similar enhancement of thermal conductivity. 2𝑏 2𝑏
One of the reasons for this behaviour was believed to be the
size of the nanoparticles; the size in Masuda’s experiment was 2𝑎 3
− 155.1803 ⋅ ( ) + 176.9203 (2)
13 nm, whereas in Lee’s experiment it was 33 nm. Eastman 2𝑏
et al. [6] used nanofluid containing 0.3 vol.% copper nanopar-
2𝑎 4 2𝑎 5
ticles (Cu) with mean diameter ≈10 nm and ethylene glycol ⋅( ) − 72.9236 ⋅ ( ) ] ,
as the base fluid. This nanofluid showed a higher thermal 2𝑏 2𝑏
conductivity than that of the base fluid. Choi et al. [7] showed
that nanofluids have the potential to be the next generation where 2𝑏/2𝑎 is the aspect ratio of the channel. This correla-
of coolants for vehicle thermal management due to their tion was developed for laminar flow in smooth rectangular
significantly higher thermal conductivities. channel.
Wang et al. [8, 9] have showed that for louver fin-and-tube
(c) Stephan correlation [19]:
heat exchanger configuration, the heat transfer characteristics
for multirow coils may benefit from using smaller heat 1.33
transfer tube especially for frontal velocity of 1.5 m/s. They 0.0677 ⋅ (Re2 ⋅ Pr2 ⋅ 𝐷𝐻,2 /𝐿 2 )
Nu = 3.657 + 0.3
. (3)
also proposed a generalized heat transfer correlation for 1 + 0.1 ⋅ Pr2 ⋅ (Re2 ⋅ 𝐷𝐻,2 /𝐿 2 )
louver fin geometry using conventional fluid. Correlations for
predicting the air-side heat transfer coefficient of the auto- This correlation was developed for laminar flow in circular
mobile radiator, with and without electric field, at frontal air channel with 0.7 < Pr < 7 or Re ⋅Pr ⋅ 𝐷/𝐿 < 33 for Pr > 7.
velocity were developed by Vithayasai et al. [10] using water
as a coolant medium. Ma and Liu [11] have showed that using (d) Shah and London correlation (cited in [18]):
nanoliquid metal as a highly conductive heat transfer fluid
resulted in a higher radiator temperature, which significantly 0.0244 0.448 0.0000269
Nu = 3.04 + + −
improved the heat transfer between the radiator and the 𝑧∗ (2𝑏/2𝑎) (𝑧∗ )2
surrounding air. An experimental study was done on using (4)
0.02 0.000678
aluminium oxide nanofluid with various concentrations as a + 2
− ∗ ,
coolant in a diesel electric generator by Kulkarni et al. [12]. (2𝑏/2𝑎) 𝑧 ⋅ (2𝑏/2𝑎)
They have shown that the efficiency of the waste heat recovery
𝜋 𝐿2
heat exchanger increased for nanofluid, due to its supe- 𝑧∗ = ⋅( ), (5)
rior convective heat transfer coefficient. An experimental 4 Re2 ⋅ Pr2 ⋅ 𝐷𝐻,2
Advances in Mechanical Engineering 3

From all the sensors

Power supply (80 amps) Expansion
Twall tank
Air in
Variable
transformer
(variac) Data acquisition system
Watt
meter Heat exchanger

W
Watt
Tin Pin Tout Pout meter

W
+
Fan
Heating element
−
M
Air out
Pump
DC motor
controller

Pump
Flow meter motor

Fan DC power
motor supply

Pressure
W sensors
M

DC motor Watt
controller meter

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up.

