CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE

2.1. Literature Review

The development of electric vehicles began over a century ago around 1834.
The electric vehicle powered by a battery was developed by Thomas Davenport (Chau
& Wong, 2002), this was even before the creation of ICE which is makes use of diesel
and gasoline fuel. But its development was halted because they were not very
convenient at the time due to their weight and also took very long time to recharge. And
again, by the year 1911, they were more costly than ICE.
Due to concerns over depletion of fossil fuels and pollution factor, attention has
been shifted back to development of vehicles driven by alternative fuels. Nowadays,
millions of electric vehicles ply the roads and car manufacturers are improving on the
technology for optimum efficiency and cost reduction. This has called for constant
research and work on one of the very important components of the EV which is the
battery charger.
In recent years, several charger topologies have been researched and proposed.
Recently, Kisacikoglu et al proposed a double stage EV charger which consists of a
full-bridge ac-dc boost 5 converter with half-bridge dc-dc converter. It was proposed
with emphasis on reactive power support (Kisacikoglu, Kesler, & Tolbert, 2015).
In another study, Bolte et al designed and proposed a 2KW isolated on-board
dc-dc converter for power distribution systems in electric vehicles. In the work, a hard-
switching buck converter is designed in the first stage for voltage control while a SRC
for isolation transformer is designed for second stage (Bolte, Froehleke, & Boecker,
2016).
Several researches have been carried out on mainly investigating EV chargers
with bi-directional topology for PEVs (Yilmaz & Krein, 2013). Other studies have
surveyed different EV chargers, both single-phase and three-phase ac–dc converter
topologies which are appropriate for vehicle to grid applications (Erb, Onar, & Khaligh,
2010).
 5

There have also been many works presented on different topologies of resonant
converters which also find applications in EV. R. Severns proposed different topologies
for resonant converters (Severns, 1992). In his work, Rani et al also analyzed the design
of full bridge SPRC for battery chargers (Rani, Samantaray, & Dash, 2013). And many
LLC resonant converters have been designed at the dc-dc stage for electric vehicle
battery chargers.
It should be noted that most designs and implementations in the articles and
researches undergo different scientific investigation and evaluation of several
topologies while a few connect their survey by way of comparative analysis of
topologies so as to emphasis the different applications befitting for each topology
presented. The analysis in this paper aim to tread on a similar path by undergoing a
comparative analysis of two proposed EV charger with one being an improvement on
the second stage topology of the previous and looking at the strength and weaknesses
of both topologies.

2.2. Types of Electric Vehicles

There are four types of electric vehicles available:
• Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV): Fully powered by electricity. These
are more efficient compared to hybrid and plug-in hybrids.
• Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV):
o Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV): The vehicle uses both the
internal combustion (usually petrol) engine and the battery-
powered motor powertrain. The petrol engine is used both to
drive and charge when the battery is empty. These vehicles are
not as efficient as fully electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles.
o Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV): Uses both an internal
combustion engine and a battery charged from an external socket
(they have a plug). This means the vehicle’s battery can be
charged with electricity rather than the engine. PHEVs are more
efficient than HEVs but less efficient than BEVs.
• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV): Electric energy is produced from
chemical energy. For example, a hydrogen FCEV.
 6

2.2.1. Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)

BEVs are also known as All-Electric Vehicles (AEV). Electric Vehicles using
BEV technology run entirely on a battery-powered electric drivetrain. The electricity
used to drive the vehicle is stored in a large battery pack which can be charged by
plugging into the electricity grid. The charged battery pack then provides power to one
or more electric motors to run the electric car. The main components of BEV are
Electric motor, Inverter, Battery, Control Module, Drive train. The working principle
of BEV is the power for the electric motor is converted from the DC Battery to AC. As
the accelerator is pressed, a signal is sent to the controller. The controller adjusts the
speed of the vehicle by changing the frequency of the AC power from the inverter to
the motor. The motor then connects and leads to the turning of wheels through a cog.
If the brakes are pressed, or the electric car is decelerating, the motor becomes an
alternator and produces power, which is sent back to the battery. Some examples of
BEV are Tesla Model 3, Nissan Leaf, Chevrolet Bolt, Audi e-tron, BMW i3, MG ZS.

