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Overview of Electric Vehicle Concept and Power Management Strategies

Conference Paper · November 2014

DOI: 10.1109/CISTEM.2014.7077026

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 AN OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE CONCEPT
AND POWER MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Dr. Chokri MAHMOUDI Dr. Aymen FLAH Pr. Lassaad SBITA

SPEG Research Unit SPEG Research Unit SPEG Research Unit Director
ENIG National School of Engineering, ENIG National School of Engineering, ENIG National School of Engineering,
University Of Gabès, TUNISIA University Of Gabès, TUNISIA University Of Gabès, TUNISIA
Email: Chokri.mahmoudi@gmail.com Email: dr.aymen.flah@ieee.org Email: lassaad.sbita@enig.rnu.tn
Cell: (+216) 50 911 920 Cell: (+216) 21 104 838 Cell: (+216) 98 660 023

Abstract – Power management in electric Vehicle has been

revolutionized since the old power structure introduced with first
EVs. Today, it can be powered either by a single or a combination
of multiple sources and driven by a single or a combination of
multiple algorithms. This enhancement contributes in significantly
better results.
This paper reviews state-of-art on electric vehicle concept giving
description for each sub-category, and then details power
Fig1. Degree of Electrification
management strategies and charging techniques highlighting main
problems and solutions. Finally, power management structure and Mainly, there are three main types of electric vehicles;
future research direction are also discussed [1].
BEV - AEV
Keywords: Electric Vehicle, Power Management, charging The All Electric Vehicle (AEV) or Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)
techniques, multiple sources. uses high capacity batteries and electric motor for propulsion
(Fig2.a). It derives all the power from its batteries pack and has no
internal combustion engine, neither fuel cell, nor fuel tank. The
I-INTRODUCTION only way to recharge its batteries is by plugging in the vehicle to a
charging point [31, 4-8]. This is the case of Chevy Spark and the
In recent years, many existing automobile manufacturers and new Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric.
dedicated companies have put a remarkable effort in transforming
the conventional vehicle into an Electric Vehicle that provides
HEV / PHEV
green and reliable solution. In terms of market share, EV demand is The second type is the Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) that uses
raising [2]. It starts replacing conventional vehicle In USA, Europe mechanically a combination of Electric Motor (EM) in low speeds
and Asia. With revolutionized perspective and competitive price dedicated for in-city traffic and a conventional Internal Combustion
(Entry range), EV is a smart choice for any end user, however, an Engine (ICE) to be used outside urban areas (Fig2.b). When ICE
extra effort is required to enhance the range of autonomy and vary mode is activated, the EM stops and batteries start charging using
applications [3]. an alternator driven by the same equipped ICE. The HEV get an
upgrade to the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV), it includes
Organization of This Paper actually a new battery charging system that can be fed externally.
The remainder of this paper proceeds as follows. Section II The combustion engine works as a backup when the batteries are
formulates the state-of-art on electric vehicle, power management depleted and the driver cannot have a break for charging. Porsche
including hardware and software levels explanation, charging announced the new Panamera Plug-in S E-Hybrid that replaces the
techniques and standards and finally introduces to multi power old Panamera Hybrid offering more driving responsiveness and
source architecture for EVs. Section III is devoted to discuss power vehicle performance [11, 12].
management low architectures and high control algorithms.
Finally, Section IV includes a discussion of power management
REEV
and future research. The main third type is the Extended Range Electric Vehicles
Resume of various research efforts in BEV/HEV are provided in (EREV or REEV); in this structure (Fig2.c), vehicle propulsion is
this paper. driven only by an electric motor powered by high capacity
batteries. These batteries are maintained charged by a small engine-
generator unit. Its small consumption, less than two liters of fuel at
II-STATE-OF-ART 100km, offers an extended range of autonomy and distance to be
reached [5, 11]. The latest REEV introduced to the market this year
The Electric Vehicle concept: are the all-new 2014 Cadillac ELR, the AUDI A1 e-Tron and
Jaguar’s Limo-Green series.
An electric drive vehicle, or simply electric vehicle (EV), is a
vehicle based on one or multiple motors (electric or traction) to
FCEV
ensure propulsion. The degree of electrification varies from one In addition to these three main types, Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
vehicle to another. In fig1, EVs are classified through a scale from (FCEV) has been introduced to perform long distances. It uses a
zero (0=Conventional vehicle) to one (1=Full Electric Vehicle) fuel cell system to power its on-board electric motor (Fig2.d).
Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells generally called Polymer
______________________________________________________ Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells used in FCEVs use
978-1-4799-7300-2/14/$31.00 ©2014 IEEE hydrogen fuel stored onboard and oxygen from the air to produce
electricity. As long as a fuel is supplied FCs continue to generate A mild HEV is basically a traditional vehicle with an oversized
electricity, similar to conventional ICEs [5,13, 27]. However, fuel starter, also allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car
cells are much cleaner; they convert fuels directly into electricity is braking, coasting, or stopped then restart the moment the
via an electrochemical process that does not need combustion. The accelerator pedal is pressed. To achieve this operation, the motor is
generated power from a fuel cell stack depends on the number and often mounted between the engine and the transmission,
size of the individual fuel cells that comprise the stack and the substituting for the torque converter when needed, and providing
surface area of the Polymer Electrolyte Membrane. A fuel cell additional power when accelerating. In micro HEVs, also known as
vehicle that is fueled with hydrogen emits only water and heat. By start & stop vehicles, the engine is turned off during braking or at
providing clean, high-efficiency, reliable green transportation stop to avoid idling operation, and the starter motor is used to start
facilities, FCs have become important technology in development the engine when the driver presses the accelerator pedal.
of electric vehicles [9,10].
In addition, fuel cells are being developed for buses, boats, Both mild and Micro HEVs include minor features of HEVs and
motorcycles, and many other kinds of vehicles. The latest FCVs to therefore usually achieve only limited fuel savings [17,19].
be introduced to the market later next year are the all-new
Mercedes-Benz B-Class F-CELL, Honda FCEV-Concept and
Hyundai Tucson-ix35 FCEV.