where 2𝑏/2𝑎 is the aspect ratio of the channel. They tabulated max output (rpm)) because it has a relatively small engine
the numerical results in terms of 𝑧∗ and the aspect ratio for with a cooling system which is easier to simulate. The
handling of entrance region effects where the local averaged schematic diagram of the experiment is shown in detail in
Nusselt values were put in terms of Taylor series expansion. Figure 1. The coolant is heated with eight heating elements
submerged in the heating tank. It is cooled at the plate fin
(e) Hausen correlation (cited in [16]): heat exchanger with an expansion tank provided as seen in
0.8 Figures 2(a), 2(b), and 2(c). Thermocouples and pressure
0.19 ⋅ (Re2 ⋅ Pr2 ⋅ 𝐷𝐻,2 /𝐿 2 )
Nu = 3.66 + 0.467
. (6) transmitters were installed at different positions in the system
1 + 0.117 ⋅ (Re2 Pr2 ⋅ 𝐷𝐻,2 /𝐿 2 ) to measure the instantaneous local temperature and pressure.
Their signals were connected to a data accusation system
This correlation was developed for laminar flow in circular and stored in a computer with 3 sec intervals (time steps).
channel for constant surface (wall) temperature condition. A small Dc-powered magnetic drive centrifugal pump and
The current study presents experimental investigation Dc-powered fan assembly are provided. The coolant flow
of the forced convection heat transfer through the heat rate was measured with the help of a flow meter (combined
exchangers (car radiator) of Toyota Yaris 2007. In this study submerged orifice disk and variable area flow meter). The
nanofluids with five different concentrations are used as a electrical power to the heaters is measured by a wattmeter and
coolant through the inner tubes of the heat exchangers. the air velocity is measured by an anemometer. To simulate
the vehicle engine at various loads, three heating elements
2. Experimental Apparatus are used with variable coolant flow rates as seen in Table 1.
In addition to that five Al2 O3 -water nanofluid concentrations
Experimental setup was built to study the effect of using are used with each load, namely: 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2%
Al2 O3 water nanofluid as a coolant in vehicle radiators. by volume.
The main components of the experiment are the vehicle
radiator in a closed loop circuit and a variable heat source 3. The Tested Fluid
to simulate the vehicle engine at various loads. Toyota Yaris
2007 cooling system was chosen (engine size/cylinder = The alumina nanofluid (Al2 O3 dispersed in water) used in
1.3 L/4, fuel: petrol, max output = 62 kW, engine speed for the present study is supplied by the Nanostructured and
4 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Table 1: Vehicle load simulations.

Heating elements (2 kw each) Coolant flow rate m3 /sec Air flow rate m3 /sec
Load 1 16 kw (8 heating elements) 0.000250 0.223
Load 2 12 kw (6 heating elements) 0.000208 0.188
Load 3 8 kw (4 heating elements) 0.000167 0.149

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2: Main components of the experiments. (a) The heaters and their housing presenting the variable power supply, (b) the plate fin heat
exchanger (car radiator), and (c) the expansion tank.

