NavguideHDwithCorrectedCardinalMarks PDF

NAVGUIDE 2018
M A R i n E A i d S t o n A V i G At i o n M A n U A L
8th Edition
intERnAtionAL ASSoCiAtion oF MARinE
AidS to nAViGAtion And LiGhthoUSE AUthoRitiES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
Foreword 2
Chapter 1 - Introduction to IALA-AISM

1.1 Purpose and Scope 4
1.2 Background 4
1.3 Membership 4
1.4 General Assembly 5
1.5 the Council 5
1.6 Policy Advisory Panel 6
1.7 Legal Advisory Panel 6
1.8 Committees 6
1.9 iALA World Wide Academy 7
1.10 iALA Model Courses and the iALA Accreditation Scheme 7
1.11 Conferences, Symposia and Exhibitions 8
1.12 Workshops and Seminars 8
1.13 iALA Publications 9
1.14 Related organizations 9
Chapter 2 - Concepts and accuracy of navigation

2.1 navigation Methods 12
2.2 Accuracy Standards of navigation 12
2.3 Phases of navigation 13
2.4 Measurement Errors and Accuracy 15
2.5 hydrographic Considerations 16
Chapter 3 – Marine Aids to Navigation

3.1 operational Requirements 24
3.2 Visual and Audible Marine Aids to navigation design theory 24
3.3 Visual Marine Aids to navigation technology 48
3.4 Maritime Buoyage System and other Aids to navigation 52
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Contents
Chapter 4 - e-Navigation
4.1 introduction 66
4.2 Background 66
4.3 iMo’s strategy for the development and implementation of e-navigation 66
4.4 iALA’s Role 68
4.5 Maritime Service Portfolios 69
4.6 Maritime digital infrastructure 70
4.7 Communications 79
4.8 Positioning, navigation and timing 90
4.9 testbeds 102
Chapter 5 - Vessel Traffic Services

5.1 introduction 104
5.2 Purpose 104
5.3 definition 104
5.4 iALA VtS Manual 104
5.5 objectives 104
5.6 Functions 105
5.7 types of Service in VtS 105
5.8 Surveillance Requirements 106
5.9 Equipment Requirements 106
5.10 Personnel 106
5.11 Promulgation of information 106
5.12 Summary 107
Chapter 6 - Other services and facilities

6.1 Pilotage 110
6.2 Ships Routeing 112
6.3 Minimum Comprehensive Mix of Aton for Channels and Waterways 114
6.4 the Marking of Man-Made offshore Structures 118
6.5 nautical Publications 119
6.6 tide Gauges and Current Meters 122
6.7 Under Keel Clearance Management Systems 122
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Contents
Chapter 7 - Power supplies

7.1 types 126
7.2 Electric - Renewable Energy Sources 126
7.3 Rechargeable Batteries 128
7.4 Electrical Loads and Lightning Protection 130
7.5 non-Electric Energy Sources 130
Chapter 8 - Provision, design and management

8.1 international Criteria 134
8.2 Level of Service 135
8.3 Risk Management 136
8.4 Availability objectives 139
8.5 Reviews and Planning 143
8.6 Quality Management 144
8.7 Maintenance 146
8.8 Service delivery 148
8.9 Environment 149
8.10 Preservation of historic Marine Aids to navigation 151
8.11 human Resources Challenges 154
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
intERnAtionAL ASSoCiAtion oF MARinE
AidS to nAViGAtion And LiGhthoUSE AUthoRitiES
NAVGUIDE
MARinE AidS to nAViGAtion MAnUAL 2018
EiGhth Edition
10 RUE dES GAUdinES

78100
St GERMAin En LAYE
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tEL +33 1 34 51 70 01
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WEB: WWW.iALA-AiSM.oRG
EMAiL: ContACt@iALA-AiSM.oRG
© iALA-AiSM 2018
Reproduction for training or education purposes permitted.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [1]
Foreword
the nAVGUidE has been a signature document and information source for iALA members
and users for many years. the 2018 edition of the Guide continues this proud tradition and
sees it updated with the latest information and developments in the field of Marine Aids to
navigation technology and application.
the Guide is a product of four years collaboration by the world’s leading experts on Marine
Aids to navigation, produced by the four primary Committees, Aton Requirements and
Management (ARM), Aton Engineering and Sustainability (EnG), e-navigation (EnAV) and
Vessel traffic Services (VtS). the ARM Committee has the primary oversight for its editing
and production.
the Guide plays an important role within the iALA information suite and is regarded as a
primary source of information for Marine Aids to navigation practitioners around the world,
along with the iALA Standards, Recommendations, Guidelines, Manuals and other
publications.
As one of the essential publications for Marine Aids to navigation practitioners, the Guide
also has recently been included as one of the key guidance documents in the Marine Aids
to navigation Management training syllabus for iALA’s World-Wide Academy.
the Guide has been translated into many languages and iALA encourages this practice and
is keen to work with members to assist in this process, and the dissemination of the Guide
into all regions of the world where English is not the primary working language.
the 2018 edition of the nAVGUidE also sees its primary means of distribution being in a
digital format which will be available on the website (www.iala-aism.org) along with all the
other information sources available to our members and users of Marine Aids to navigation.
i encourage readers of this Guide to also consult the website for other information
references that may assist you in your day-to-day work in the field of Marine Aids to
navigation. As always, iALA is receptive to feedback on how the Guide may further be
developed for future editions and welcomes suggestions for improvements (contact@iala-
aism.org).
i would like to thank the iALA membership for helping to produce this 2018 edition of the
nAVGUidE and reflect on the unique nature of iALA that allows professionals from around
the world to contribute their expertise to assist the international maritime community in
improving and harmonizing Marine Aids to navigation.
Francis Zachariae,
iaLa secretary-GeneraL
apriL 2018
[2] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
INTRODUCTION
TO IALA–AISM
Chapter 1 - An Introduction to IALA-AISM
1.1 PurPOSe ANd SCOPe 1.3 MeMBerShIP

