Akash Phy

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C.V.

RAMAN
GLOBAL UNIVERSITY

RECENT STUDIES IN
ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES

PROJECT BY :

AKASH RANJAN
2301020334
The utilization of renewable energy sources
for power generation has significantly
reduced the reliance on hydrocarbons in both
power generation and transportation. Power
produced from renewable sources can either
be integrated into the grid in a connected
mode or function as an independent power
island. About 14.8% of the total industrial
energy demand is met by renewable energy,
primarily in low-temperature industries.
However, in heavy industries like iron, steel,
cement, and chemicals, renewable energy
contributes to just under 1% of the combined
energy demand. Currently, various countries
employ a mix of electricity, solar, wind, and
nuclear energy to fulfill their energy needs,
with other forms contributing less than 1% of
the total demand.

The intermittent nature of renewable


resources poses challenges to the grid,
impacting system stability, reliability, and
power quality due to variability and
uncertainty in power output.
The integration of energy storage systems
(ESSs) addresses these challenges by
decoupling power generation from demand,
enhancing power quality, and providing
ancillary services. As the penetration of
renewable energy into the grid increases, the
demand for energy storage is expected to grow.
ESSs play a crucial role in applications such as
power peak shaving, electric vehicles, and
renewable energy integration, improving grid
reliability through functions like spinning
reserve, load leveling, and minimizing power
fluctuations.
As of the close of 2020, the total global
installed capacity for renewable energy
generation reached 2799 GW. Among the
various renewable sources, hydropower
dominated with an installed capacity of 1211
GW, securing the largest share. Wind and
solar followed, holding the second and third
positions with total installed capacities of 733
GW and 714 GW, respectively. Other
renewable sources in the global portfolio
included bioenergy with an installed capacity
of 127 GW, geothermal with 14 GW, and
marine energy with 0.5 GW.

In 2020, there was a notable 10.3% increase in


renewable generation capacity, reaching an
installed capacity of 261 GW. Solar energy
took the lead in this growth, experiencing an
increase of 127 GW (22%), followed by wind
with 111 GW (18%).
Hydropower capacity increased by 20 GW
(2%), and bioenergy saw a growth of 2 GW
(2%). Geothermal energy increased by 164 MW.
The combined growth in hydropower, wind,
and solar contributed to the highest annual
increase in renewable generating capacity ever
recorded. Figure 1 illustrates the distribution
of renewable generation capacity, while Figure
2 displays the total wind installed capacity
from 2010 to 2020. Wind power played a
significant role in electricity generation in
numerous countries in 2020, with global
investments in offshore wind surpassing those
in offshore oil and gas, as depicted in Figure 3.
Solar photovoltaic (PV) capacity, shown in the
total PV installed capacity from 2010 to 2020,
achieved another record-breaking year in 2020.
Favorable economics drove interest in
distributed rooftop systems, and competitive
pressures prompted investments to enhance
efficiency.
Energy demand varies throughout the day,
experiencing peaks and troughs due to
individual usage patterns and climatic
conditions. To address the challenge of
excess power generation during off-peak
hours, there's a growing urgency to store
surplus energy, especially given the
intermittent nature of Renewable Energy
Sources (RES). The integration of renewable
energy at a large scale poses a reliability
challenge to conventional grids, with over 20%
penetration potentially destabilizing the
system. Extensive use of Energy Storage
Systems (ESSs) can address inefficiencies in
traditional grids, supporting the seamless
integration of renewable sources by balancing
supply and demand, mitigating power
fluctuations, reducing environmental impact,
and enhancing overall grid reliability and
efficiency.
Recent research highlights the potential of
properly scheduled energy storage, demonstrating
the capability to provide firm power, averaging up
to 90% of their rated capacity during peak demand.
ESSs strategically charge during periods of low
demand and discharge during peak hours, not
only capitalizing on energy price differentials but
also improving the overall load factor. This
approach minimizes the reliance on expensive
peak generators and prevents the wastage of
renewable energy. Effective coordination with
demand-side flexibility and improved forecasting
and control techniques are crucial for maximizing
these benefits. There's also the possibility of
additional markets emerging, such as offering
advanced grid functions to support system
stability.
In the realm of smaller-scale ESSs, they are finding
applications in households and small businesses.
These systems can store self-generated energy
from sources like PV systems for later use and
may also be employed to reduce network
connection costs or support consumption during
peak times. The economic viability of these
applications is closely tied to the structure of
energy tariffs. The role of electric vehicles (EVs),
On a global scale, there's a notable increase
in the installation of large-scale energy
storage facilities, with a capacity of 100 MW
or more, especially since 2020. According to
data from CNESA, the total global energy
storage capacity reached 191.1 GW by the
end of 2020, marking a 3.4% increase from
the previous year. Pumped hydro constitutes
the majority (around 90%) of this capacity,
totaling 172.5 GW. Electrochemical energy
storage, with a capacity of 14.1 GW, follows,
with lithium-ion battery energy storage
leading among electrochemical storage
technologies at 13.1 GW. In 2020, newly
operational electrochemical energy storage
projects globally amounted to 4.73 GW, with
planned and under-construction projects
exceeding 36 GW, mainly applied in wind and
solar power projects. Figures depicting the
global energy storage installed capacity,
electrochemical energy storage types, and
their regional distribution in 2020 provide a
visual representation of this evolving
In an AC electrical system, electrical energy
cannot be stored directly. However, energy
storage is achievable by converting AC
electricity and storing it through
electromagnetic, electrochemical, kinetic, or
potential energy means. Each energy storage
technology typically involves a power
conversion unit to transform the energy from
one form to another. Energy storage systems
(ESSs) enhance the reliability and efficiency of
the power system by offering various
solutions, including spinning reserves,
frequency control, load leveling and shifting,
voltage regulation, VAR support, power quality
improvement, and relief of overloaded
transmission lines. The integration of artificial
intelligence for optimal coordination between
energy storage systems and renewable energy
sources is discussed in. Additionally, provides
a review of machine learning tools for
integrating energy storage systems with
Various ESSs exist, such as flywheels, pumped
hydro, batteries, supercapacitors, super magnetic
energy storage, and compressed air energy
storage, each serving different functions. Selecting
a storage device that can efficiently perform the
required function is a crucial initial step,
considering that many storage devices are
expensive. For long-term storage, chemical fuels
become advantageous as the cost of renewable
power generation decreases, and excess
generated power can be converted to fuel or
chemicals, particularly by combining hydrogen
with sequestrated or recycled carbon dioxide.

