7.

9 Biotin
Diagram:

Introduction/Definition:

● Biotin, also known as vitamin H or B7, is an essential nutrient that is naturally present in

some foods and available as a dietary supplement.

● This water-soluble vitamin catalyzes critical steps in the metabolism of fatty acids,

glucose, and amino acids.

● Biotin also plays key roles in histone modifications, gene regulation (by modifying the

activity of transcription factors), and cell signaling.

Sources of Biotin:

● Many foods contain some biotin. Foods that contain the most biotin include organ meats,

eggs, fish, meat, seeds, nuts, and certain vegetables (such as sweet potatoes).

● The biotin content of food can vary; for example, plant variety and season can affect the

biotin content of cereal grains, and certain processing techniques (e.g., canning) can

reduce the biotin content of foods.

Functions:
 ● It has many important functions in the body.

● Biotin regulates blood sugar, helps with proper functioning of your nervous system, and

maintains healthy LDL cholesterol.

● It's necessary for the function of several enzymes known as carboxylases. These biotin-

containing enzymes participate in important metabolic pathways, such as the production

of glucose and fatty acids.

● Your body needs biotin to help convert certain nutrients into energy.

● It also plays an important role in the health of your hair, skin, and nails.

Biotin and Health:

● Signs of biotin deficiency include skin rashes, hair loss, and brittle nails. Therefore,

biotin supplements are often promoted for hair, skin, and nail health.

● Like all vitamins, your body needs biotin to stay healthy.

 ● There are several systems that biotin helps keep healthy. Some of these include your

liver, nervous system, hair, eyes, and more.

7.9 Biotin
Diagram:

Introduction/Definition:

● Biotin, also known as vitamin H or B7, is an essential that is naturally

present in some foods and available as a dietary supplement.

 ● This water-soluble vitamin catalyzes critical steps in the of fatty acids,

glucose, and amino acids.

● Biotin also plays key roles in histone modifications, gene regulation (by modifying the

activity of transcription factors), and cell signaling.

Sources of Biotin:

● Many foods contain some biotin. Foods that contain the most biotin include organ meats,

eggs, fish, meat, seeds, nuts, and certain vegetables (such as sweet potatoes).

● The biotin content of food can vary; for example, plant variety and season can affect the

biotin content of cereal grains, and certain processing techniques (e.g., canning) can

reduce the biotin content of foods.

Functions:

● It has many important in the body.

● Biotin blood sugar, helps with proper functioning of your nervous system,

and maintains healthy LDL cholesterol.

● It's necessary for the function of several known as carboxylases. These

biotin-containing enzymes participate in important metabolic pathways, such as the

production of glucose and fatty acids.

● Your body needs biotin to help certain nutrients into energy.

● It also plays an important role in the health of your hair, skin, and nails.

Biotin and Health:

 ● Signs of biotin include skin rashes, hair loss, and brittle nails. Therefore,

biotin supplements are often promoted for hair, skin, and nail health.

● Like all vitamins, your body needs biotin to stay .

● There are several that biotin helps keep healthy. Some of these include

your liver, nervous system, hair, eyes, and more.

8.3 Conformations of Furanose Rings and Conformations of

Pyranose Rings
Furanose Rings:

● The chemical structure that includes a five-member ring system, or also known as a

collective term for carbohydrates.

● Consists of 4 carbon atoms and 1 oxygen atom.

Properties:
 ● The highest numbered chiral carbon determines whether or not the structure has a D-

conformation or L-conformation.

● On the highest chiral, D-conformation furanose is pointed downwards, while the L-

conformation is pointed upwards.

● Consists of alpha or beta conformations, depending on the direction of the anomeric

hydroxy group (alpha pointing down, beta pointing up).

● Can also occur in twist (T) and envelope (E) conformations

The diagram is Beta-d-Fructofuranose.

Pyranose Rings:

● A cyclic isomer that has a six-member ring system, consisting of five carbon atoms and

one oxygen atom.

Properties:

● Conformations are superficially similar to a cyclohexane ring.

● The pyranose ring does not have double bonds.

Formation:

● The pyranose ring is formed by the reaction of the hydroxyl group on carbon 5 (C-5) of a

sugar with the aldehyde at carbon 1.

● This forms an intramolecular hemiacetal.

 ● If reaction is between the C-4 hydroxyl and the aldehyde, a furanose is formed instead.

● The pyranose form is thermodynamically more stable than the furanose form, which can

be seen by the distribution of these two cyclic forms in solution.

Conformations:

● There are a total of 38 distinct basic pyranose conformations: 2 chairs, 6 boats, 6 skew-

boats, 12 half-chairs, and 12 envelopes.

The diagram is conformations of beta-D-glucopyranose.

● These conformers can interconvert with one another; however, each form may have very

different relative energy, so a significant barrier to interconversion may be present.

8.3 Conformations of Furanose Rings and Conformations of

Pyranose Rings
Furanose Rings:

● The structure that includes a five-member ring system, or also known as a

collective term for .

● Consists of carbon atoms and oxygen atom.

Properties:

● The highest numbered carbon determines whether or not the structure has a D-

conformation or -conformation.