Fig.2: Simplified drivetrain architectures of main Electrical Vehicles: (a): Battery Electric Vehicle (b): Hybrid Electrical Vehicle (c): Range Extended
Electric Vehicle (d): Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle

SEV
Solar electric vehicle (SEV) is an electric vehicle powered energy management system (EMS) with electric power through a
importantly or completely by direct solar energy. Through solar charge controller.
arrays installed on top of the vehicle, often photovoltaic (PV) cells,
solar energy is converted directly into electric energy. Since SEVs structure has been exploited in Solar Buses. Both all-solar
converted solar energy is the only source, it powers all or part of bus such as the TINDO project that is operating as free public
SEV's propulsion, electronics, communication, navigation, security transport service in Australia and Hybrid Solar Bus that uses solar
and other auxiliary features [2]. Sensors provide assistance to the energy to power electronics, video monitoring system, air
driver similar to conventional vehicles. Here, gathered conditioning and auxiliary functions, meanwhile, traction is
informations allows monitoring the car's energy consumption, solar ensured by a HEV structure [25].
energy capture and other parameters. SEVs can be equipped with a
battery pack assistance to ensure continuous driving during shaded
days or night use giving an extended range of autonomy to the
users.
Practically, SEV can reliable in some uses when vehicle operates
relatively little but spends most of the time parked in the sun, such
as golf carts, Single-track vehicles or specific target; Solar Race
Challenges: competitions taking place in all over the world are to
promote research on solar-powered cars. The German Power Core
Suncruiser, Japanese Kaitu II and the Australian eVe are most
remarkable solar race cars.

Commercially, Photovoltaic modules are used as auxiliary power

units for different EVs specially PHEV application. Depending on
the powertrain structure, solar panels usually feed batteries or

Fig3. Improved sunroof for SEVs takes advantage CPV technology

 Fig4. Simplified drive train architecture of Solar Electrical Vehicle. Fig5. C-max SEV charging technique involving Concentrating Photovoltaic
panels (CPV) and concentrating parking lenses.
Main disadvantage of pure solar electric vehicles is sun relatability.
Solar arrays installed on top can’t provide sufficient amount of
electric power within a short time. Today’s solar cells technology Some marine applications include SEV structure too; The low
limits the possibilities we can explore in a SEV. Despite its power density current of solar panels limits the use of solar
improvement compared to first generation PV panels, new propelled vessels, however boats that use sails (which do not
Concentrating Photovoltaic panels (CPV) have 29% panel generate electricity unlike combustion engines) rely on battery
efficiency, nearly double that of an average PV panel and have power for electrical appliances (such as refrigeration, lighting and
advanced temperature management which keeps cells at top communications).
performance in high temperature [34]. Here solar panels have become popular for recharging batteries as
they do not create noise, require no fuel and often can be
An interesting variant of the electric vehicle the PHEV that has seamlessly added to existing deck space.
solar panels as well to assist: The 2010 Toyota Prius model has
introduced mounted solar panels on the roof as auxiliary source. Solar energy is also used in the air. Solar ships can refer to solar
This technique has been improved and enhanced in the 2014 Ford powered airships or hybrid airships. They are considered as
Cmax. An arbor of 23m² equipped with Fresnel lenses to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs); solar power would enable these
concentrate solar radiation, and increase up to 8 times the electrical to stay aloft for months, becoming a much cheaper means of doing
power produced by the photovoltaic cells of C-Max. The concept some tasks done today by satellites. The Swiss solar-powered
C-Max has become the first plug-in hybrid can recharge its battery aircraft Solar Impulse plans to make a circum-navigation of the
without being plugged in, even if it may still be in case of necessity globe in 2015.
[33].