Figure 2.1. Battery Electric Vehicle

2.2.2. Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

HEVs are also known as series hybrid or parallel hybrid. HEVs have both
engine and electric motor. The engine gets energy from fuel, and the motor gets
electricity from batteries. The transmission is rotated simultaneously by both engine
and electric motor. This then drives the wheels. The main components of HEV are
 7

Engine, Electric motor, Battery pack with controller & inverter, Fuel tank, Control
module. The working principle of HEV is the fuel tank supplies energy to the engine
like a regular car and the batteries run on an electric motor. Both the engine and electric
motor can turn the transmission at the same time. Some examples of HEV are Toyota
Prius, Honda Insight, Ford Escape Hybrid, Hyundai Ioniq Hybrid, Lexus RX Hybrid.

Figure 2.2. Hybrid Electric Vehicle

2.2.3. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)

The PHEVs are also known as series hybrids. They have both engine and a
motor. You can choose among the fuels, conventional fuel (such as petrol) or alternative
fuel (such as bio-diesel). It can also be powered by a rechargeable battery pack. The
battery can be charged externally.
PHEVs can run in at least 2 modes:
• All-electric Mode, in which the motor and battery provide all the car’s energy
• Hybrid Mode, in which both electricity and petrol/diesel are employed
The main components of PHEV are Electric motor, Engine, Inverter, Battery,
Fuel tank, Control module, Battery Charger (if onboard model). The working principle
of PHEV is to start-up in all-electric mode and make use of electricity until their battery
pack is depleted. Once the battery gets drained, the engine takes over, and the vehicle
operates as a conventional, non-plug-in hybrid. PHEVs can be charged by plugging into
an outside electric power source, engine, or regenerative braking. When brakes are
applied, the electric motor acts as a generator, using the energy to charge the battery.
 8

The engine’s power is supplemented by the electric motor; as a result, smaller engines
can be used, increasing the car’s fuel efficiency without compromising performance.
Some examples of PHEV are Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV, Ford Escape PHEV, BMW
330e, Toyota Prius Prime, Kia Optima PHEV.

Figure 2.3. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

2.3. Electric Car Construction

Electric cars contain on-board charger (OBC), battery management system
(BMS), HV batteries, DC to DC converter, inverter, electric motor (EM).

2.3.1. On-board Charger (OBC)

An onboard charger (OBC) is a device that converts AC power from external
sources, such as residential outlets or grid power, to DC power to charge the battery of
an electric vehicle (EV). The OBC communicates with the vehicle controller and the
charging station to determine the proper amount of current and power, and the correct
charging standard to be applied. The OBC also enables bidirectional charging modes,
meaning it can also convert DC power from the battery to AC power to support other
loads or devices.
The capacity of the OBC is a key factor in determining the vehicle’s charging
time. There are two primary types of onboard chargers: single-phase and three-phase.
The capacity of a standard single-phase OBC is 7.2 kW to 11 kW, while a three-phase
 9

OBC has a capacity of 22 kW. The fastest charging option available is DC fast charging,
which bypasses the OBC altogether to provide direct current to the battery. However,
AC charging is gentler on batteries, so the increased capacity that the three phase OBCs
provide can help minimize battery degradation.
The OBC also has various safety and security features, such as shutting off
power if the load exceeds operating limits, creating a separation between external and
internal components, and ensuring a cybersecure connection between the vehicle and
the grid.

Figure 2.4. On-board Charger in EV

2.3.2. Battery Management System (BMS)

Battery management system (BMS) is technology dedicated to the oversight of
a battery pack, which is an assembly of battery cells, electrically organized in a row x
column matrix configuration to enable delivery of targeted range of voltage and current
for a duration of time against expected load scenarios.
The oversight that a BMS provides usually includes:
• Monitoring the battery
• Providing battery protection
• Estimating the battery’s operational state
• Continually optimizing battery performance
• Reporting operational status to external devices

2.3.3. High Voltage Batteries

High voltage batteries are widely used in electric vehicles (EVs) to power the
vehicle’s electric motor. These batteries provide the energy required to propel the
vehicle and offer a range comparable to conventional fuel-powered vehicles. High
voltage battery, also known as high voltage energy storage system, are rechargeable
batteries that are capable of operating at voltages exceeding the typical range of
 10

conventional batteries. While traditional batteries typically operate at voltage levels of

less than 12 volts, high voltage battery can operate at voltages ranging from tens to
hundreds of volts. This increased voltage capacity makes them suitable for powering
devices and systems that require higher energy and power output.

