Chapter-1

1.1 INTRODUCTION:-

The large interconnected transmission networks (made up of predominantly overhead

transmission lines) are susceptible to faults caused by lightning discharges and decrease in
insulation clearances by undergrowth. The power flow in a transmission line is determined
by Kirchhoff's laws for specified power injections (both active and reactive) at various
nodes. While the loads in a power system vary by the time of the day in general, they are
also subject to variations caused by the weather (ambient temperature) and other
unpredictable factors. The generation pattern in a deregulated environment also tends to be
variable (and hence less predictable). Thus, the power flow in a transmission line can vary
even under normal, steady state conditions. The occurrence of a contingency (due to the
tripping of a line, generator) can result in a sudden increase/decrease in the power flow.
This can result in overloading of some lines and consequent threat to system security.
A major disturbance can also result in the swinging of generator rotors which contribute to
power swings in transmission lines. It is possible that the system is subjected to transient
instability and cascading outages as individual components (lines and generators) trip due
to the action of protective relays. If the system is operating close to the boundary of the
small signal stability region, even a small disturbance can lead to large power swings and
blackouts.
The increase in the loading of the transmission lines sometimes can lead to voltage collapse
due to the shortage of reactive power delivered at the load centres. This is due to the
increased consumption of the reactive power in the transmission network and the
characteristics of the load (such as induction motors supplying constant torque).
The factors mentioned in the previous paragraphs point to the problems faced in
maintaining economic and secure operation of large interconnected systems. The problems
are eased if sufficient margins (in power transfer) can be maintained. This is not feasible
due to the difficulties in the expansion of the transmission network caused by economic and
environmental reasons. The required safe operating margin can be substantially reduced by
the introduction of fast dynamic control over reactive and active power by high power
electronic controllers. This can make the AC transmission network `flexible' to adapt to the
changing conditions caused by contingencies and load variations. Flexible AC
Transmission System (FACTS) is defined as `Alternating current transmission systems
incorporating power electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance controllability
and increase power transfer capability'. The FACTS controller is defined as `a power
electronic based system and other static equipment that provide control of one or more AC
transmission system parameters'.
In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid cost intensive or landscape
requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or additions of
substations and power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better adaptation to varying
operational conditions and improve the usage of existing installations. The basic
applications of FACTS-devices are:

• power flow control,

• increase of transmission capability,
• voltage control,
• reactive power compensation,
• stability improvement,
• power quality improvement,
• power conditioning,
• flicker mitigation,
• interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages.

In all applications the practical requirements, needs and benefits have to be considered
carefully to justify the investment into a complex new device. shows the basic idea of
FACTS for transmission systems. The usage of lines for active power transmission should
be ideally up to the thermal limits. Voltage and stability limits shall be shifted with the
means of the several different FACTS devices. It can be seen that with growing line length,
the opportunity for FACTS devices gets more and more important.
The influence of FACTS-devices is achieved through switched or controlled shunt
compensation, series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work electrically as
fast current, voltage or impedance controllers. The power electronic allows very short
reaction times down to far below one second.
In the following a structured overview on FACTS-devices is given. These devices are
mapped to their different fields of applications.
 Chapter-2
LITERATURE SURVEY

Dincer I [1] Renewable energy sources (RES) supply 14% of the total world energy
demand. RES are biomass, hydropower, geothermal, solar, wind, and marine energies. The
renewables are the primary, domestic and clean or inexhaustible energy resources. The
percentage share of biomass was 62.1% of total renewable energy sources in 1995. Large-
scale hydropower supplies 20 percent of global electricity. Wind power in coastal and other
windy regions is promising as well.

Farhad S [2] A design method is presented based on pinch technology and exergy analysis
to reduce heat transfer irreversibility of the feedwater heaters network in steam power
plants. In order to show the effects of this method, an extensive study was performed on
four steam power plants. The results show that applying this method can decrease the fuel
consumption and the condenser load. It also increases the boiler, the feedwater heaters
network, and the turbine exergetic efficiencies. On the whole, the results show that applying
this method, with a target pinch temperature of 3°C, increases the cycle 2nd law efficiency
0.3–1.3% and the fossil fuel consumption decreases about 64 × 106kg annually for 8000
operating hours per year of the studied steam power plants.