Tab.01 – Comparing major available VEs: Advantages & Disadvantages

TECHNOLOGY ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Reduced fuel consumption and emissions; Possibility to Higher initial cost; Component availability; Build complexity involving
(HEV) recover energy from regenerative braking two power trains (Transmission Energy loss).
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Important grid connection potential; Reduced fuel Higher initial cost; Build complexity involving two power trains
Vehicle (PHEV) consumption and emissions; Optimized performance; (Transmission Energy loss); Component availability; High cost of
Possibility to recover energy from regenerative braking; batteries and battery replacement; Added weight to be taken in
100% zero-emission capability. consideration.
Battery Electric Vehicle Use of cleaner electric energy; Zero emissions Vehicle; Short distance range; Battery technology still to be improved; Public
(BEV) battery recharging (Overnight or equipped Parking); recharging infrastructure to be improved.
Possibility to recover energy from regenerative braking;
Lower operational costs; Quiet operation.
Fuel Cell Electric Zero emissions (Water & Heat only); Very high energy Higher initial cost; Hydrogen generation and onboard storage security
Vehicle (FCEV) efficiency compared to conventional ICE; Recovered problems; Availability and affordability of hydrogen refueling stations
energy from regenerative braking; No dependence on (infrastructure to be improved); Standards development in progress;
petroleum Scalability for mass manufacture;
Solar Electric Vehicle Able to utilize their full power at any speed, do not require Don’t have speed or power that regular cars have, can operate only in
(SEV) any expense for running, quite, requires very low sun (unless batt. assisted), A good solar powered car is expensive.
maintenance, no harmful emissions.

Power management:
Control strategies for hybrid-electric vehicles generally target Major challenge of energy management system (EMS) in an
several simultaneous objectives. The primary one is the electric vehicle is to assure optimal use and regeneration of the
minimization of the vehicle fuel consumption, while also total energy in the vehicle. Regardless of number of sources, the
attempting to minimize emissions and to maintain or enhance powertrain configuration, at any time and for any vehicle speed, the
drivability. To date, the power management (PM) system in EVs is control strategy has to determine the power distribution between
basically formed by two layers; High level software-based different energies. When two storage systems or two fuel
supervision and low level hardware-based control which can be converters are available additional power distribution between the
divided into two control layers low level component and low level RESSs and between the fuel converters has to be determined.
control. Both hardware and software control layers works together These decisions are constrained by two factors. First of all, the
to optimize PM system in EVs [3,4]. motive power requested by the driver must always be satisfied up
to a maximum power demand already known. Then, charge status management results, increase vehicle performance and robustness,
must be maintained within, allowing the vehicle to be charge and reduce energy loss in transmission [2,4,6].
continuously. [15-17]

Generally, there are 6 transfer architectures in BEV; the first is the

conventional drivetrain with clutch (Fig4.a). The vehicle is
equipped and Energy Storage System (ESS) that delivers electrical
energy to the main EM through a power converter. The mechanical
energy provided reaches the front wheels through a quite long way;
a clutch, a gearbox and a differential. In second type (Fig4.b), the
clutch is deleted and the gearbox is replaced with a fixed gear
transmission unit while the entire architecture remains the same.
This little enhancement simplifies the driveline configuration and
reduces the size and weight of transmission system [20,21]. By
following the same logic, a third configuration (Fig4.c) offers a
further simplification. It groups the electric motor, the single-gear
box and the differential in same level with wheels. The BEV is
lighter and mechanical transmission losses become minimal. The
need to enhance the cornering performance in BEVs, each wheel
gets its own fixed gearing and own electric motor. Thus, it is
possible to operating different speeds. In some other configuration,
the wheels were exploited. In-wheel application reduces even more
Fig.6: Power management control layers in EV [1] weight and complexity. Here, vehicle operates in direct drive
without a drive shaft; wheels are equipped with the fixed gearbox
A-Hardware Level: and driven directly by Ems. The same architecture is kept in final
Power management control design starts with the hardware level, configuration but with more use of in-wheel application. The EM is
more precisely with vehicle power train which is a must in every built right in the wheel and the drive train is reduced to zero. Each
EV [19]. Presented in different approaches and combinations, the EM receives power from a dedicated power converter feed by the
only purpose in power train design is to obtain optimal power Energy Storage System.