Figure 2.5. High Voltage Batteries in EV

2.3.4. DC-DC converter

DC-DC converter is an electronic device that is helpful for DC voltage
conversion to other levels, higher or lower, according to circuits and project
requirements. It is a basic part of power supplies that changes the voltage value to
operate different applications that need either low or high DC voltage. It is the main
part of electric vehicles, which consist of batteries that provide a high DC voltage. Since
EV components operate on different voltage levels (high or low), to maintain the
voltage value for these components DC-DC converters are used. DC-DC converters
have become a crucial part of electrical vehicles and other electronic projects that
operate at different DC levels.

2.3.5. Inverter
An inverter is a type of electronic device that can convert DC to AC. In an EV,
it is responsible for transforming DC electricity stored in the battery into an AC power
supply that can be used to drive the electric motor of the vehicle. The electric motor in
an EV requires AC power to operate, but the battery in the EV provides DC power.
Therefore, without an inverter, the motor would not be powered. In addition to
converting the DC power from the battery to AC, the inverter in an EV also regulates
 11

the voltage and frequency of the AC power supply to meet the needs of the electric
motor. It serves as a crucial component of the electric powertrain system in an EV.

2.3.6. Electric Motor

Electric motors are the heart of EV propulsion systems, converting electrical
energy into mechanical motion. There are two primary types of motors used in EVs.
They are alternating current (AC) motor and direct current (DC) motor. The choice
between AC and DC motors in electric vehicles depends on various factors such as
vehicle size, performance requirements, cost considerations, and maintenance
preferences. While AC motors offer higher efficiency, better control, and reduced
maintenance, DC motors can be more cost-effective for certain applications.

2.4. Battery Chargers for Electric Vehicles

In order to utilize the battery to its maximum capacity the battery charger plays
a crucial role. The remarkable features of a battery charger are efficiency and reliability,
weight and cost, charging time and power density. The characteristics of the charger
depend on the components, switching strategies, control algorithms. This control
algorithm can be implemented digitally using micro-controller. The figure below shows
the block diagram of an EV charger. The charger consists of two stages. First, one is
the AC-DC converter with power factor correction which converts the AC grid voltage
into DC ensuring high power factor and low THD. The later stage regulates the charging
current and voltage of the battery according to the charging method employed.

Figure 2.6. Block Diagram of EV Charger

The charger can be unidirectional i.e. can only charge the EV battery from the
grid or bidirectional i.e. can charge the battery from the grid in charging mode and can
pump the surplus amount of power of the battery into the grid. Both isolated and non-
isolated topologies can be employed for the charger. The details of each stage are
thoroughly described in subsequent chapters.
 12

2.4.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of OBC

Having an onboard charger for electric vehicles not only simplifies the charging
process but also offers flexibility and integration that enhance the overall user
experience. Some of them are
• Integration: Onboard chargers are integrated into the vehicle's systems,
providing a seamless charging experience.
• Space-saving: An onboard charger eliminates the need for an external charging
unit, saving space and reducing clutter.
• Convenient: An onboard charger allows for charging electric vehicles at home
or at a charging station without the requirement of a separate charger.
• Portability: With an onboard charger, users can easily take the charger with
them wherever they go, ensuring they can charge their vehicle wherever there
is a power source.
Despite the convenience and efficiency of onboard chargers integrated into the
vehicle's systems, there are some drawbacks to consider. Some of them are
• Limited charging speed: Onboard chargers typically have lower power output
compared to dedicated charging stations, resulting in slower charging times.
• Compatibility: Some onboard chargers may not be compatible with all types
of charging stations, limiting your charging options.
• Repairs: If the onboard charger malfunctions, it may be more complex and
costly to repair compared to a standalone charging unit.
• Cost: Electric vehicles with onboard chargers may be more expensive upfront
due to the integration of the charging system.

2.4.2. Applications of OBC

The onboard chargers have many applications apart from charging the batteries
of an EV. They are most commonly used in:
• Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs): Onboard chargers are used to charge the
battery in hybrid electric vehicles, helping to extend the electric-only driving
range of the vehicle.
• Industrial equipment: Onboard chargers are used in a variety of industrial
equipment, such as material handling equipment, forklifts, and aerial work
platforms, to recharge the battery when the equipment is not in use.
 13

• Marine applications: Onboard chargers are used in marine applications, such

as boats and yachts, to recharge the battery while the vessel is docked.
• Portable power: Onboard chargers are used in portable power applications,
such as portable generators, to recharge the battery when the generator is not in
use.
• Renewable energy systems: Onboard chargers are used in renewable energy
systems, such as solar and wind power systems, to recharge the battery when
the renewable energy source is not generating power.