Youm I [3] Urban households in low- and middle-income countries (LAMICs) face the
challenge of finding affordable, reliable and sustainable cooking fuel supplies. Most city
residents use wood-based charcoal derived from mostly informal supply chains, which are
linked to unsustainable forest logging, low efficiency production methods and long
transportation routes, all factors that contribute to environmental degradation. At the same
time, the provision of adequate and equitable solid waste management (SWM) services
remains a major urban challenge, with municipal solid waste mainly consisting of organics.
Sales of briquettes made from carbonized biowaste can potentially foster waste collection
and enhance cost-recovery of SWM systems, while contributing to a sustainable energy
supply.

Nielsen JBH [4] Renewable technologies are considered as clean sources of energy and
optimal use of these resources minimize environmental impacts, produce minimum
secondary wastes and are sustainable based on current and future economic and social
societal needs. Sun is the source of all energies. The primary forms of solar energy are heat
and light. Sunlight and heat are transformed and absorbed by the environment in a multitude
of ways. Some of these transformations result in renewable energy flows such as biomass
and wind energy. Renewable energy technologies provide an excellent opportunity for
mitigation of greenhouse gas emission and reducing global warming through substituting
conventional energy sources. In this article a review has been done on scope of CO2
mitigation through solar cooker, water heater, dryer, biofuel, improved cookstoves and by
hydrogen.

Ravindranath NH [5] Biomass energy can be “modernized” worldwide, i.e., produced and
used much more efficiently and cost-competitively, generally in the more convenient forms
of gases, liquids, or electricity. This article is a summary of a recently published book whose
objective is to provide information to help expand the contributions that modernized
biomass energy makes to sustainable development in developing countries. The article
discusses the present and possible future magnitude of bioenergy contributions to global
energy supply, efficiency gains that are possible by modernization of bioenergy, alternative
sources of biomass for energy, a variety of socioeconomic and environmental issues that
can arise with the production and use of bioenergy, and institutions and institutional
mechanisms that would facilitate a greater role for modernized biomass energy.

Kumar A [6] The challenges of providing electricity to rural households are manifold. Ever
increasing demand–supply gap, crumbling electricity transmission and distribution
infrastructure, high cost of delivered electricity are a few of these. Use of renewable energy
technologies for meeting basic energy needs of rural communities has been promoted by
the Governments world over for many decades. Photovoltaic (PV) technology is one of the
first among several renewable energy technologies that was adopted globally as well as in
India for meeting basic electricity needs of rural areas that are not connected to the grid.
This paper attempts at reviewing and analyzing PV literature pertaining to decentralized
rural electrification into two main categories experiences from rural electrification and
technology demonstration programmes covering barriers and challenges in marketing and
dissemination; institutional and financing approaches; and productive and economic
applications, techno-economic aspects including system design methodologies and
approaches; performance evaluation and monitoring; techno-economic comparison of
various systems; and environmental implications and life cycle analysis. The paper
discusses the emerging trends in its concluding remarks.
 Chapter-3

Overview On Facts Devices

3.1 INTRODUCTION:-

The development of FACTS-devices has started with the growing capabilities of power
electronic components. Devices for high power levels have been made available in
converters for high and even highest voltage levels. The overall starting points are network
elements influencing the reactive power or the impedance of a part of the power system.
Figure shows a number of basic devices separated into the conventional ones and the
FACTS-devices. For the FACTS side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs
some explanation. The term 'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of FACTS-
devices provided by the power electronics. This is one of the main differentiation factors
from the conventional devices. The term 'static' means that the devices have no moving parts
like mechanical switches to perform the dynamic controllability. Therefore most of the
FACTS-devices can equally be static and dynamic.
The left column in Figure contains the conventional devices build out of fixed or
mechanically switchable components like resistance, inductance or capacitance together
with transformers. The FACTS-devices contain these elements as well but use additional
power electronic valves or converters to switch the elements in smaller steps or with
switching patterns within a cycle of the alternating
current. The left column of FACTS-devices uses Thyristor valves or converters. These
valves or converters are well known since several years. They have low losses because of
their low switching frequency of once a cycle in the converters or the usage of the Thyristors
to simply bridge impedances in the valves.