the purpose of this manual is to assist Marine iALA has four types of members:
Aids to navigation (Aton) authorities in the national membership: Applicable to the
harmonization of Aton by providing a first national authority of any country that is legally
point of reference on all aspects of providing responsible for the provision, management,
an Aton service. the manual also provides maintenance or operation of Marine Aids to
references to more detailed guidance from navigation.
related international organizations on specific associate membership: Applicable to any
topics. other service, organization or scientific agency
concerned with Marine Aids to navigation or
1.2 BACkgrOuNd related matters.
Shipping is a global industry that is regulated industrial membership: Applicable to manu-
through various organizations. nations have facturers and distributors of Marine Aids to
recognized that it is both effective and navigation equipment for sale, or organiza-
appropriate to regulate and manage shipping tions providing aids to marine navigation ser-
on an international basis. vices or technical advice under contract.
iALA is a non-profit, international technical honorary membership: May be conferred for
association devoted to the harmonization of life by the Council to any individual who is
Marine Aids to navigation. iALA was formed considered to have made an important
in 1957 to provide a framework for Marine contribution to the work of iALA.
Aids to navigation authorities, manufacturers
and consultants from all parts of the world.
the aim of iALA is to foster the safe,
economic, and efficient movement of vessels
through improvement and harmonization of
Marine Aids to navigation worldwide, and by
other appropriate means, for the benefit of
the maritime community and the protection
of the environment.
the Strategic Vision for 2018-2026 sets out
two main goals:
• Marine Aids to navigation are developed
and harmonized through international
cooperation and the provision of standards.
• All coastal states have contributed to a
sustainable and efficient global network of
Marine Aids to navigation through capacity
building and the sharing of expertise.
[4] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Figure 1 - iALA national Members

(the shaded countries are iALA Members)
1.4 geNerAL ASSeMBLy be elected to the Council and there is a

the General Assembly brings together general aim to draw Councilors from different
members from all the membership categories parts of the world to achieve a broad
every four years and usually convenes in representation on the Council.
conjunction with the four-yearly Conference.
national members attending the General the Council, among other things:
Assembly are entitled to: • implements the overall policy of iALA as
• determine the broad policy direction; defined by its aims or by the General
• elect members to the Council; Assembly;
• decide upon changes to the Constitution; • decides membership matters;
and • establishes committees relevant and/or
• approve Standards. facilitates other such bodies as may be
Associate and industrial members are entitled appropriate and their term of reference.
to attend the General Assembly and take part • determines rules of procedure for commit-
in the discussions, but they do not have the tees and other such bodies as may be appro-
right to vote. priate and their terms of reference;
• approves recommendations, guidelines,
manuals and other appropriate papers;
1.5 The COuNCIL • approves submissions to other organizations;
iALA is administered by a Council of up to • decides the venue and the year of the next
twenty-one elected and three non-elected iALA Conferences and symposiums;
Councilors. the elected positions are • establishes rules for participation in iALA
determined by a ballot of all national Conferences and Symposiums;
members attending a General Assembly. only • convenes General Assemblies;
one national member from any country may • approves the annual budget and accounts;
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [5]
• determines the rate of contributions; its scope shall include:

• decides upon the location of the head- • providing legal support to the Council as
quarters and registered office of iALA; required;
• may authorise the purchase, sale, renting or • responding to issues and concerns that may
letting of property and the granting and be raised through the iALA Secretariat;
obtaining of loans whether or not secured by • responding to requests from iALA
mortgage, required for the running of the Committees and other iALA bodies for legal
association; advice;
• may grant any power of attorney as required. • providing iALA with information on legal
issues that result, or may result from, providing
1.6 POLICy AdVISOry PANeL guidance to the membership in the provision
the Policy Advisory Panel (PAP) is a group that of Marine Aids to navigation services;
comprises the Secretary-General, deputy • preparing draft documentation/guidelines
Secretary-General, members of the on items of common concern;
Secretariat, the Chairs and Vice-Chairs of each • identifying where external legal advice may
Committee, the Chair of the Legal Advisory be needed and assisting with the preparation
Panel, the dean of the World-Wide Academy, of requests/briefs for such advice, as
a representative of the industrial Members appropriate; and
Committee and special advisors as necessary. • reviewing, updating, advising and reporting
the Panel meets at least once a year to review to the Council on the iALA Risk Registers;
the work being done by the Committees. • providing a forum to discuss legal matters
the role of the PAP is to: of common interest.
• consider and advise the Council and the
Secretariat on policy and strategy matters 1.8 COMMITTeeS
concerning the development and Committees are established by the Council to
harmonisation of Marine Aids to navigation study a range of issues, as determined by the
systems, with specific emphasis on the General Assembly, including to prepare draft
Strategic Vision; Recommendations and Guidelines, and
• co-ordinate the work of the Committees draft submissions to other international
and provide a forum for Committee Chairs to organizations. A committee may also be asked
share progress, challenges and operations of to provide continuous monitoring of elements
the Committees to provide a collegiate of subjects that could influence decisions
delivery of the various work plans with the concerning the provision of Marine Aids to
Secretariat; and navigation, including Vessel traffic Services.
• carry out such other work as the Council Committees meet regularly, normally twice
may from time to time require. per year. the programmes for the Committees
are for a four year period, usually from one
1.7 LegAL AdVISOry PANeL Conference to the next.
the Legal Advisory Panel (LAP) comprises draft Recommendations and Guidelines, and
national members with interest in legal affairs, other documents created by the Committees
representatives of relevant international may address topics relating to management,
organizations, and experts. operations, engineering, emerging technolo-
[6] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
gies and training, and are forwarded to the and encouraging research in these areas
Council for approval before being published worldwide. the Academy maintains an
on the website. overview of its activities in a Master Plan and
All members are eligible to participate in the an associated Action Plan, which can be found
Committees which are presently: on the Academy website – www.academy.iala
• the Aton Requirements and Management aism.org.
Committee (ARM);
• the Aton Engineering and Sustainability 1.10 IALA MOdeL COurSeS ANd
Committee (EnG); The IALA ACCredITATION SCheMe
• the e-navigation, information Services and iALA has developed a number of model
Communications Committee Committee (EnAV); courses covering the contents of its Standards,
and Recommendations and Guidelines.
• the Vessel traffic Services Committee (VtS).
the model courses, which may be found on
1.9 IALA WOrLd WIde ACAdeMy the Academy website, are primarily intended
the iALA World-Wide Academy is the vehicle for adoption by training organizations which
by which iALA delivers education, training and have been accredited by a competent
capacity building. authority, normally an iALA national member.
the Academy is an integral, but indepen-
dently funded part of iALA, and it focuses on these organizations are called Accredited
the second goal of the Strategic Vision, na- training organizations (Atos), and the
mely that “All coastal states have contributed accreditation scheme aims at ensuring the
to a sustainable and efficient global network quality of their delivery of the model courses.
of Marine Aids to navigation through capacity there are now several Atos around the world,
building and the sharing of expertise”. delivering both Aton and VtS related model
the functions of the Academy are: courses.
• education and training;
• capacity-building; and the following guidance documents relate to
• research and development. training.
the Academy is dedicated to assist coastal • Recommendation R0103(V-103) - Standards
states with continuous and sustainable for training and Certification of VtS Personnel
improvement of their Aton services, including • Recommendation R0141(E-141) - training
VtS. While its education and training activities and Certification of Marine Aids to navigation
are intended for all coastal states, capacity- Personnel
building activities are aimed at those states • Recommendation o-149 - Accreditation of
which require assistance in fulfilling their training organisations
international obligations related to Marine • Guideline G1014 – the Accreditation and
Aids to navigation. Approval Process of VtS training Courses
• Guideline G1100 – the Accreditation and
the research and development activities of Approval Process for Aids to navigation
the Academy are aimed at identifying topical Personnel training
knowledge gaps within the iALA domain,
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [7]
1.11 CONFereNCeS, SyMPOSIA in conjunction with the Conference.