Fig.7 Main drivetrain architectures of BEV: (a): Conventional Drive train (b): Single-gear transmission architecture (c): Integrated single-gear and
differential architecture (d): Separated EM and fixed gearing architecture, (e): Fixed EM and gearing architecture, (f): in-wheel drive architecture.
For HEV, mainly 4 architectures are available and aiming different By combining the previous configurations (Fig5.c), the Parallel-
vehicle purposes; Parallel Drive Train configuration (Fig5.a) Series Drive Train is figured out; the ICE supports the EM in
allows both ICE and EM to access transmission in parallel via similar way to parallel mode, however, it keeps providing electric
couplers [2]. Thus, electric vehicle is equipped by two separated power through linked generator [8].
propulsion powers in two different drive lines. The way motor and In final architecture (Fig4.d), by replacing the generator in previous
engine participate will be discussed later in further details. vehicle structure and adding a second power converter to store
The second architecture is Series Drive Train (Fig5.b). Only the electrical energy in-car produced in battery, HEV become more
EM accesses the transmission shaft. Meanwhile, the ICE is to controllable and efficient[2].
generate electrical power but not to support the EM in
transmission. The generated electric power is led to power Both, HEV and BEV architectures use DC/AC converters to
converter before reaching Battery Pack and EM [6]. control electric motors feeding and DC/DC converters to manage
two way energy transfer for battery charging or use [1,9].

Fig.8: Main drivetrain architectures of HEV: (a): Parallel structure HEV (b): Series structure HEV (c): Series-Parallel structure HEV (d): Complex
structure HEV

B-Software Level:
Although DP can yield a global optimal solution in closed form,
In high supervisory Power Management Layer (PML), many for many problems, a complete solution by DP is impossible [19,
algorithms have been developed. Depending on powertrain 34, 36].
architecture, mainly five techniques proved reliability and
delivered intended results Offline Power Management Control Online Power Management Control Algorithms
(PMC) Algorithms, Online PMC Algorithms, Rule-Based PMC
Algorithms and Learning PMS Algorithms and GPS-Enhanced MPC: Model predictive control (MPC) relies on prediction models
PMC Algorithms [16, 19, 21]. to obtain a control action by solving an online optimization
problem over a finite horizon. It is often used in constrained
Offline Power Management Control Algorithms regulatory related control problems of large scale multivariable
systems, where the objective is to operate the system in a certain
Optimization Criteria: Stochastic optimal control of complex desired way[19, 24].
dynamic systems is a present fact in engineering. The problem is
formulated as sequential decision making under uncertainty, where Pontryagin’s Minimum Principle and ECMS: One of the principal
a controller is faced with the task of selecting actions in several procedures in solving optimization problems is to derive a set of
time steps to efficiently achieve the system’s long-term goals [19, necessary conditions that must be satisfied by any optimal solution.
24, 28]. These conditions become sufficient under certain convexity
DP: Dynamic programming (DP) has been generalized as the main conditions on the objective and constraint functions. Optimal
method to analyze sequential decision-making problems, such as control problems may be regarded as optimization problems in
deterministic and stochastic optimization and control problems, infinite-dimensional spaces, and thus, they are substantially
mini-max problems, and other varied problems. While the nature of difficult to solve [12, 19].
these problems may vary widely, their underlying structure is
similar to each other and has two principal features: an underlying Rule-Based Power Management Control Algorithms
discrete time dynamic system whose state evolves according to
given transition probabilities that depend on the decision taken at Rules Based (RB) method relays on expert experience base to
each time and a cost function that is additive over time [19, 30, determine fine adjustments to be applied in PMC algorithm. The
34,35]. PMC strategy can be based on fuzzy logic, decentralized adaptive
logic, or even new set of rule based PMC algorithms [19, 20, 22].
Smart / Learning Power Management Control Algorithms

To optimize EV efficiency, PMC algorithms include a learning

mechanism that allows improving performance over time, every
single reaction of the driver is considered including driving style,
sprint, breaking style, and distances driven. All these collected
informations build a database specific to the user driving style and
there are PM adjustments communicated to driving parameters.
This has a major impact on fuel economy and system
responsiveness [20].