3.2 Overview On Facts Devices:-

The right column of FACTS-devices contains more advanced technology of voltage source
converters based today mainly on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) or Insulated
Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Voltage Source Converters provide a free controllable
voltage in magnitude and phase due to a pulse width modulation of the IGBTs or IGCTs.
High modulation frequencies allow to get low harmonics in the output signal and even to
compensate disturbances coming from the network. The disadvantage is that with an
increasing switching frequency, the losses are increasing as well. Therefore special designs
of the converters are required to compensate this.
 Fig 1:- Overview of Facts device
In each column the elements can be structured according to their connection to the power
system. The shunt devices are primarily for reactive power compensation and therefore
voltage control. The SVC provides in comparison to the mechanically switched
compensation a smoother and more precise control. It improves the stability of the network
and it can be adapted instantaneously to new situations. The STATCOM goes one step
further and is capable of improving the power quality against even dips and flickers.

The series devices are compensating reactive power. With their influence on the effective
impedance on the line they have an influence on stability and power flow. These devices
are installed on platforms in series to the line. Most manufacturers count Series
Compensation, which is usually used in a fixed configuration, as a FACTS-device. The
reason is, that most parts and the system setup require the same knowledge as for the other
FACTS-devices. In some cases the Series Compensator is protected with a Thyristor-
bridge. The application of the TCSC is pri marily for damping of inter-area oscillations and
therefore stability improvement, but it has as well a certain influence on the power flow.

The SSSC is a device which has so far not been build on transmission level because Series
Compensation and TCSC are fulfilling all the today's requirements more cost efficient. But
series applications of Voltage Source Converters have been implemented for power quality
applications on distribution level for instance to secure factory infeeds against dips and
flicker. These devices are called Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) or Static Voltage
Restorer (SVR).

More and more growing importance are getting the FACTS-devices in shunt and series
configuration. These devices are used for power flow controllability. The higher volatility
of power flows due to the energy market activities requires a more flexible usage of the
transmission capacity. Power flow control devices shift power flows from overloaded parts
of the power system to areas with free transmission capability.

Phase Shifting Transformers (PST) are the most common device in this sector. Their
limitation is the low control speed together with a high wearing and maintenance for
frequent operation. As an alternative with full and fast controllability the Unified Power
Flow Controller (UPFC) is known since several years mainly in the literature and but as
well in some test installations. The UPFC provides power flow control together with
independent voltage control. The main disadvantage of this device is the high cost level due
to the complex system setup. The relevance of this device is given especially for studies
and research to figure out the requirements and benefits for a new FACTS-installation. All
simpler devices can be derived from the UPFC if their capability is sufficient for a given
situation. Derived from the UPFC there are even more complex devices called Interline
Power Flow Controller (IPFC) and Generalized Unified Power Flow Controller (GUPFC)
which provide power flow controllability in more than one line starting from the same
substation.

Between the UPFC and the PST there was a gap for a device with dynamic power flow
capability but with a simpler setup than the UPFC. The Dynamic Power Flow Controller
(DFC) was introduced recently to fill this gap. The combination of a small PST with
Thyristor switched capacitors and inductances provide the dynamic controllability over
parts of the control range. The practical requirements are fulfilled good enough to shift
power flows in market situations and as well during contingencies.

The last line of HVDC is added to this overview, because such installations are fulfilling
all criteria to be a FACTS-device, which is mainly the full dynamic controllability. HVDC
Back-to-Back systems allow power flow controllability while additionally decoupling the
frequency of both sides. While the HVDC Back-to-Back with Thyristors only controls the
active power, the version with Voltage Source Converters allows additionally a full
independent controllability of reactive power on both sides. Such a device ideally improves
voltage control and stability together with the dynamic power flow control. For sure HVDC
with Thyristor or Voltage Source Converters together with lines or cables provide the same
functionality and can be seen as very long FACTS-devices.

FACTS-devices are usually perceived as new technology, but hundreds of installations

worldwide, especially of SVC since early 1970s with a total installed power of 90.000
MVAr, show the acceptance of this kind of technology. Table 1.1 shows the estimated
number of worldwide installed FACTS devices and the estimated total installed power.
Even the newer developments like STATCOM or TCSC show a quick growth rate in their
specific application areas.