ANd exhIBITIONS in addition, iALA may hold a Symposium on a
specific topic of interest to the members every
four years, two years separated from the iALA
Conference. the Symposium also hosts an
industrial exhibition.
1.12 WOrkShOPS ANd SeMINArS

iALA convenes Workshops and Seminars to
address topics that may arise during the work
term.
Workshops are special meetings convened
for the purpose of making maximum use of
the technical expertise of participants to
further the work of the Association on a
specified subject or topic. they also enable
skills and comprehension of new techniques
to be learned by detailed lectures combined
Figure 2 – Logo of iALA Conference and VtS Symposium with simulation or similar “hands on” methods.
Seminars are meetings of specialists on a
specified subject or topic convened for the
iALA holds a general Marine Aids to purpose of consultations by means of the
navigation Conference every four years. presentation of papers followed by learned
Conferences may be attended by members discussion.
and also by non-member Marine Aids to
navigation authorities.
Papers, presentations and discussions address
a wide range of Marine Aids to navigation
issues. the work of iALA over the previous
four years is also presented. All members are
invited to submit papers for discussion.
the industrial Member’s Committee
traditionally organizes an industrial Exhibition
iALA Workshop on Sustainable Light and Power for the next Generation, 20 to 24 March 2017, Koblenz, Germany
[8] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
1.13 IALA PuBLICATIONS iALA publications are governed by a set of

iALA produces a comprehensive set of principles including:
guidance documents that have the objective
of facilitating a uniform approach to Marine • usabiLity – the system should be as
Aids to navigation worldwide. intuitive as possible.
there are five such documents in a logical • VisibiLity - Publications conform to the
hierarchy, as follows. iALA corporate image, with colour coding.
• VaLidity - the date of issue and date of
• standard: iALA Standards form a amendment/edition should be clearly visible
framework, implementation of which by all to ensure that users have the most up-to-date
coastal states will harmonize Marine Aids to information.
navigation worldwide. iALA standards cover • aVaiLabiLity – Publications are available in
technology and services and are electronic form from the website at no charge.
non‐mandatory.
other documents available from iALA on
• recommendation: iALA Recommenda- request include:
tions specify what practices shall be carried
out in order to comply with a Recommenda- • Basic documents, being Constitution,
tion, and may be referenced, in full or in part, General Regulations, Policy & Procedures –
in an iALA Standard. Committees, and Constitution and Bye-Laws
of the industrial Members’ Committee.
• GuideLine: iALA Guidelines describe how • Conference proceedings.
to implement practices normally specified in • Reports of symposia, seminars, committee
a Recommendation. meetings, workshops, and other events.
• iALA Bulletin, the house magazine which
• manuaL: iALA Manuals provide an overall appears twice per year.
view of a wide subject area. the iALA
dictionary is considered a Manual.
1.14 reLATed OrgANIzATIONS
• modeL course: iALA Model Courses are iALA works in close cooperation with the
training documents which define the level of international Maritime organization and the
training and knowledge needed to reach international hydrographic organization and
levels of competence defined by iALA. has cooperation agreements with a number
of other international maritime organizations.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [9]
COre VALueS
CredIBLe CONNeCTINg
To be credible is about being recognized, To be connecting means to reach out

respected, trustworthy and reliable to individuals and organizations in order
to share knowledge and experience and
• We provide high quality service World-Wide to provide support to achieve common goals
(Standards, Recommendations, Guidelines etc.)
• We drive the development of state of the art • We welcome individuals and organizations
technologies within Marine Aids to navigation from around the World
• We engage the World’s leading experts to • We bring together experts and facilitate
develop our products exchange of knowledge and experience
• We assist the maritime community in meeting
their international obligations
reSuLT
dyNAMIC
OrIeNTed
To be dynamic is about actively To be result oriented means to focus

and continuously striving to improve on outcomes rather than processes
• We respond quickly to the needs of the • We define clear objectives and goals with
maritime community defined timelines
• We adopt flexible working arrangements to • We create practical and usable high quality
stay agile technical documents and make them easily
accessible
• We encourage and stimulate innovation
through awareness of global maritime • We produce outcomes which are non-political
developments and non-commercial
CONCEPTS AND ACCURACY
OF NAVIGATION
Competent Marine Aids to Navigation authorities are generally established to provide a navigational safety
regime that facilitates trade and economic development. The primary services are therefore directed towards
the needs of commercial trading vessels. In some areas, authorities may provide additional services for
ferries, fishing and recreational vessels and specialised maritime activities. This chapter looks at the methods
of navigation and accuracy requirements from the perspective of commercial trading vessels.
2.1 NAVIgATION MeThOdS 2.2 ACCurACy STANdArdS OF