● On the highest chiral, D-conformation furanose is pointed , while the L-

conformation is pointed .
 ● Consists of or beta conformations, depending on the of the

anomeric hydroxyl group (alpha pointing down, beta pointing up).

● Can also occur in twist (T) and envelope (E) conformations

The diagram is Beta-d-Fructofuranose.

Pyranose Rings:

● A cyclic isomer that has a -member ring system, consisting of five carbon atoms and

one oxygen atom.

Properties:

● are superficially similar to a cyclohexane ring.

● The pyranose ring does not have double bonds.

Formation:

● The pyranose ring is formed by the of the hydroxyl group on carbon 5 (C-5)

of a sugar with the aldehyde at carbon 1.

● This forms an hemiacetal.

● If reaction is between the C-4 hydroxyl and the aldehyde, a is formed instead.

● The pyranose form is thermodynamically more than the furanose form, which

can be seen by the distribution of these two cyclic forms in solution.

Conformations:
 ● There are a total of distinct basic pyranose conformations: 2 chairs, 6 boats, 6 skew-

boats, 12 half-chairs, and 12 envelopes.

The diagram is conformations of beta-D-glucopyranose.

● These conformers can with one another; however, each form may have

very different relative energy, so a significant barrier to interconversion may be present.

8.7 Glycoproteins
Definition:

● Glycoproteins are proteins that have sugars attached to them. They do many important

jobs for the body, such as helping the immune, digestive, and reproductive systems.

● The sugars can be attached to a protein in two locations in the cell, the endoplasmic

reticulum, which produces N-linked sugars, and the Golgi apparatus, which produces O-

linked sugars.

● The different structure of N- and O-linked sugars give them different functions.

Function:
 ● They have diverse functions such as in our immune system, protection of our

body, communication between cells, and our reproductive systems.

Immunology:

● White blood cells roll along your blood vessels, looking for potential invaders. The way

they attach to the blood vessel lining is through glycoproteins called lectins. Without

these, our immune system would be pretty weak, since our white blood cells wouldn't be

able to travel the body.

● Glycoproteins are also important for red blood cells. Blood type refers to the type of

glycoprotein on our red blood cells. If you have type A blood, you have A antigens, or A

glycoproteins, on your red blood cells. This helps the body to identify that your blood is

part of you and tells it not to attack it.

● Glycoproteins also help to stimulate the process of coagulation of platelets to clot blood

when you get cut.

Protection:

● Many organs in your body need to secrete mucus to function properly. Cells lining these

body cavities secrete, or send out, glycoproteins. The sugars mixed with water in your

body create a smooth mucus.

● Glycoproteins are also involved in keeping our skin healthy. They help to attach our skin

cells to each other, forming a tough barrier to protect our body.

Diagram:
 Glycoproteins are always found on the outside of the plasma membrane, with the sugar

facing out. This is an image of the plasma membrane with glycoproteins labeled.

8.7 Glycoproteins
Definition:

● Glycoproteins are proteins that have attached to them. They do many

important jobs for the body, such as helping the , , and

systems.

● The sugars can be attached to a protein in locations in the cell, the endoplasmic

reticulum, which produces N-linked sugars, and the Golgi apparatus, which produces O-

linked sugars.

● The different of N- and O-linked sugars give them different functions.

Function:

● They have diverse functions such as in our immune system, of our

body, communication between cells, and our reproductive systems.

Immunology:

● blood cells roll along your blood vessels, looking for potential invaders. The

way they attach to the blood vessel lining is through glycoproteins called .

Without these, our immune system would be pretty weak, since our white blood cells

wouldn't be able to travel the body.

● Glycoproteins are also important for blood cells. Blood type refers to the type

of on our red blood cells. If you have type A blood, you have A antigens,

or A glycoproteins, on your red blood cells. This helps the body to identify that your

blood is part of you and tells it not to attack it.

● Glycoproteins also help to the process of coagulation of platelets to clot

blood when you get cut.

Protection:

● Many organs in your body need to secrete to function properly. Cells lining

these body cavities secrete, or send out, glycoproteins. The sugars mixed with water in

your body create a smooth mucus.

● Glycoproteins are also involved in keeping our healthy. They help to attach our

skin cells to each other, forming a tough barrier to protect our body.

Diagram:
 Glycoproteins are always found on the of the plasma membrane, with the

sugar facing out. This is an image of the plasma membrane with glycoproteins labeled.

9.10 Three Classes of Membrane Proteins

Classifications of Membrane Proteins:

● Membrane proteins are generally broken down into the smaller classifications of integral

proteins, peripheral proteins, and lipid-anchored proteins.

Integral Proteins:

● Integral proteins are embedded within the lipid bilayer.

● They cannot easily be removed from the cell membrane without the use of harsh

detergents that destroy the lipid bilayer.

● Integral proteins are usually transmembrane proteins, extending through the lipid bilayer

so that one end contacts the interior of the cell and the other touches the exterior.
 ● When a protein crosses the lipid bilayer it adopts an alpha-helical configuration.