3.3 Application of FACTS Controllers in Distribution Systems:-

Although the concept of FACTS was developed originally for transmission network; this
has been extended since last 10 years for improvement of Power Quality (PQ) in
distribution systems operating at low or medium voltages.
In the early days, the power quality referred primarily to the continuity of power supply at
acceptable voltage and frequency. However, the prolific increase in the use of computers,
microprocessors and power electronic systems has resulted in power quality issues
involving transient disturbances in voltage magnitude, waveform and frequency. The
nonlinear loads not only cause PQ problems but are also very sensitive to the voltage
deviations.
In the modern context, PQ problem is defined as \Any problem manifested in voltage,
current or frequency deviations that result in failure or disoperation of customer
equipment".
The PQ problems are categorized as follows
1. Transients
(a) Impulsive
(b) Oscillatory
 2. Short-duration and Long-duration variations
(a) Interruptions
(b) Sag (dip)
(c) Swell
3. Voltage unbalance
4. Waveform distortion
(a) DC offset
(b) Harmonics
(c) Inter harmonics
(d) Notching
(e) Noise
5. Voltage Flicker
6. Power frequency variations
 Chapter-4
Facts controllers
4.1 The Facts controllers:-

4.1.1 Basic Types of FACTS Controllers

The general symbol for a thyristor controlled FACTS device is shown in fig .

Fig.2 : General symbol for FACTS Controller

The FACTS controllers may be classified as:

 Series Controller

 Shunt Controller

 Combined Series-Series Controller

 Combined Series-Shunt Controller.

4.1.1.1 Series Controller:

Figure shows the schematic diagram of Series Controller, included in a transmission line.
This Series Controller may function as a variable capacitor, a reactor or power electronics
based variable source of power frequency. In principle, all Series-Controllers inject voltage
in series with the line. As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, the
Series Controller only supplies or absorbs variable reactive power. Any other phase
relationship will involve handling of real power as well.
 Fig 3 : Series Controller

Examples of series controller are Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC) and
Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC).

4.1.1.2 Shunt Controllers:

Figure shows the Shunt Controller. The Shunt Controllers may function as a variable
reactance or as a variable sources of current or as a combination of both . In principle, Shunt
Controller presents variable shunt reactance at the point of connection to the bus bar and
injects a variable current into the system. As long as the injected current is in phase quadrature
with the line voltage, the Shunt Controller supplies or consumes variable reactive power only.
Any other phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well

Fig 4 : Shunt Controller

Example of shunt controllersareStatic Var Compensator (SVC) and Static Synchronous

Compensator (STATCOM).
4.1.1.3 Combined Series-Series Controllers:
This device is employed in parallel circuit transmission lines. Figure represents the
combined series-series Controller. This could be a combination of two separate Series
Controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner, or a unified Controller, in which
series Controllers provide independent series reactive compensation for each line and also
transfer real power between the lines via the power link.

Fig 5: Combined Series-Series Controllers

The real power transfer capability of the unified series-series Controller, also referred to as
Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC), makes it possible to balance both the real and
reactive power flow in the lines and thereby maximizes the utilization of the transmission
system.

4.1.1.4 Combined Series-Shunt Controllers:

Figure represents the combined series-shunt Controller. This could be a combination of

separate shunt and series Controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner, or a
Unified Power Flow Controller with series and shunt elements. In principle, combined series
and shunt Controllers inject current into the system with the shunt part of the controller and
voltage in series in the line with the series part of the controller. However, when the shunt
and series Controllers are unified, there can be a real power exchange between the series and
shunt Controllers via power link

Fig 6:-(a) Coordinated series-shunt Controller and (b) Unified series-shunt Controller.
 Chapter-5
Technology underlying FACTS
5.1 SVC:-
An SVC is based on thyristor controlled reactors (TCR), thyristor switched capacitors
(TSC), and/or Fixed Capacitors (FC) tuned to Filters. A TCR consists of a fixed reactor in
series with a bi-directional thyristor valve. TCR reactors are as a rule of air core type, glass
fibre insulated, epoxy resin impregnated.