Amorphous Materials, Inc. (USA) in 20% mass concentration the same nanofluid characteristics were used by Ali et al.
form. The manufacturer specifications of this nanofluid are [22, 23] and Zeitoun and Ali [24, 25] for studying natural
as follows: the average nanoparticle size = 10 nm, dynamic convection heat transfer inside vertical circular enclosures
viscosity = 40 CP (at 20∘ C), and it looks as a transparent liquid heated from below or above and for nanofluid impingement
with PH value of 4.5 and purity of ≥ 99.9%. The manufacturer jet, respectively.
nanofluid of 20% mass concentration is diluted to 0.1%, 0.5%,
1%, 1.5%, and 2% by volume using distilled pure water. These 4. Experimental Data Analyses
new diluted solutions were ultrasonically vibrated for 4 to
6 hours using the ultrasonic vibrator to insure complete The car radiator used in this study is of louvered fin and
dispersion of the nanoparticles. The following equations were flat tube as shown in Figure 3. It consists of 98 vertical tubes
used to estimate the nanofluid properties (Williams et al. made of aluminium, the height of the radiator (tube height)
[20]): 𝐿 1 = 0.360 m, the length 𝐿 3 = 0.632 m, the width (outer tube
width) 𝐿 2 = 0.016 m, the thickness of the fin is 𝑡1 = 0.05 mm,
𝜌 = 𝜙𝜌𝑝 + (1 − 𝜙) 𝜌𝑏 , (7) the fin height or distance between the coolant passage in the
heat exchanger 𝑏1 = 5 mm, the fin pitch 𝑃𝑓 = 1.25 mm,
𝜙𝜌𝑝 𝐶𝑝 + (1 − 𝜙) 𝜌𝑏 𝐶𝑏
𝐶= , (8) the number of air passages NP1 = 99, the tube thickness
𝜌 𝑡2 = 0.15 mm, and the tube inside length 𝑏2 = 1.2 mm.
Using the simulated coolant flow rate shown in Table 1 with
𝑘 = 𝑘𝑝 (1 + 4.5503𝜙) , (9) a total number of 98 tubes, it turns out that the flow rate
4.91𝜙 is laminar inside the tubes. It should be mentioned that the
𝜇 = 𝜇𝑏 exp ( ), (10) hydraulic diameters of the coolant and air sides are used
0.2092 − 𝜙 as characteristic lengths in determining the Reynolds and
Nusselt numbers for both coolant and air sides. The coolant
where 𝜙 is the nanoparticles volumetric concentration. The
side heat transfer rates are given as follows:
relation between mass concentration 𝜒 and volumetric con-
centration 𝜑 can be estimated from the following equation 𝑄𝑐 = 𝑚̇ 𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 (𝑇𝑐𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 ) = ℎ𝑐 𝐴 𝑐 (𝑇𝑚𝑐 − 𝑇𝑤 ) . (12)
and from (7):
Therefore, the inside heat transfer coefficient of the coolant ℎ𝑐
1 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)
= + . (11) can be obtained as follows:
𝜌 𝜌𝑝 𝜌𝑏
𝑚̇ 𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 (𝑇𝑐𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 )
Nanofluid density is measured using DMA 35N den- ℎ𝑐 = , (13)
𝐴 𝑐 (𝑇𝑚𝑐 − 𝑇𝑤 )
sity meter. The conversion between the mass fraction 𝑥
and the volume fraction 𝜙 is done through the bulk den- where 𝑚̇ 𝑐 , 𝐶𝑝𝑐 , 𝑇𝑐𝑖 , 𝑇𝑐𝑜 , 𝑇𝑚𝑐 , 𝑇𝑤 , and 𝐴 𝑐 are the coolant flow
sity of alumina (≈3970 kg/m3 ). The thermal conductivity, rate, specific heat of the coolant, coolant inlet, coolant outlet,
expansion coefficient, and specific heat of the nanoparticles coolant mean temperature, inside wall temperature, and the
are 40 W/mK, 0.0000085 1/K, and 765 J/kg K, respectively coolant inside surface area, respectively. Since the tube wall
(Ghasemi and Aminossadati [21]). It should be noted that is very thin and has a high thermal conductivity then it is
Advances in Mechanical Engineering 5

Louver Fin thickness t1 = 0.05 mm

L 3 = 632 mm Material: AL
b2 = 1.2 mm