NAVIgATION
iMo Resolution A.915(22) defines navigation as
"the process of planning, recording and iMo Resolution A.915(22) established accuracy
controlling the movement of a craft from one standards for maritime navigation.
place to another."
table 1 presents the relevant standards
it is recommended that whenever possible the adopted in Appendies 2 and 3 of iMo
reliance on a single method of determining Resolution A.915(22). Appendix 2 includes the
position be avoided. the principal methods of requirement for an accuracy of 10 m on ocean
marine navigation are briefly described as follows: navigation, while iMo Resolution A.1046(27)
mentions that “Where a radionavigation system
terrestriaL naViGation: is used to assist in the navigation of ships in
navigation using visual, radar and, (if ocean waters, the system should provide
appropriate) depth sounding observations of positional information with an error not greater
identifiable, conspicuous features, objects and than 100 m with a probability of 95%."
marks to determine position.
ceLestiaL or astronomicaL Absolute
naViGation: Application
horizontal
navigation using observation of celestial Accuracy
bodies (i.e. sun, moon, planets and stars) to (95%)/(m)
determine position. GeneraL naViGation:
dead reckoninG: ocean 10-100
navigation based on speed, elapsed time and Coastal 10
direction from a known position. the term was Restricted waters 10
originally based on the course steered and the Port 1
speed through the water, however, the
inland waterways 10
expression may also refer to positions
hydroGraphy 1-2
determined by the use of the course and speed
expected to be made good over the ground, oceanoGraphy 10
thus making an estimated allowance for aids to naViGation manaGement 1
disturbing elements such as current and wind. port operations:
A position that is determined by this method is Local VtS 1
generally called an estimated position. Container/cargo management 1
radionaViGation: Law enforcement 1
navigation using radio signals to determine a Cargo handling 0,1
position or a line of position (e.g. eLoRAn,
GnSS, dGnSS etc.). table 1 - Minimum Maritime User Requirements
[ 12 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
2.3 PhASeS OF NAVIgATION 2.3.2 coastaL naViGation

typically, navigation is divided into three in this phase, the vessel is typically:
phases: ocean navigation, coastal navigation • within 50 nm from shore or the limit of the
and restricted waters navigation. Some continental shelf (200 meters in depth);
documents have introduced other phases, • in waters contiguous to major land masses or
namely harbour approaches, port and inland island groups, where transoceanic routes tend
waterways navigation. to converge towards destination areas and
the harbour approach phase is an aspect of the where inter-port traffic exists in patterns that are
restricted waters phase, but will be treated essentially parallel to coastlines.
separately in this manual. the vessel may encounter:
Port and inland waterway navigation are two • ship reporting systems (SRS) and coastal
aspects of restricted waters navigation and will vessel traffic services (VtS);
not be dealt with separately in this manual, as the • offshore exploitation and scientific activity on
precautions and measures required for restricted the continental shelf;
waters navigation also apply to these waters. • fishing and recreational boating activity.
the Coastal Phase is considered to exist when
2.3.1 ocean naViGation the distance from shore makes it feasible to
in this phase, the vessel is typically: navigate by means of visual observations, radar
• beyond the continental shelf (200 metres in and, if appropriate, by depth (echo) sounder. As
depth) and more than 50 nm from land; with the ocean Phase, the distances from land
• in waters where position fixing by visual can be varied to take account of the smaller
reference to land, charted fixed offshore vessels and local geographical characteristics.
structures, or to fixed or floating Marine Aids to Although the iMo has adopted stricter accuracy
navigation, is not practical; requirements (see table 1), international studies
• sufficiently far from land masses and traffic have established that the minimum navigation
areas that the hazards of shallow water and of requirements for commercial trading vessels
collision are comparatively small. operating in the Coastal Phase is a navigation
Although the iMo has adopted stricter accuracy system capable of providing fix positioning to
requirements (see table 1) the minimum an accuracy of 0.25 nm, combined with a
navigational requirements for the ocean Phase desired fix interval of 2 minutes to a maximum
are considered to be a predictable accuracy of 2 of 15 minutes.
to 4 nm, combined with a desired fix interval of More specialised maritime operations within the
15 minutes or less (maximum 2 hour fix interval). Coastal Phase may require navigational systems
the required accuracy in the ocean Phase is capable of a higher repeatable accuracy, either
based on providing the ship with the capability permanently or on an occasional basis. these
to correctly plan the approach to land or operations can include marine scientific
restricted waters. research, hydrographic surveying, commercial
the economic efficiency aspects of shipping (e.g. fishing, petroleum or mineral exploration and
transit time and fuel consumption) are enhanced Search and Rescue (SAR).
by the availability of a continuous and accurate it is not always practical, given the manning of
position fixing system that enables a vessel to most vessels, to plot fixes at the desired interval
follow the shortest safe route with precision. of 2 minutes on a chart in the traditional way. GPS
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 13 ]
and dGPS (and in the future, in some areas, display information System (ECdiS) technology.
enhanced Loran (eLoRAn)) provide a means of
exceeding the iMo Coastal Phase 2.3.4 restricted Waters
requirements for positional accuracy and fix While similar to the harbour Approach Phase,
rates when integrated with Electronic Chart in the proximity to dangers and the limitations
Systems (ECS) or Electronic Chart display on freedom of manoeuvre, a Restricted Waters
information System (ECdiS) technology. Phase can also develop during a coastal
navigation phase, such as in various straits
2.3.3 harbour approach around the world.
this phase represents the transition from the Pilot or Master of a large vessel in restricted
coastal to harbour navigation. in this phase the: waters must direct its movement with great
• vessel moves from the relatively unrestricted accuracy and precision to avoid grounding in
waters of the coastal phase into more restricted shallow water, striking submerged dangers or
and more heavily used waters near and/or colliding with other craft in a congested
within the entrance to a bay, river, or harbour; channel. if a large vessel finds itself in an
• navigator is confronted with a requirement emerging navigational situation with no options
for more frequent position fixing and to alter course or stop, it may be forced to
manoeuvring the vessel to avoid collision with navigate to limits measured to within a few
other traffic and grounding dangers; metres in order to avoid an accident.
the ship will generally be within: Requirements for the safety of navigation in the
• the coverage areas of Marine Aids to Restricted Waters Phase make it desirable for
navigation of varying complexity (including navigation systems to provide:
lights, racons, leading lights and sector lights); • accurate verification of position almost
• pilotage areas; continuously;
• the boundaries of SRS and VtS. • information depicting any tendency for the
Safety of navigation issues that arise during the vessel to deviate from its intended track;
harbour Approach Phase impose more • instantaneous indication of the direction in
stringent requirements on positional accuracy, which the ship should be steered to maintain
fix rates and other real-time navigational the intended course.
information than those required during the these requirements are not easily achievable
Coastal Phase. through the use of visual aids and ships’ radar
GPS and dGPS (and in the
future, in some areas,
enhanced Loran (eLoRAn)
provide a means of achieving
the harbour Approach
requirements for high
positional accuracy and fix
rates at better than 10-second
intervals when integrated with
Electronic Chart Systems (ECS)
and the Electronic Chart
Photo Courtesy of Wasser und Schifffahrtsdirektion (Germany)
[ 14 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
alone, but as with harbour Approach 2.4.2 accuracy