Fig. 7: TCR / FC configuration. Or TCR / TSC configuration.

A TSC consists of a capacitor bank in series with a bi-directional thyristor valve and a
damping reactor which also serves to de-tune the circuit to avoid parallel resonance with the
network. The thyristor switch acts to connect or disconnect the capacitor bank for an integral
number of half-cycles of the applied voltage. A complete SVC based on TCR and TSC may
be designed in a variety of ways, to satisfy a number of criteria and requirements in its
operation in the grid. Two very common design types, both having each their specific merits,
are shown.

5.2 Series Capacitors (SC):-

Of course, a series capacitor is not just a capacitor in series with the line. For proper
functioning, series compensation requires control, protection and supervision facilities to
enable it to perform as an integrated part of a power system. Also, since the series capacitor
is working at the same voltage level as the rest of the system, it needs to be fully insulated
to ground.The main circuit diagram of a state of the art series capacitor is shown in Fig.. The
main protective device is a varistor, usually of ZnO type, limiting the voltage across the
capacitor to safe values in conjunction with system faults giving rise to large short circuit
currents flowing through the line. A spark gap is utilized in many cases, to enable by-pass
of the series capacitor in situations where the varistor is not sufficient to absorb the excess
current during a fault sequence. There are various bypass solutions available today like spark
gap, high power plasma switch, power electronic device, etc. Finally, a circuit breaker is
incorporated in the scheme to enable bypassing of the series capacitor for more extended
periods of time as need may be. It is also needed for extinguishing the spark gap, or, in the
absence of a spark gap, for by-passing the varistor in conjunction with faults close to the
series capacitor (so-called internal faults).

Fig. 8: Main configuration of a Series Capacitor.

5.3 Controllable series compensation:-

Though very useful indeed, conventional series capacitors are still limited in their flexibility
due to their fixed ratings. By introducing control of the degree of compensation, additional
benefits are gained. State of the art controllable series compensation is shown in Fig. . Here,
the introduction of thyristor technology has enabled strong development of the concept of
series compensation. Added benefits are dynamic power flow control, possibility for power
oscillation damping, as well as mitigation of sub-synchronous resonance (SSR), should this
be an issue.
 Fig.9: Controllable Series Compensation.

5.4 STATCOM:-
A Static Compensator consists of a voltage source converter, a coupling transformer and
controls . In Fig. , Iq is the converter output current and is perpendicular to the converter
voltage Vi . The magnitude of the converter voltage and thus the reactive output of the
converter (Q) is controllable. If V V i T > , the STATCOM supplies reactive power to the ac
system. If V V i T < , the STATCOM absorbs reactive power.
State of the art for STATCOM is by the use of IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors).
By use of high frequency Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), it has become possible to use a
single converter connected to a standard power transformer via air-core phase reactors. The
core parts of the plant are located inside a prefabricated building. The outdoor equipment is
limited to heat exchangers, phase reactors and the power transformer. For extended range of
operation, additional fixed capacitors, thyristor switched capacitors or an assembly of more
than one converter may be used.
 Fig. 10: STATCOM.

The semiconductor valves in a STATCOM respond almost instantaneously to a switching

order. Therefore the limiting factor for the comple plant speed of response is determined by
the time needed for voltage measurements and the control system data processing. A high
gain controller can be used and a response time shorter than a quarter of a cycle is obtained.
The high switching frequency used in the IGBT based STATCOM concept results in an
inherent capability to produce voltages at frequencies well above the fundamental one. This
property can be used for active filtering of harmonics already present in the network. The
STATCOM then injects harmonic currents into the network with proper phase an amplitude
to counteract the harmonic voltages. By adding storage capacity to the DC side of
STATCOM, it becomes possible not only to control reactive power, but also active power.
As storage facility, various kinds of battery cells can be used, depending on the requirements
on the storage facility. The result, STATCOM with energy storage , is expected to come into
use in years to come as dynamic storage facility particularly of renewable energy (wind,
solar).
 Fig. 11: STATCOM with energy storage.