3.1 mm b1 = 5 mm
In Tube, NP2 = 98

Pf = 1.25 mm Material: AL

Thickness t2 = 0.15 mm
L 1 = L f = L = 16 mm b1 = 5 mm
2
360 mm
Top view Front view

b1 t1

Pf
Out
Louver fin

Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the louvered fin car radiator showing the dimensions and the number of tubes.

assumed that the outside tube wall temperature is equal to et al. [14]), the overall heat transfer coefficient is calculated
the inside wall temperature. The inside Nusselt number of the by two different procedures to analyze the performance of
coolant is the car radiator at the air side. The first method is the log
mean temperature difference (LMTD) and the second is the
ℎ𝑐 𝐷ℎ𝑐
Nu𝑐 = , (14) effectiveness-NTU approach. Since the overall heat transfer
𝑘𝑐 coefficient 𝑈 obtained by both methods should be equivalent
then a comparison will be made between them to see the
where 𝐷ℎ𝑐 is the hydraulic diameter of the coolant. Further- percentage experimental error.
more, the physical properties of the coolant are calculated at
the mean coolant temperature:
4.1. Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) Method. The
𝑇𝑚𝑐 = 0.5 (𝑇𝑐𝑖 + 𝑇𝑐𝑜 ) . (15) performance of the car radiator is analyzed using the log
mean temperature difference method defined as follows:
The inside tube thermal resistance of the coolant is defined as 𝑄ave = 𝑈𝐴𝐹Δ𝑇lm , (19)
𝑅𝑐 = 1/(𝐴 𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ). The heat gained by the air can be calculated
by where 𝑈 is the overall heat transfer coefficient, 𝐴 is the surface
area, and 𝐹 is the correction factor applied to the value of
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚̇ 𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑎 (𝑇𝑎𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎𝑖 ) , (16) Δ𝑇lm that is computed under the assumption of counter flow
conditions. Consider the following:
where 𝑚̇ 𝑎 , 𝐶𝑝𝑎 , 𝑇𝑎𝑖 , and 𝑇𝑎𝑜 are the air flow rate, specific Δ𝑇1 − Δ𝑇2
heat, inlet air temperature, and air outlet temperature, respec- Δ𝑇lm = , (20)
tively. The mathematical average heat transfer rate (following ln (Δ𝑇1 /Δ𝑇2 )
Vithayasai et al. [10]) is where Δ𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑐𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎𝑜 , Δ𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎𝑖 , and the correction
factor is defined by [27]
𝑄ave = 0.5 (𝑄𝑐 + 𝑄𝑎 ) . (17)
ln [(1 − 𝑅𝑆) / (1 − 𝑆)]
𝐹= , (21)
It should be mentioned that for an ideal case, the heat released (1 − 1/𝑅) ln [1 + 𝑅 ln (1 − 𝑆)]
by the coolant should equal the heat absorbed by the air. where 𝑅 and 𝑆 are defined as
However, this was never achieved due to many factors as heat (𝑇𝑎𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎𝑖 )
leakages and experimental errors. This difference can be put 𝑅= ,
in a heat balance equation (Siddiqui et al. [26]) as follows: (𝑇𝑐𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 )
(22)
𝑄𝑐 − 𝑄𝑎 (𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
Heat balanceave = [ ] × 100. (18) 𝑆= .
𝑄ave (𝑇𝑎𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
Then the overall heat transfer coefficient is obtained by using
The maximum average heat balance percentages range is (19), (20), and (21) as follows:
6.95% which is in the acceptable range (±15%) as defined by
𝑄ave
ASME PCT 30-1991. Since it is hard to measure accurately 𝑈= . (23)
the surface temperature of the radiator (Peyghambarzadeh 𝐴𝐹Δ𝑇lm
6 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