Peripheral Proteins:

● Peripheral proteins are attached to the exterior of the lipid bilayer. They are easily

separable from the lipid bilayer, able to be removed without harming the bilayer in any

way. Peripheral proteins are less mobile within the lipid bilayer.

● They can be involved in moving substances within or outside of a cell, activate other

proteins and enzymes, or be involved in cell to cell interactions.

● One of the main roles of peripheral proteins is to direct and maintain both the

intracellular cytoskeleton and components of the extracellular matrix.

● In the image below, several peripheral proteins are labeled. A peripheral protein does not

have a definite structure, but it has several key aspects which make it a peripheral protein.

Lipid-Anchored Proteins:

● Lipid-anchored proteins are proteins located on the surface of the cell membrane that are

covalently attached to lipids embedded within the cell membrane.

● The lipid groups play a role in protein interaction and can contribute to the function of the

protein to which it is attached.

 ● The lipid serves as a mediator of membrane associations or as a determinant for specific

protein-protein interactions.

9.10 Three

Classes of

Membrane Proteins
Classifications of Membrane Proteins:

● Membrane proteins are generally broken down into the smaller classifications of integral

proteins, - proteins, and proteins.

Integral Proteins:

● Integral proteins are embedded within the bilayer.

● They cannot easily be removed from the cell membrane without the use of harsh

detergents that destroy the lipid bilayer.

● Integral proteins are usually proteins, extending through the lipid bilayer

so that one end contacts the of the cell and the other touches the .
 ● When a protein crosses the lipid bilayer it adopts an alpha-helical configuration.

Peripheral Proteins:

● Peripheral proteins are attached to the of the lipid bilayer. They are easily

separable from the lipid bilayer, able to be removed without harming the bilayer in any

way. Peripheral proteins are mobile within the lipid bilayer.

● They can be involved in moving substances within or outside of a cell, other

proteins and enzymes, or be involved in cell to cell interactions.

● One of the main roles of peripheral proteins is to direct and maintain both the

intracellular cytoskeleton and components of the matrix.

● In the image below, several peripheral proteins are labeled. A peripheral protein does not

have a definite structure, but it has several key aspects which make it a peripheral protein.

Lipid-Anchored Proteins:
 ● Lipid-anchored proteins are proteins located on the of the cell membrane that

are attached to lipids embedded within the cell membrane.

● The lipid groups play a role in protein interaction and can contribute to the function of the

protein to which it is attached.

● The lipid serves as a of membrane associations or as a determinant for

specific protein-protein interactions.

9.12 The

Inositol-

Phospholipid Signaling Pathway

Definition:

● The pathway that is activated when a signal molecule binds to the receptor of a trimeric G

protein

● Catalyzes the phosphorylation of many target proteins, altering their catalytic activity

Steps:

1. The binding of the signal molecule causes the GDP bound to the G protein to exchanged

for GTP

2. This induces a conformational change and the alpha subunit dissociates itself from the

beta and gamma subunits. The alpha subunit then activates phospholipase C.
 3. The phospholipase C then cleaves phosphoinositol 4,5- biphosphate (PIP2); producing

Diacylglycerol (DAG)

4. DAG remains embedded in the phospholipid membrane, whereas IP3 moves into the

cytoplasm.

5. Ca2+ release channels on the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, which binds to

Protein Kinase C (PKC)

6. Finally, The PKC then phosphorylates various proteins in order to amplify the signal.

7. The Ca signal is short-lived because the channel eventually closes, and the Ca is pumped

back into the lumen, where it came from.

Signaling this pathway is turned off when….

● GTP is hydrolyzed, it returns to its inactive form and can no longer stimulate

phospholipase C.

● IP3 is rapidly hydrolyzed to other inositol phosphates or inositol, while DAG is converted

phosphatidate.

● Both inositol and phosphatidate are recycled back into phosphatidylinositol

 9.12 The Inositol-Phospholipid Signaling Pathway
Definition:

● The pathway that is activated when a signal molecule binds to the ________of a trimeric

G protein

● Catalyzes the phosphorylation of many target proteins, altering their _________activity

Steps:

● The binding of the signal molecule causes the ___bound to the G protein to exchanged

for ___

● This induces a conformational change and the alpha subunit ___________itself from the

beta and gamma subunits. The alpha subunit then activates phospholipase C.

● The phospholipase C then cleaves phosphoinositol 4,5- biphosphate (PIP2); producing

______________ (DAG)

● DAG remains embedded in the phospholipid membrane, whereas IP3 moves into the

__________.

● Ca2+ release ________on the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, which binds to

Protein Kinase C (PKC)

● Finally, The PKC then phosphorylates various ________in order to amplify the signal.

● The Ca signal is short-lived because the channel eventually closes, and the Ca is pumped

back into the lumen, where it came from.

Signaling this pathway is turned off in several ways….

● When GTP is hydrolyzed, it returns to its inactive form and can no longer

________phospholipase C.

● IP3 is rapidly hydrolyzed to other inositol phosphates or inositol, while DAG is converted

phosphatidate.

● Both inositol and phosphatidate are ________ back into phosphatidylinositol