5.5 Impact of FACTS in interconnected networks:-

The benefits of power system interconnection are well established. It enables the
participating parties to share the benefits of large power systems, such as optimization of
power generation, utilization of differences in load profiles and pooling of reserve capacity.
From this follows not only technical and economical benefits, but also environmental, when
for example surplus of clean hydro resources from one region can help to replace polluting
fossil-fuelled generation in another. For interconnections to serve their purpose, however,
available transmission links must be powerful enough to safely transmit the amounts of
power intended. If this is not the case, from a purely technical point of view it canalways be
remedied by building additional lines in parallel with the existing, or by uprating the existing
system(s) to a higher voltage. This, however, is expensive, time-consuming, and calls for
elaborate procedures for gaining the necessary permits. Also, in many cases, environmental
considerations, popular opinion or other
impediments will render the building of new lines as well as uprating to ultra-high system
voltages impossible in practice. This is where FACTS is coming in.
Examples of successful implementation of FACTS for power system interconnection can be
found among others between the Nordic Countries and between Canada and the United
States. In such cases, FACTS helps to enable mutually beneficial trade of electric energy
between the countries. Other regions in the world where FACTS is emerging as a means for
AC bulk power interchange between regions can be found in South Asia as well as in Africa
and Latin America. In fact, AC power corridors equipped with SVC and/or SC transmitting
bulk power over distances of more than 1.000 km are a reality today.

5.6 FACTS for minimizing grid investments:-

It has been mentioned that an important incentive for considering FACTS in grid planning
is its being an economically as well as politically and environmentally attractive alternative
to larger, more costly and more time-consuming investments in extended transmission
networks, i.e. basically more lines. Thus, for instance, it can be shown that the cost of
installing series capacitors as means for improving the power transmission capacity of
existing lines amounts to only a fraction of the cost for installing one or several new lines.
This is valid for all existing transmission voltages and for all transmission distances where
series compensation comes into consideration. By considering series compensation from the
very beginning, power transmission between regions can be
planned with a minimum of transmission circuits, thereby minimizing costs as well as
environmental impact from the start.
 Chapter-7

CONCLUSION
A comprehensive literature survey of major renewable energy gadgets for domestic and
industrial applications such as solar water heaters, solar cookers, dryers, wind energy, biogas
technology, biomass gasifiers, improved cook stoves and biodiesel was made. The review
gives an overview of the development and scope of CO2 mitigation for clean and sustainable
development. The use of solar drying of agricultural produce has good potential for energy
conservation in developing nations. Biodiesel from nonedible vegetable oil reduces carbon
dioxide emissions and petroleum consumption when used in place of conventional diesel.
Biodiesel is technically competitive with or offer technical advantages compared to
conventional petroleum diesel fuel.
The presence of oxygen in biodiesel improves combustion and, therefore, reduces
hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and particulate emissions; oxygenated fuels also tend to
increase nitrogen oxide emissions. Wind energy also present good potential in minimization
of greenhouse gases where wind potential is available. The application of biomass gasifier at
small scale industries is found suitable and it save considerable amount of conventional fuel.
The improved cook stoves provide better kitchen environment to rural women and improve
their health standards. At the same time it also reduces fuel collection burden for them. The
paper explicitly points out the greenhouse gas emission mitigation potential depending on the
use and availability of renewable energy sources and fuel replaced by it.

20
 Future Scope

The mission of Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews is to communicate the

most interesting and relevant critical thinking in renewable and sustainable energy in
order to bring together the research community, the private sector and policy and
decision makers. The aim of the journal is to share problems, solutions, novel ideas and
technologies to support the transition to a low carbon future and achieve our global
emissions targets as established by the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews publishes review papers, original
research, case studies and new technology analyses that have a significant review
element, which may take the form of a critique, comparison, or analysis. The journal
also publishes a new paper type, Expert Insights, which are commissioned mini-
reviews from field leaders on topics of significant interest. Case studies will only be
considered if they also demonstrate the applicability of the work to other regions and/or
inform the broader field of renewable and sustainable energy. A bibliographic or
literature review, without critical thinking is not considered suitable.
The journal considers articles on the following themes, provided the link to renewable
and sustainable energy is clear and thoroughly examined:
Energy resources – bio resources (e.g. biomass, waste), fossil fuels (including natural
gas), geothermal, hydrogen, hydropower, nuclear, marine and ocean energy, solar and
wind.

21
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