navigation, they can be achieved with a in a process where a number of measurements
combination of GPS/dGPS (and in the future are taken, the term accuracy refers to the
enhanced Loran (eLoRAn)) and Electronic degree of conformity between the measured
Chart Systems (ECS) or Electronic Chart display parameter at a given time and its true
information System (ECdiS) technology. parameter at that time. the term parameter
includes: position, coordinates, velocity, time,
2.4 MeASureMeNT errOrS ANd angle, etc.
ACCurACy For navigational purposes, four types of
Good practice in both navigation and Marine accuracy can be defined:
Aids to navigation design dictates that an absolute accuracy (Geodetic or Geographic
indication of the error or uncertainty in Accuracy): the accuracy of a position with
measuring a parameter or in obtaining a respect to the geographic or geodetic
position fix should be reported along with the coordinates of the Earth.
derived result. predictable accuracy: the accuracy with which
a position can be defined when the predicted
2.4.1 measurement error errors have been taken into account. it
the measurement error is defined as the therefore depends on the state of knowledge
difference between the true value and the of the error sources.
measured value. in general, three types of relative or relational accuracy: the accuracy
errors are recognised: with which a user can determine position
relative to that of another user of the same
systematic errors: Also known as fixed or bias navigation system at the same time.
errors. they are errors that persist and are repeatable accuracy: the accuracy with which
related to the inherent accuracy of the a user can return to a position whose
equipment, or result from incorrectly calibrated coordinates have been measured at a previous
equipment. this type of error can to some time using uncorrelated measurements from
extent be foreseen and compensated for. the same navigation system.
For general navigation, the Absolute and
random errors: Cause readings to take random Predictable Accuracy are the principal
values either side of some mean value. they concerns.
may be due to the observer/operator, or the repeatable accuracy: this is of interest to
equipment, and are revealed by taking repeated fishermen, the offshore oil and gas industry,
readings. this type of error can neither be ships making regular trips into an area of
foreseen, nor totally compensated for. restricted waters and authorities when
positioning floating aids.
Faults and mistakes: Errors of this type can be accuracy of a position Fix: A minimum of two
reduced by appropriate training and by lines of position (LoP) is necessary to
following defined procedures. determine a position at sea. Since there is an
error associated with each LoP, the position fix
has a two-dimensional error. there are many
ways of analysing the error boundary; however,
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 15 ]
the radial position error relative to the true 2.5 hydrOgrAPhIC CONSIderATIONS
position, taken at the 95% probability level, is
the preferred method. 2.5.1 charts
navigational Position Fixing Measurements:
table 2 shows the typical accuracy (95%
probability) achieved using common
navigational instruments or techniques.
accuracy
typical accuracy
process at 1 nm
(95%probability)
(metres)
Magnetic compass
±3º
bearing
the accuracy may 93
on a light
deteriorate in high latitudes
or landmark
Gyro-compass
bearing 0.75º X secant latitude
< 62
on a light (below 60º of latitude)
or landmark
Radio direction
±3º to ±10º 93 - 310 Figure 3 - nautical Chart (instituto hidrográfico - Portugal)
finder
±1º
Assuming a stabilized pre- the iMo definition[1] of a nautical chart or
Radar bearing 32
sentation and a reasonably nautical publication is a special-purpose map or
steady craft.
book, or a specially compiled database from
1 % of the maximum range of
Radar distance
the scale in use or 30 metres,
which such a map or book is derived, that is
measurement
whichever is the greater issued officially by or on the authority of a
Government, authorised hydrographic office or
depends on conditions.
Loran C was hyperbolic and other relevant government institution and is
LoRAn-C / ChAYKA provided 477m at edge of designed to meet the requirements of marine
coverage improving towards
stations navigation.
8-10 m differential Loran ac- nautical charts provide a graphical represen-

curacies experienced at port
eLoran approach, typically available tation of a plane surface of a section of the
within 30-50km of a differen- Earth’s sea surface constructed to include
tial reference station
known dangers and Marine Aids to navigation.
GnSS Generally 3-5m for GPS
dGnSS the principal international organization on
(itU-R M.823/1 1-3 m charting matters is the international hydrogra-
Format)
phic organization (iho). A principal aim of the
Approximately 1 nautical mile
dead Reckoning (dR) iho is to ensure that all the world's seas,
for each hour of sailing
oceans and navigable waters are surveyed and
table 2 - Fixing Processes and Systems
charted.
[ 16 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
the mission of the iho is to create a global solution in other parts of the world. Some
environment in which States provide adequate nautical charts still carry a legend referring to a
and timely hydrographic data, products and local datum, for instance, Ellipsoid hayford or
services and ensure their widest possible use. international – datum Potsdam, Paris or Lisbon.
the vision of the iho is to be the authoritative
worldwide hydrographic body which actively chart datum
engages all coastal and interested States to Chart datum is defined as the datum or plane
advance maritime safety and efficiency and of reference to which all charted depths and
which supports the protection and sustainable drying heights are related. it is relevant to a
use of the marine environment. iMo is the body localised area and is a level that the tide will not
responsible for determining international frequently fall below. it is usually defined in
standards for the quality of hydrographic terms of Lowest astronomical tide (and in some
surveys and chart production. cases by indian Spring Low Water).
2.5.2 datum Levelling datum or Vertical control datum