It should be mentioned that if 𝐴 is used either as the total Table 2: Experimental uncertainty.
coolant inner surface area of the tubes or the total outer
surface area for the air side then the obtained 𝑈 presents the Quantity Range (%)
coolant side or the air side overall heat transfer coefficient, 𝑄𝑎 2.9%
respectively. Using the air side overall heat transfer coeffi- 𝑄𝑐 2.7%
cient, then the outside (air) heat transfer coefficient can be Re 2.9%
obtained as follows: 𝜀 7.2%
1 Nu𝑎 13.61%
ℎ𝑎 = , (24)
1/𝑈 − 𝐴 𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑐 − 𝐴 𝑎 ∗ 𝑅cond Nu𝑐 11.18%
𝑓 14.1%
where 𝑅cond = 𝑡2 /𝑘𝐴 cond is the tube material resistance and 𝑃 12.8%
𝐴 cond is the normal area used in Foureir’s law and given by
𝐴 cond = [2.0 ∗ 𝑏2 + 2.0 (𝐿 2 − 2.0 ∗ 𝑡2 )] ∗ 𝐿 1 ∗ NP2. (25)
Other symbols are given in Figure 3. Therefore, the outside 5. Experimental Uncertainty
air Nusselt number can be given as The experimental uncertainty in the calculated results is
ℎ 𝐷 estimated on the basis of the uncertainties in the primary
Nu𝑎 = 𝑎 ℎ𝑎 . (26) measurements. The temperatures are measured by thermo-
𝑘𝑎
couple with accuracy of ±0.75∘ C. All used thermocouples
The radiator effectiveness is defined as follows: were thoroughly calibrated by the use of constant temperature
𝑞 water bath. The pressure transducers or pressure transmitter
𝜀 = avr , (27) sensors (Silicon on Sapphire (SOS), PXM 4202-010BG5V)
𝑞max
with accuracy ±0.25% of full scale and 10 ms response time as
where 𝑞max is the maximum heat transfer rate that could provided by the manufacturer (Omega, USA) were calibrated
possibly be delivered by the radiator and is defined as follows: by the factory with accuracy of 0.0015 bar. The flow rate
𝑞max = 𝐶min (𝑡𝑐𝑖 − 𝑡𝑎𝑖 ) , was calibrated by a stop watch and graduated container
(28) with the accuracy of ±0.375 LPM taken from the manual.
𝐶min = 𝑚𝑎̇ 𝐶𝑝𝑎 , The velocity of air through the radiator was measured by
anemometer with accuracy of ±0.0567 m/s taken from the
where 𝐶min is the minimum heat capacity rate. The pumping manual. The accuracy in measuring the voltage is taken
power of the coolant can be obtained from the pressure loss from the manual of the wattmeter as 0.5% of the reading
of the coolant across the radiator as follows: ±2 counts with a resolution of 0.1 V and the corresponding
𝑚̇ Δ𝑝 one for the current is 0.7% of reading ±5 counts +1 mA
𝑃 = 𝑐 𝑐, (29) with a resolution of 1 mA. Error analyses are carried out by
𝜌𝑐 𝜂𝑝
calculating the measurement error following the standard
where the coolant pressure loss Δ𝑝𝑐 is defined as normal distribution curve (Gaussian). At each experimental
run, three hundred scans of each sensor were made by
𝐿 𝑐 𝜌𝑐 V𝑐2 the data acquisition system and uncertainties are calculated
Δ𝑝𝑐 = 𝑓 , (30)
2𝐷ℎ𝑐 for each primary measurement. Using the above mentioned
errors turns to maximum itemized uncertainties of calculated
where 𝑓 is the friction factor.
results shown in Table 2 using the method recommended by
Moffat [29]. The experimental repeatability is checked using
4.2. The Effectiveness-NTU Approach. The overall heat trans- load one for pure water and it is found to be 8%.
fer coefficient 𝑈 is obtained using the following relationship
of effectiveness 𝜀 and the number of heat transfer units (NTU)
(Kays and London [28]) for mixed unmixed fluids. Consider 6. Results and Discussion
the following:
6.1. Pure Water Coolant. Before conducting experiments on
1
𝜀 = ( ∗ ) [1 − exp (−𝐶∗ (1 − exp (−NTU)))] , (31) nanofluid in the radiator, some experiments are done with
𝐶 pure water as a coolant in order to check the reliability,
𝑚̇ 𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑎 accuracy, and repeatability of the experimental setup and
𝐶∗ = , also to be used as a reference for the following experiments.
𝑚̇ 𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 The temperature of the coolant entering the radiator is about
(32)
𝑈𝐴 97∘ C and that of the outlet is about 86∘ C (with Δ𝑇 ≅
NTU = . 11∘ C) for all three loads shown in Table 1 which is about
𝑚̇ 𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑎
the same as that in the original cooling system of Toyota
Using (27), (31), and (32), the overall heat transfer coefficient Yaris. Comparison is made between the experimental data
𝑈𝐴 can be obtained. Following (24), (25), and (26), the air for pure water and five well-known empirical correlations
side Nusselt number can be obtained. as shown in Figure 4, these five relations are presented by
Advances in Mechanical Engineering 7