While pumped hydro is well-established, efficient,


and versatile, its expansion is restricted by
geographical and environmental limitations.
Suitable locations for hydro dams often fall within
protected areas, impacting ecosystems.
Underground pumped hydro is a potential
alternative in flat regions but is still in the design
or prototype stage. Compressed air energy storage
(CAES) combined with natural gas for incineration
in gas turbines is considered, but only a few
industrial facilities worldwide currently exist.
Ongoing research on more efficient adiabatic
CAES systems, storing heat generated during
Electrochemical batteries, given their
remarkable ramping and start-up/shut-down
capabilities, are among the most versatile
technologies. However, their costs need
substantial reduction, and their life cycles
must be extended. Fast-response AC/DC
power converters with advanced control
strategies are employed to integrate ESSs
into the electric network.
Batteries function by storing energy
electrochemically and are composed of
multiple modules connected in parallel or
series to achieve the desired rating. Power
electronics converters are essential to
convert the DC stored energy in batteries
and connect it to the AC grid. Batteries offer
numerous advantages, such as high energy
density, efficiency, long lifespan, and cycling
capability. They can be designed for bulk
energy storage or for rapid
charge/discharge. However, a drawback of
batteries is their limited operation at high
power levels for an extended period due to
chemical kinetics. Active research is
ongoing to enhance energy and power
density and charging characteristics.
Another disadvantage is the release of toxic
gas during battery charge/discharge, posing
challenges for hazardous material disposal.
Battery energy storage systems play a crucial role in
integrating solar photovoltaic power generation into the
grid and reducing fluctuations. Such systems equipped
with battery energy storage can provide both active and
reactive power, improving system voltage and
frequency. Beyond stability applications, energy
storage control systems can be integrated with energy
markets to enhance the economic viability of solar
resources. A comprehensive review of battery energy
storage systems, including historical context and
analysis for renewable integration, is provided. Among
various battery storage systems, the lead–acid battery
is currently the most mature technology. A
sustainability analysis of a battery energy storage
system integrated with a hybrid renewable energy
source in island mode is presented. Recent advances
in non-Vanadium redox chemistries for flow batteries
for grid-scale energy storage are discussed. A case
study of a microbrewery under demand response for
optimal energy management of a grid-connected
photovoltaic system with battery storage is explored. A
detailed assessment of battery energy storage
systems, outlining the features and capabilities of each
type, along with the benefits and drawbacks of
innovations, is presented. A battery energy storage
system for the supervisory energy management of a
hybrid renewable energy source, based on a combined
fuzzy logic controller and high-order sliding mode
methods, is discussed. A case study on the
Flywheel energy storage (FES) operates by
storing energy as rotational energy, achieved by
accelerating a cylindrical rotor (referred to as a
flywheel) to high speeds. The energy is stored as
kinetic energy within the rotating rotor, and the
storage capacity is influenced by factors such as
the mass, shape, and maximum available angular
velocity of the rotor. Mechanical inertia forms the
basis of this storage method, and the energy is
stored in the rotational mass as kinetic energy.
The discharge process is initiated by connecting
an electric generator to the flywheel, while the
system is charged when torque is applied to the
flywheel. Prolonging storage time involves
minimizing friction, often achieved by placing the
flywheel in a vacuum.