GPS enhanced Power Management Control Algorithms

These algorithms are to enhance PMC algorithms using

information received from a Global Positioning System (GPS).The Fig. 9 Multi power supply architecture for EV
algorithm uses data and loads corresponding topography of the
road and operates according to preconfigured driving style to Fig. 6 presents the framework of a multi-power supply system for
minimize fuel consumption. These enhancement algorithms are electric vehicles. A power management unit based on smart
using driving pattern recognition to automatically select a control algorithms manages the sources and performs combinations or
algorithm from a bank of six optimized representative driving timing between them to obtain optimal vehicle responsiveness and
modes using artificial neural networks (ANNs) battery health. This power is transferred to a regular motor control
unit witch drives the vehicle.

Multi power source architecture:

Charging Techniques and Standards:
Many factors can affect the EV performance, such as size, purpose
of use, environment, driving style (sporty, soft, moderate or There are four key standards related to safety, installation and
combined). All these factors may lead to a deep and quick connection of the Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE) to
discharge rate of the battery and its damage. the EV; UL 2594, UL 2231, SAE J1772, and NEC Article 6252.
To keep it healthy and guide it to a slow discharge even when a EVs typically charge from conventional power outlets or dedicated
heavy load is on demand, the electric vehicle is powered by a charging stations, a process that typically takes hours, but can be
combination of multiple sources [3, 6, 13]. done overnight and often gives a charge that is sufficient for
normal everyday usage. To date, mainly three charging techniques
The main element is the batteries. Most of the electric vehicles are available.
use Lithium ion battery. Lithium ion batteries are environmentally
friendly and have higher energy density, longer life span, and Conductive charging, this is a direct electrical connection
higher power density than conventional battery [3].They have wide (typically through an insulated wire/cord set) between the source
application in electric vehicles and other electronics. Since large and the charging circuitry. The circuitry and its controls may be
number of Lithium-ion batteries used in series in electric vehicles housed within the vehicle or external to it. All new EVs are
so there arises the problems of safety, durability, thermal compatible with this approved standard. There are three modes of
breakdown and cost, which limits the application of the Lithium EV charging;
ion battery.[6] Some electric vehicles use other kinds of batteries In Standard mode, AC Level 1 supplies 120V single phase power
such as Plumb-Acid, Nickel-Cadmium, and lithium-polymer. The at up to 12 Amps. For example, a Nissan Leaf with its battery
selection of a battery is based on many criteria, such as energy, charge totally depleted would take about twenty hours to
weight, lifetime, price, voltage, size [6, 7]. completely recharge.
Meanwhile, Semi-Quick mode provides up to 3 phases 32A current.
To obtain a power boost, super capacitor is used. It has the It takes much shorter time to charge electric vehicles compared to
characteristics between a capacitor and a battery. It can release a standard charging.
large charge in a short period. A super capacitor bank is hence And finally, Quick mode uses a specialized fast charger connected
adopted to supply instantaneous charge to assist the main battery in to a high powered electrical source; the high power greatly reduces
heavy consumption. The super capacitor, under management, can charging time. Nevertheless, it requires infrastructure investment,
be charged by the main batteries [11, 9]. spaces and extra costs. It is suitable for emergency charging
purpose [6].
Recently, many manufacturers accorded more attention to solar
panels. They will provide the power management system with an The actual charge time will vary based on the charge level and
auxiliary electric energy to be used later for battery charging or condition of the batteries
electronics power supplying [4, 5].
Inductive charging: No wiring is required; instead the energy is
In order to recover kinetic energy lost in vehicle breaking electric transferred between the charger and the "Paddle" inside the
vehicles can also save energy in stop and go driving through vehicle's inlet via a magnetic field generated by a high AC current.
regenerative breaking. In this technique, the Electric motor is used Inductive charging is still expensive and complicated to set up for
as a generator converting the kinetic of the vehicle's motion back to end user.
electric energy, rather than dissipating it as heat in the breaks. The
regenerative breaking can recover 50% to 80%of the kinetic energy Batteries swapping: Instead of recharging EVs from electrical
for later use. This is especially valuable for vehicles that stops and socket, batteries could be mechanically replaced in a couple of
start frequently like buses and in-city BEVs [2]. minutes in some special stations. Here battery size and geometry
should be standardized in order to relay on Battery swapping
For BEVs and PHEVs, Grid Power is the main energy source. It technique.
allows charging batteries and super capacitors. Many charging
modes are available with enhanced charging time.
 III- DISCUSSION ON POWER MANAGEMENT sharing; the vehicle will be able, not only to learn from its own
experience, but also from other EVs’ experience with a
The choice of the appropriate topology requires preliminary comprehensive breakthrough communication system and a cloud
understanding of vehicle use purposes study of driving cycles, experience database.
vehicle size and weight, desired performance, and type of
application. Once the topology has been set, the second step is the
design of an energy management control (EMC) strategy which is
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