5.5 14000
Load 1

5.0
12000

Load 2
Nu w

4.5

Q (W)
10000

4.0
Load 3
8000

3.5

6000
3.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020
Load 𝜙

Present results Shah and London [18] Heat lost by the coolant
Sieder-Tate [16] Hausen [16] Heat gained by the air
Shah and Sekulic [18] ±5%
Stephan [19] Figure 5: Heat transfer rate from the coolant at different loads for
different volume fraction. Nanofluids showing the optimum volume
Figure 4: Experimental results for pure water in comparison with fraction where heat transfer rate is maximum.
existing literature.

1500

(1), (2), (3), (4), and (6). In Figure 4 reasonably excellent

agreement is clearly seen between Sieder-Tate (cited in [16])
and Shah-Sekulic [20] correlations with the experimental
data for pure water for three loads shown in Table 1 with 1400
absolute average error within ±5%. The comparison with the
other correlations presented by Stephan [19], Shah-London Load 1
hc (W/m2 K)

[20], and Hausen (cited in [16]) also agreed very well with the
present experimental data and is with absolute average errors 1300 Load 2
+20%, −18%, and +15%, respectively. Load 3

6.2. Nanofluid Coolant. Figure 5 shows the rate of lost heat

transfer from the coolant and that gained by the air for three 1200
different loads as shown in Table 1 versus the nanofluid con-
centrations. This figure shows that the heat released from the
radiator increases as the nanofluid volume fraction increases
up to a specific value then decreases. The reason for that could 1100
be attributed to increasing the thermal conductivity as the 0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020
volume fraction increases, which increases the heat transfer 𝜙
from the coolant to the surrounding fins then to the air.
However, as the volume fraction increases more the viscosity Figure 6: Coolant side heat transfer coefficient at different loads
of the coolant increases too therefore, it will be a competition showing the optimum at 𝜙 = 1%. Dashed lines showing values at
pure water.
between increasing both the thermal conductivity and the
viscosity. High viscosity of the nanofluid makes the random
motion of the nanoparticles in the fluid (Brownian motion)
disappear [30] and it is believed that the enhancement of locus of these maximums at different loads. It should be
the thermal conductivity is indirectly function of Brownian noted that the air side Reynolds number is constant at each
motion [31–34] consequently, the heat released from the load and unaffected by the variation of nanoparticles volume
radiator decreases. It is also remarkable that the optimum fraction. The percentage increase of the coolant heat transfer
volume fraction occurred at 1% where the heat released is shown in Table 3 for different loads and concentrations.
reaches its maximum. The vertical dashed line connects the This table shows that the maximum increase of 𝑄𝑐 is 14.79%
8 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Table 3: Percentage increase of ℎ𝑐 and Nu𝑐 for different nanofluid concentrations 𝜙 at different loads.

𝜙
Percentage increase of ℎ𝑐 , Nu𝑐 , and 𝑄𝑐 Load
0.001 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
(ℎ𝑐 − ℎ𝑤 )/ℎ𝑤 1 7.07 8.73 14.72 6.87 5.33
(Nu𝑐 − Nu𝑤 )/Nu𝑤 1 6.52 6.11 9.51 0.002 −3.61
(𝑄𝑐 − 𝑄𝑤 )/𝑄𝑤 1 7.07 8.66 14.79 6.80 5.40
(ℎ𝑐 − ℎ𝑤 )/ℎ𝑤 2 3.15 9.05 13.29 4.46 4.91
(Nu𝑐 − Nu𝑤 )/Nu𝑤 2 2.91 6.70 8.19 −2.28 −3.90
(𝑄𝑐 − 𝑄𝑤 )/𝑄𝑤 2 3.15 9.13 13.38 4.46 1.82
(ℎ𝑐 − ℎ𝑤 )/ℎ𝑤 3 6.44 11.84 13.46 11.35 10.20
(Nu𝑐 − Nu𝑤 )/Nu𝑤 3 6.00 9.16 8.34 4.06 0.80
(𝑄𝑐 − 𝑄𝑤 )/𝑄𝑤 3 10.80 11.84 13.66 11.36 10.20

Table 4: Percentage increase of ℎ𝑎 and Nu𝑎 for different nanofluid concentrations 𝜙 using LMTD and NTU methods at different loads.

𝜙
Percentage increase of ℎ𝑎 and Nu𝑎 Load 0.001 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
LMTD NTU LMTD NTU LMTD NTU LMTD NTU LMTD NTU
(ℎ𝑎 − ℎ𝑤 )/ℎ𝑤 1 6.73 6.86 8.22 8.29 14.07 14.45 8.00 8.08 2.65 2.89
(Nu𝑎 − Nu𝑤 )/Nu𝑤 1 6.60 6.73 7.75 7.82 13.57 13.94 7.83 7.92 2.38 2.63
(ℎ𝑎 − ℎ𝑤 )/ℎ𝑤 2 11.39 11.57 10.61 11.92 11.86 13.19 4.42 4.43 1.87 1.48
(Nu𝑎 − Nu𝑤 )/Nu𝑤 2 11.32 11.48 10.46 11.76 11.28 12.59 4.27 4.27 1.81 1.41
(ℎ𝑎 − ℎ𝑤 )/ℎ𝑤 3 10.47 10.80 10.96 11.13 12.59 12.90 10.60 10.76 7.90 7.97
(Nu𝑎 − Nu𝑤 )/Nu𝑤 3 10.67 10.96 10.57 10.69 12.17 12.45 10.16 10.29 7.53 7.59