FES is generally categorized into two groups


based on operational speed, with the first group
having a maximum speed of 10,000 rpm and the
second group reaching rotational speeds of up to
36,000 rpm [63,64]. FES exhibits a round-trip
efficiency of 70–80%, with equal discharge and
100,000 full charge/discharge cycles and a power
density nearly ten times greater than that of
batteries. Currently, one of the most common
applications of flywheel technology is in
microgrids.
The market value of FES is experiencing rapid
growth, driven by increasing industrial
development and population growth, leading to a
rise in power demand.
The basic working principle of CAES is to drive
compressors using motors to compress air and
store it in suitable storage vessels. An expander
is used to expand the compressed air and
release the stored energy. The expander drives a
generator to convert the stored energy to
produce electricity. Burning natural gas can be
used to boost the output power, but this will
release CO2 emissions and affect the
environment. More advanced CAES can store
heat during air compression and release it
during the expansion phase. CAES is cost-
effective and promising for bulk grid services as
they have a high power rating and storage
capacity, a long life time and low self-discharge.
However, the start-up time is usually high. The
economic and reliability impacts of grid-scale
storage in a high penetration renewable energy
system are presented in. The authors concluded
that energy storage systems, specifically CAES,
will support the grid inertia if it is synchronously
connected for a long duration.
CAES can be used together with renewable
energy sources to compress the air using the
power generated from renewable energy
sources during off-peak hours. During peak
hours the air can be released and converted
back to electrical power to make sure that there
is no curtailment in the renewable source.
Storing fresh air in salt caverns is a proven,
reliable and safe method of ensuring that excess
energy is not wasted. The authors of compared
CAES and battery energy storage systems
based on a levelized cost of storage. They
concluded that the adoption of CAES systems
can lead to a better economic performance with
respect to battery technologies. The use of
combined heat and CAES for wind power peak
shaving is presented in. There are only two
commissioned CAES worldwide. The first one
was commissioned in 1978 in Huntorf, Germany
and is 290 MW. The second one is located in
Alabama, USA, is 360 MW, and was
commissioned in 1991.
PHS (Pumped Hydro Storage) stands out as the
most mature energy storage technology globally,
boasting the highest installed generation and
storage capacity. This hydroelectric energy
storage system employs two water reservoirs,
situated at different elevations—the upper and
lower reservoirs. Power is generated as water
moves from the upper to the lower reservoir
(discharge), passing through a turbine. Typically,
the lower reservoir is a river or lake, while the
upper reservoir can be an artificial lake. During
peak demand, stored water is released, hitting a
turbine and converting mechanical energy to
electrical power, akin to a conventional
hydropower station. In off-peak demand periods,
the upper reservoir is recharged using low-cost
power or power generated from renewable
sources. Similar to CAES (Compressed Air Energy
Storage), PHS is employed for large-scale
renewable integration, contributing to the grid by
providing reactive power support, frequency
control, and synchronous or virtual inertia, as well
as black-start capabilities. Operating costs per unit
A review of low-head pumped hydro storage and
its application for renewable source integration is
presented in. A case study assessing the potential
of a PHS system and its contribution to
minimizing power fluctuations in a hybrid
renewable energy setup is discussed in. An
optimization technique was used to reduce the
number of PHS sites required for renewable
energy grid integration. The utilization of PHS
alongside renewable sources to fully supply the
Barbados grid with renewable energy is explored
in. Open-source modeling was employed, leading
to the conclusion that an 80% share of renewable
energy sources is cost-optimal, while 100% faces
flexibility challenges. A comparison between PHS
and a fuel cell in a hybrid renewable energy
system based on diesel/PV is presented in, with
the authors determining that PHS is more cost-
effective than fuel cells. A case study comparing
the techno-economic aspects of battery and micro
PHS for renewable energy sources is presented
in. The conclusion reached is that a hybrid PV-
wind-battery storage system offers the best
economic benefits and reliability. Figure 11
illustrates the basic operation of a pumped hydro
storage system.
Various commercially available Energy
Storage Systems (ESSs) exist, but the
increasing need for integrating Distributed
Energy Resources (DERs) into the grid
cannot be fulfilled by a single energy
storage system. The rapid expansion of
power generation from renewable sources
necessitates the deployment of large-scale,
cost-effective energy storage systems to
ensure the reliability of the power system.
Given the diverse nature of renewable
energy sources, a wide array of storage
systems is required to address the specific
needs of each source. Predicting the
dominant energy storage system type for
the future is challenging; however,
currently, electrochemical energy storage
systems, particularly Li-ion batteries, hold a
significant market share. Li-ion batteries are
considered competitive for grid-scale
energy storage applications due to their
For minimizing short-term power
fluctuations from renewable sources like PV
and wind, Supercapacitor Energy Storage
Systems (SCESS) and Superconducting
Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) are
preferred options, offering high power
density and very short response times.
Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS) and
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
systems show future potential as they store
energy for longer periods and generally have
a larger power rating. However, PHS and
CAES are constrained by topographic
limitations.

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