in its simplest form, a datum is an assumed or these are generic terms for levelling surfaces
defined starting point from which measurements that are used to determine levels or elevations.
are taken. Using nautical charts as an example:
• water depths are measured from Chart datum
A more complex example of a datum is a to the seabed;
Geodetic datum used in the mathematical • elevations of land masses and man-made
representation of the Earth’s surface. Many features are referenced to either Mean high
different data (plural of datum) have been Water Springs (where there are predominantly
devised over time to define the size and shape semi-diurnal tides) or Mean higher high Water
of the Earth and the origin and orientation of (where there are predominantly diurnal
coordinate systems for chart and mapping tides)[3];
applications. these have evolved from the • clearance heights for bridges are generally
consideration of a spherical Earth, through to referenced to highest Astronomical tide.
the geoid and ellipsoidal models, and also the
planar projections used for charts and maps. chart datum issues
Until satellite navigation became commonly
the geoid model considers the Earth’s surface used, nautical charts were generally produced
to be defined as the equipotential surface[2] to the local and national datum.
that would be assumed by the sea level in the the now widely used GnSS positioning uses an
absence of tides, currents, water density Earth centred datum referred to as World
variations and atmospheric effects. Geodetic System[4] 1984 (WGS-84) which is
A further approximation uses an ellipsoid, which considered to be the best compromise for
is a smooth mathematical surface, to give a best- representing the whole of Earth’s surface.
fit match of the geoid. Early ellipsoid models Generally, WGS-84 is the geodetic system
were developed to suit the mapping and associated with the differential correction
charting of local regions or countries. however, information broadcast by maritime dGnSS
they would not necessarily provide a satisfactory stations using the itU-R M.823/1 signal format.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 17 ]
Level description abbreviation
highest astronomical tide: the highest tidal level which can be predicted to occur under average meteorological condi-
hAt
tions and under any combination of astronomical conditions (iho dictionary, S-32, 5th Edition, 2244)
mean higher high Water: the average height of higher high waters at a place over a 19-year period. (iho dictionary, S-
MhhW
32, 5th Edition, 3140)
mean high Water springs: the average height of the high waters of spring tides. Also called spring high water. (iho dic-
MhWS
tionary, S-32, 5th Edition, 3144)
mean sea Level: the average height of the surface of the sea at a tide station for all stages of the tide over a 19-year pe-
riod, usually determined from hourly height readings measured from a fixed predetermined reference level (ChARt MSL
dAtUM). (iho dictionary, S-32, 5th Edition, 3156)
mean Low Water springs: the average height of the low waters of spring tides. this level is used as a tidal datum in some
MLWS
areas. Also called spring low water. (iho dictionary, S-32, 5th Edition, 3150)
mean Lower Low Water: the average height of the lower low waters at a place over a 19-year period. (iho dictionary, S-
MLLW
32, 5th Edition, 3145)
indian spring Low Water: a tidal datum approximating the level of the mean of the lower low water at spring tides. it was
first used in waters surrounding india. Also called indian tidal plane. (iho dictionary, S-32, 5th Edition, 2427) iSLW was iSLW
defined by G.h. darwin for the tides of india at a level below MSL and is found by subtracting the sum of the harmonic
constituents M2, S2, K1 and o1 from Mean Sea Level
Lowest astronomical tide: the lowest tide level which can be predicted to occur under average meteorological condi-
LAt
tions and under any combination of astronomical conditions. (iho dictionary, S-32, 5th Edition, 2936)
table 3 – Levels Relevant to Marine Aids to navigation in Coastal and Restricted Waters
Figure 4 - Levelling or Vertical Control datum (iho)
Figure 5 – Examples of GnSS notes on Charts
[ 18 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
1 2 3 4 5
[6]
ZOC Position [8] [9]
[7] Depth Seafloor Coverage Accuracy Typical survey Characteristics
Accuracy
A1 ±5 m + 5% =0,50+1%d [11]
Full area search undertaken. Controlled systematic survey high position and depth
depth
Depth Accuracy All significant seafloor features accuracy achieved using DGPS or a minimum three high quality
[10] lines of position (LOP) and a multibeam, channel or mechanical
(m) (m) detected and depths measured.
sweep system.
10 ±0,6
30 ±0,8
100 ±1,5
1000 ±10,5
A2 ±20 m =1,00+2%d Full area search undertaken. Controlled systematic survey achieving position and depth
All significant seafloor features accuracy less than ZOC A1 and using a modern survey echo-
Depth Accuracy [12]
detected and depths measured. sounder and a sonar or mechanical sweep system.
(m) (m)
10 ±1,2
30 ±1,6
100 ±3,0
1000 ±21,0
B ±50 m =1,00+2%d Full area search not achieved; Controlled systematic survey achieving similar depth but lesser
uncharted features, hazardous to position accuracy than ZOCA2, using a modern survey echo-
Depth Accuracy
surface navigation are not expected but sounder, but no sonar or mechanical sweep system.
(m) (m)
may exist.
10 ±1,2
30 ±1,6
100 ±3,0
1000 ±21,0
C ±500 m =2,00+5%d Full area search not achieved, depth Low accuracy survey or data collected on an opportunity
anomalies may be expected. basis such as sounding on passage.
Depth Accuracy
(m) (m)
10 ±2,5
30 ±3,5
100 ±7,0
1000 ±52
D Worse Worse than ZOC Full area search not achieved, large C Poor quality data or data that cannot be quality assessed due to
than ZOC depth anomalies may be expected. lack of information.
C
U Unassessed - The quality of the bathymetric data has yet to be assessed.
table 4 – Zones of Confidence (iho)
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 19 ]
iho S-4 Part B Section 200 recommends that all national paper charts.
countries that issue national navigational charts Mariners should always consider this informa-
should base these on the WGS 84 geodetic tion, as official charts (both electronic and
system. For many countries this simple objective paper) might be based on old measurements
of poor or unknown quality.
represents a formidable workload and will take
the accuracy requirements for general
a number of years to achieve. Consequently,
navigation can be related to the scale of the
many nautical charts will continue to refer to data
chart necessary for each part of the passage
other than WGS-84 and discrepancies of several
which in turn will be determined by the local
hundred metres can exist between a GnSS
conditions and type of vessel.
derived position and the charted position.
Chart scales with the corresponding accuracy
during this transitional period, it is important for
requirements recommended by iho and the
navigators and other persons using charts to:
equivalent dimension of a 0.5 mm dot on a
• be aware of the datum applicable to the chart
chart are found in table 5.
in use;
• include the applicable reference datum when
correspon- approximate pencil
communicating a measured position; chart
ding need width (0,5 mm) application
• determine whether or not a satellite derived scale
for accuracy equivalence (metres)
position can be directly plotted onto a chart. in ocean
1:10.000.000 10.000 5000
some cases a chart will include information for navigation
adjusting a satellite derived position to align to ocean
1:2.500.000 2.500 1250
navigation
the chart datum; ocean
1:750.000 750 375
• be aware that some GnSS receivers have the navigation
Coastal
facility to automatically convert (and display) 1:300.000 300 150
navigation
WGS- 84 positions into other geodetic Coastal
1:100.000 100 50
coordinate systems. the user should be aware of navigation
the settings that have been applied to the 1:50.000 50 25 Approach

receiver.
1:15.000 15 7,5 Approach
Examples of the styles of note found on some
Restricted
charts[5] are shown in Figure 5. 1:10.000 10 5
waters
1:5.000 5 2,5 harbour plans