4.6 at the base fluid (pure water) of zero concentration for

comparison with the other concentrations corresponding to
each load. Figure 7 shows the Nusselt number of the coolant
Load 1 for three different loads versus coolant Reynolds number.
4.4
Load 2 The Nusselt number profiles increase up to a maximum
then deteriorate as the concentration increases for the same
reasons described earlier in Figure 5. Table 3 shows the
4.2
Nu

percentage increase of the coolant heat transfer coefficients

ℎ𝑐 and Nu𝑐 over that of pure water at different nanofluid
concentrations. Both ℎ𝑐 and Nu𝑐 reach their maximum values
Load 3 of 14.72% and 9.51%, respectively, at load 1 for concentration
4.0
𝜙 = 0.01. Furthermore, the overall heat transfer coefficient
obtained by either (23) or (32) corresponds to LMTD or NTU
method, respectively; using the surface area of the coolant
3.8 side is shown in Figure 8. This figure shows a good matching
𝜙 = 0.0 between the two methods of calculation with minimum
𝜙 = 2% errors appearing at higher loads. It also shows that the
3.6 maximum value occurs at 1% concentration of nanofluid.
400 600 800 1000 Similar results are obtained for the overall heat transfer
Re (coolant) coefficient using the air surface area in (23) and (32) as seen
in Figure 9. It should be noted that the overall heat transfer
Figure 7: Coolant side Nusselt number verses Reynolds number for coefficient on the air side is much lower than that of the
three loads at different concentrations showing the optimum values. cooling side because of the large surface area involved at
that side. Results also confirm the compatibility of using
the LMTD or the NTU method in calculating the overall
which occurs at load 1 and at 𝜙 = 0.01. Figure 6 shows the heat transfer coefficient. Figure 10 shows the air side heat
coolant heat transfer coefficient for three different loads. It transfer coefficient ℎ𝑎 for three different loads using the two
is clear that for any fixed load, the maximum heat transfer different approaches for different concentrations. It is clear
coefficient occurs at 1% concentration of nanofluid and it that the heat transfer coefficient increases as the nanofluid
increases as the load increases. The horizontal dashed lines concentration increases up to 𝜙 = 0.01 then it decreases as 𝜙
show the corresponding values of heat transfer coefficient increases for each load. Table 4 shows the percentage increase
Advances in Mechanical Engineering 9

240

Load 1

200

U coolant side (W/m2 K)

Load 2

160

Load 3
120

80
0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020
𝜙
NTU method
LMTD method

Figure 8: The coolant side overall heat transfer coefficient using two different approaches at three different loads showing the optimum at
𝜙 = 1%.

50 60

Load 1
55 Load 1

50
40
U air side (W/m2 K)

Load 2
45 Load 2
ha (W/m2 K)

40

30
Load 3 35

Load 3
30

20 25
0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020
𝜙 𝜙
NTU method
LMTD method NTU method
LMTD method
Figure 9: The air side overall heat transfer coefficient using two
different approaches at three different loads showing the optimum Figure 10: Air side heat transfer coefficient at different loads using
at 𝜙 = 1%. two different approaches showing the optimum at 𝜙 = 1%.

of the outside air heat transfer coefficients ℎ𝑎 and Nu𝑎 over methods and they reach their maximum values of 14.45 and
that for pure water at different nanofluid concentrations using 13.94, respectively, at load 1 for 𝜙 = 0.01 using the NTU
the LMTD and the NTU method. This table shows that the method. Figure 11 shows the increase of the air side Nusselt
numerical values for ℎ𝑎 and Nu𝑎 are almost matching for both number for various concentrations and loads using the two
10 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

4.5 1000

8 Load 1
4.0
Load 1 Load 2
6
Load 3
3.5
4
Load 2

Re
Nu a

3.0

2.5 2
Load 3 Load 1
2.0 Load 2

Load 3
100
1.5
0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020
𝜙 𝜙
NTU method Coolant side
LMTD method Air side
Figure 11: Air side Nusselt number at different loads using two
different approaches showing the optimum at 𝜙 = 1%. Figure 13: Comparison between the coolant and the air side
Reynolds numbers at different loads.
5.0
Load 1
Load 2
Load 3 than that of the air side. Figure 13 shows the Reynolds number
profiles for different loads and concentrations for the air and
4.0 Load 1 coolant. It should be noted that the volume flow rate of the
coolant is fixed for each load but it differs from load to load
as seen in Table 1. The effectiveness of the radiator is shown
Load 2 in Figure 14 where it increases as the nanofluid concentration
3.0
Nu

increases up to a maximum value at 𝜙 = 0.01 than it decreases

as 𝜙 decreases for each load. The coolant pumping power
at different concentrations and loads is shown in Figure 15
Load 3 where it increases as the concentration increases due to
2.0 the increase in pressure loss for fixed load and it also increases
as the load increases.