2.5. Battery Topology

The very first step of designing an Electric Vehicle (EV) or Hybrid Electric
Vehicle (HEV) is to design the suitable propulsion battery which is responsible for
driving the motor. The battery must be able to satisfy the electric specifications such as
operating voltage, power, power and energy densities and long working cycle and life.
Presently Lithium-Ion battery is the most commonly used in automobile industries. The
advantages of Li-Ion battery are listed below
1. The energy density of Li-Ion battery is around twice of Ni-Cd battery and the
load characteristics are almost similar as Ni-Cd battery.
2. A single cell of Li-Ion battery is of 3.6 volts where it is 1.2 volts and 2 volts
in the case of Ni-Cd and Lead Acid battery respectively.
3. The discharge rate of the battery is fairly flat i.e. it delivers a constant power
over 80% of the discharge cycle.
4. The weight of Li-ion battery pack is much less than Ni-Cd. For example,
20kWh Li-ion battery pack weights around 160 kg while Ni-Cd weights around
275-300 kg for the same ratings.
With above advantages, Li-ion batteries also have some major drawbacks which
are the battery is very costly, flammable and the life cycle is limited between 400 and
700 cycles. The safety issue can be eliminated by using Lithium ion phosphate batteries
which life cycle is around 1000 cycles.

2.5.1. Electrical Model of Li-Ion Battery

The main objective to model a battery is to represent the battery operation via a
mathematical equation or equivalent circuit or both. Equivalent circuit model is
convenient for power system simulations as it can be modeled with basic electrical
components such as voltage source, resistor, and capacitors.
 14

Figure 2.12. Equivalent Circuit of Li-Ion Battery

The above figure shows the Thevenin’s equivalent model of a Li-Ion battery.
The open circuit voltage is 𝑉𝑜𝑐. Both ohmic resistance 𝑅𝑜 and polarization resistance
𝑅𝑇ℎ are accounted for internal resistance and the transient response during charging
are discharging are modelled by an equivalent capacitance 𝐶𝑇ℎ. 𝑉𝐵 represents the
effective battery voltage.

2.6. Charger infrastructure and power levels

The total amount of power that can be transferred, charging time, cost, location
and effect on the grid are some important features of the charger. Some important issues
like charging time, standardization of charging stations, distribution, and demand
policies can be addressed by the deployment of charging infrastructure and electric
vehicle supply equipment (EVSE). Based on power levels the chargers are classified
into three categories and are described below
Level 1 charging:
It is the slowest method and according to U.S. standard 120 V/15A single phase
outlet can be used for the charging purpose. A standard J1772 connector can be used to
connect the EV ac port with the charging outlet. No extra infrastructure is necessary
and the vehicle can be charged in home or office overnight. The charger is an on-board
charger (OBC) i.e. the charger can be mounted inside the vehicle.
Level 2 charging:
It is the semi-fast charging method. According to U.S. standards, a 240 V outlet
is necessary for level 2 charging. Dedicated equipment may be required at home or
office for this charging method.
 15

Level 3 charging:
Generally, level 3 charging offers DC fast charging or AC fast charging ad the
time taken is less than 1 hour. Dedicated charging stations are required and an off-board
charger is employed to convert the AC power into DC in order to charge the battery.
The details of the charging levels and connectors are listed in the table below:

Table 2.1. Charging power levels and rating of EV

2.6.1. Charging Outlets

Four types of plug exist, two for AC (type 1 and 2) and two for DC
(CHAdeMo and CCS).
• Type 1 is common for American vehicles, it’s a single-phase plug and can
charge at a speed of up to 7.4 kW.
• Type 2 is standard for European and Asian vehicles from 2018 onwards, it’s
a triple-phase plug and can charge at a level of up to 43 kW.
• CCS is a version of type 2 with two additional power contacts. It allows very
fast charging.
• CHAdeMO can be found in Asian cars and allows for high charging
capacities as well as bidirectional charging.

Figure 2.9. Types of Charging Outlets In EV

16