2.5.3 accuracy oF charts
At a national level, it is important that the table 5 – Chart Scales [13], Applications [14]
and Related Accuracy Considerations
Authorities responsible for Marine Aids to
navigation and hydrographic services work
2.5.4 charted buoy positions
together to ensure that both the network
no reliance can be placed on floating aids always
and the mix of Marine Aids to navigation
maintaining their exact positions. Buoys should,
provided, and the available charts are
therefore be regarded with caution and not as
appropriate for mariners to navigate safely.
infallible navigating marks, especially when in
Source quality indication is provided
exposed positions. A ship should always, when
for official EnC charts (ZoC, zones of
possible, navigate by bearings of fixed objects or
confidence). Source quality indication might
angles between them, and not by buoys.
also be indicated on the back of some
[ 20 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
NOTeS gime, historical accuracy etc.

[1]SoLAS Chapter V, Regulation 2. [9]typical Survey Characteristics - these des-
[2]these have the same potential gravity at criptions should be seen as indicative exam-
each point. ples only.
[3]it should be noted that elevations of land [10] Significant seafloor features are defined
features on maps are generally referenced to as those rising above depicted depths by
Mean Sea Level. more than:
[4]the World geodetic system (WGS) is a depth Significant Feature
consistent set of parameters for describing a. <40 m 2m
the size and shape of the earth, positions of a b. >40 m 10% depth
network of points with respect to the centre of A full seafloor search indicates that a systema-
mass of the Earth, transformations from major tic survey was conducted using detection
geodetic data and the potential of the Earth. systems, depth measurement systems, proce-
(iMo Resolution A.860(20)). dures, and trained personnel designed to
[5]Examples taken from Australian Charts. detect and measure depths on significant
[6]the allocation of a ZoC indicates that par- seafloor features. Significant features are in-
ticular data meets minimum criteria for posi- cluded on the chart as scale allows. it is impos-
tion and depth accuracy and seafloor sible to guarantee that no significant feature
coverage defined in this table. ZoC catego- could remain undetected, and significant fea-
ries reflect a charting standard and not just a tures may have become present in the area
hydrographic survey standard. depth and po- since the time of the survey.
sition accuracies specified for each ZoC cate- [11] Controlled, systematic surveys (ZoC A1,
gory refer to the errors of the final depicted A2 and B) - surveys comprising planned sur-
soundings and include not only survey errors vey lines, on a geodetic datum that can be
but also other errors introduced in the chart transformed to WGS 84.
production process. [note: the rest of foot- [12] Modern survey echo-sounder - a high
note 1 does not apply to paper charts and is precision single beam depth measuring
therefore omitted from S-4]. equipment, generally including all survey
[7]Position Accuracy of depicted soundings at echo-sounders designed post 1970.
[13] the chart scale is generally referenced to
95% Ci (2.45 sigma) with respect to the given
a particular latitude eg.1:3000,000 at lat 27°
datum. it is the cumulative error and includes
15'S
survey, transformation and digitizing errors [14] this information may be helpful in asses-
etc. Position accuracy need not be rigorously sing the practical accuracy requirements for
computed for ZoCs B, C and d but may be es- laying buoy moorings.
timated based on type of equipment, calibra-
tion regime, historical accuracy etc.
[8]depth accuracy of depicted soundings = a
+ (bxd)/100 at 95% Ci (2.00 sigma), where d
= depth in metres at the critical depth. depth
accuracy need not be rigorously computed
for ZoCs B, C and d but may be estimated
based on type of equipment, calibration re-
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 21 ]
MARINE AIDS
TO NAVIGATION
A marine aid to navigation (aton) is a device, system or service, external to vessels, designed and operated
to enhance safe and efficient navigation of individual vessels and/or vessel traffic. A Marine Aid to Navigation
should not be confused with a navigational aid. A navigational aid is an instrument, device, chart, etc.,
carried on board a vessel for the purpose of assisting navigation.
This chapter describes the major types of visual and other physical Marine Aids to Navigation in current use
and provides comments on the application and performance of the various technologies.
Vessel Traffic Services (VTS), are also considered by IALA as satisfying the definition of a Marine Aid to
Navigation. However, these are covered in separate chapters due to their increasingly significant role in
contributing to navigation safety.
The concept of e-Navigation has recently gained significant momentum and a framework is being developed
under the auspices of the IMO. IALA has been requested by the IMO to develop the shore based aspects of
the conceptual framework and systems architecture for e-Navigation. Chapter 4 of the Navguide covers e-
Navigation. Radionavigation systems form a key element of the e-Navigation infrastructure and are therefore
covered in Chapter 4.
3.1OPerATIONAL requIreMeNTS a searchlight. this approach would generally