7. Conclusions
1.0
0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 Experimental study is reported to simulate the Toyota Yaris
𝜙 2007 cooling system (radiator) using nanofluid with different
Air side concentrations and at different loads. Results show that heat
Coolant side transfer by the coolant increases as the nanofluid concentra-
tion increases up to 𝜙 = 0.01 by volume where it reaches its
Figure 12: Comparison between the coolant and the air side Nusselt optimum value. Beyond that it deteriorates as the concentra-
numbers at different loads. tion increases. It has also shown that the heat transfer by the
coolant increases at higher loads. The coolant and air heat
transfer coefficient reach their maximum at 𝜙 = 0.01 and
different approaches LMTD and NTU. This figure indicates beyond that they decrease as the concentration increases. The
that the maximum Nu𝑎 occurs at 𝜙 = 0.01 for each load maximum percentage increase of the coolant heat transfer
and deteriorates as the nanofluid concentration increases. rate, coolant heat transfer coefficient, and coolant Nusselt
Figure 12 shows a comparison between the Nusselt number number is 14.79, 14.72, and 9.51, respectively, which occurs
of the coolant and air side at different loads and nanofluid at maximum load 1 and at 𝜙 = 0.01. The maximum values
concentrations. It is clear that the coolant side Nu𝑐 is higher of air side heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number also
Advances in Mechanical Engineering 11

0.540 Nomenclature
𝐴: Area
0.520 𝑎/𝑏: Aspect ratio of the channel
𝑏: Fluid passage in the heat exchanger
𝐶min : Minimum heat capacity rate
0.500 Load 1 𝐶𝑝: Specific heat at constant pressure
𝐷ℎ𝑐 : Hydraulic diameter of the coolant
Load 2
𝑓: Friction factor
0.480 ℎ: Heat transfer coefficient
𝜀

𝑘: Thermal conductivity coefficient

𝐿: Flow length in the heat exchanger
0.460 Load 3
𝑚:̇ Flow rate
Nu: Average Nusselt number
NP2: Coolant tube number
0.440
𝑃: Pumping power of the coolant
𝑝: Pressure
0.420
Pr: Prandtl number
0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020
𝑅: Thermal resistance
𝜙 𝑅: Coefficient defined by (22)
Re: Reynolds number
Figure 14: Effectiveness of the coolant at different loads for different 𝑄: Heat transfer rate
volume fraction. Nanofluids showing the optimum volume fraction 𝑆: Coefficient defined by (22)
where effectiveness is maximum. 𝑇: Temperature.

Greek Letters
0.45
Load 1
𝜀: Effectiveness
0.40
𝜂𝑝 :
Pump efficiency
Load 2
𝜌: Density
0.35 𝜑:
Pumping power (W)

Nanoparticles volume fraction

(volumetric concentration)
0.30 Load 3 𝜒: Nanoparticles mass fraction (mass
concentration)
𝜇: Dynamic viscosity (N⋅sec/m2 )
0.25 Δ: Deferential.

0.20
Subscripts

0.15
𝑎: Air
ave: Average
0.10 𝑐: Coolant
0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 cond: Conduction side
𝜙 𝐹: Correction factor
lm: Log mean temperature difference
Figure 15: Coolant pumping power at different loads for different 𝑖: Inlet
volume fraction. Nanofluids showing the continuous increase of the 𝑜: Outlet
pumping power as the volume fraction increases. 𝑚: Mean value
max: Maximum
𝑈: Overall heat transfer coefficient
𝑤: Wall condition.
occur at the same load and concentration and have 14.45%
and 13.94% increase over that of the base fluid, respectively.
Beyond that they deteriorate as the concentration increases. It Conflict of Interests
is recommended that the optimum nanofluid concentration
to be used for heat transfer enhancement of the radiator The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests
cooling system is 𝜙 = 0.01. regarding the publication of this paper.
12 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Acknowledgments [14] S. M. Peyghambarzadeh, S. H. Hashemabadi, M. S. Jamnani,

and S. M. Hoseini, “Improving the cooling performance of auto-
The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of mobile radiator with Al2 O3 /water nanofluid,” Applied Thermal
Scientific Research at King Saud University for funding this Engineering, vol. 31, no. 10, pp. 1833–1838, 2011.
work through the research group project no. RGP-VPP-080. [15] S. M. Peyghambarzadeh, S. H. Hashemabadi, S. M. Hoseini,
and M. Seifi Jamnani, “Experimental study of heat transfer
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