the primary objective of Marine Aids to only be acceptable for small boats operating
navigation is to mitigate transit risks and to in safe waterways and with the advantage of
promote the safe, economic, and efficient local knowledge.
movement of vessels by assisting navigators Visual Marine Aids to navigation are purpose-
with determining their position, a safe course, built facilities that communicate information
and warning them of dangers and to a trained observer on a vessel for the
obstructions, especially when used in purpose of assisting the task of navigation.
conjunction with other aids within visual, the communication process is referred to as
audio, or radar range of the mariner. marine signalling.
Common examples of visual Marine Aids to
3.2 VISuAL ANd AudIBLe MArINe navigation include lighthouses, beacons,
AIdS TO NAVIgATION deSIgN TheOry leading (range) lines, buoys (lit or unlit),
Visual marks for navigation can be either lightvessels, daymarks (dayboards) and traffic
natural or man-made objects. they include signals.
structures specifically designed as short range
Marine Aids to navigation, as well as the effectiveness of a visual Marine Aid to
conspicuous features such as headlands, navigation is determined by factors such as:
mountain-tops, rocks, trees, church-towers, • type and characteristics of the aid provided;
minarets, monuments, chimneys, etc. Short • location of the aid relative to typical routes
range Marine Aids to navigation can be fitted taken by vessels;
with a light if navigation at night is required, • distance (range) of the aid from the observer;
or left unlit if daytime navigation is sufficient. • atmospheric conditions;
• contrast relative to background conditions
navigation at night is possible, to a limited (conspicuity);
extent, if the unlit aids are provided with: • the reliability and availability of the aid.
• a radar reflector, and the navigating vessel
has a radar; Visual Marine Aids to navigation can be
• retro-reflecting material, and the vessel has distinguished by a wide range of characteristics
[ 24 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
such as: 3.2.1 VisuaL perception

• type; shape; size; colour; names, retro- When a navigator approaches a visual Aton,
reflective features; letters and numbers;
for instance a buoy, the first thing the
• lit/unlit; signal character; light intensity;
navigator will recognise is the shape or colour
sectors; inclusion of subsidiary aids;
of the buoy depending on the viewing
• fixed structure; floating platform;
conditions.
construction materials;
the navigator will subsequently recognise the
• location; elevation; relationship to other
Marine Aids to navigation and observable topmark and finally its numbers or letters.
features. thus, the process of identifying a visual Aton
goes through three different stages of
perception:
refer to iaLa publications • detection - the observer is aware of an
object. the navigator sees an object, but will
• Recommendation R0130(o-130) - Categorisa- usually not be able to deduce its shape or
tion and Availability objectives for Short Range colour and will not know that it is an Aton.
Aids to navigation; • recognition - the observer is aware that the
• Guideline G1035 - Availability and Reliability of
object is an Aton.
Aids to navigation – theory and Examples.
• identification - the observer is aware which
Aton the object is. At this distance, the
navigator can perfectly discern the type of
mark it is.
Visual perception requires some understan-

ding of a number of factors that impact the
ability of an observer to see an Aton. these
factors are summarised below.
3.2.1.1 siGnaL coLours

iALA has made recommendations on colours
for lighted Marine Aids to navigation and for
surface colours for visual signals on Marine
Aids to navigation.
Marine Aid to navigation signal lights use a
five-colour system comprising white, red,
green, yellow and blue, as defined in iALA
Recommendation R0201(E-200-1). the colour
regions defined in the iALA recommendation
are derived from those given in the
international Commission on illumination (CiE)
Photo - Courtesy of danish Maritime Authority Standard S 004/E 2001 Colours of Light Signals.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 25 ]
Recommended surface colours for visual

signals on Marine Aids to navigation are as
follows:
• ordinary colours should be limited to white,
black, red, green, yellow or blue[2].
• orange and fluorescent red, yellow, green
or orange may be used for special purposes
requiring high conspicuity.
refer to iaLa publications:
• Recommendation R0106(E-106) - the Use of

Retroreflecting Material on Aids to navigation
Marks within the iALA Maritime Buoyage System
• Recommendation R1001 - iALA Maritime Figure 6 - illustration of the Colour Zones on the 1931 CiE
Chromaticity diagram - Please note that the colour rendering
Buoyage System; is only indicative and should not be taken as fully accurate
• Recommendation R0108(E-108) – the Surface
Colours Used as Visual Signals on Marine Aids to
navigation;
• Guideline G1015 - Painting Aids to navigation
Buoys (including reference to the practical guide
on surface colours).
the CiE standard on the measurement of colours

(colorimetry) is based on three reference colours
(i.e. a tri-stimulus system) that in varying
combination can generate the visual spectrum of
colours. A particular colour function is described
by the symbols; X, Y and Z that represent the Figure 7 - iALA Chromaticity Areas of ordinary Surface Colours -
proportions of the reference colours. As plotted on the 1983 CiE Chromaticity diagram - courtesy of CiE
Using ratios of the tri-stimulus values, such that:
X + Y + Z = 1, colours can be defined in terms if the chromaticity co-ordinates of a coloured
of chromaticity using just the x = X / (X+Y+Z) light, filter material or a paint product are known,
and y = Y / (X+Y+Z) values. the advantage of its acceptability for marine signalling applications
this arrangement is that colours can be mapped can easily be determined.
on a two-dimensional chromaticity diagram. Further information on surface colours can be
CiE colour standards for marine signalling can found in iALA Recommendation R0108(E-108)
be depicted as areas on the chromaticity on the surface colours used as visual signals on
diagram. these areas are defined by Marine Aids to navigation. information for light
boundaries expressed as functions of x and y signal colours is shown in iALA Recommendation
(equations). R0201(E-200-1) for the colours for light signals
[ 26 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
on Marine Aids to navigation. For further details atmospheric transmissivity for different parts
on this issue, refer to CiE S 004/E-2001 Colours of their coastline. this enables the luminous
of Light Signals. [3] range of lights to be:
• calculated more precisely;
3.2.1.2 meteoroLoGicaL VisibiLity • better matched to local conditions and user
Meteorological visibility (V) is defined as the grea- requirements.
test distance at which a black object of suitable
dimensions can be seen and recognised by day 3.2.1.4 atmospheric reFraction
against the horizon sky, or, in the case of night ob- this phenomenon results from the normal de-
servations, could be seen if the general illumina- crease in atmospheric density from the Earth’s
tion were raised to the normal daytime level. it is surface to the stratosphere. this causes light
usually expressed in kilometres or nautical miles. rays that are directed obliquely through the
atmosphere to be refracted (or bent) towards
the Earth in accordance with Snell’s Law.
3.2.1.5 contrast
the ability to detect differences in luminance
between an object and an otherwise uniform
background is a basic visual requirement and
is used to define the term contrast. it is
represented by the equation:
Photo Courtesy of Australian Maritime Safety Authority.
3.2.1.3 atmospheric transmissiVity

the atmospheric transmissivity (t) is defined
as the transmittance, or proportion of light
from a source, that remains after passing
through a specified distance through the
atmosphere, at sea level. this is expressed as
a ratio. But since the atmosphere is not
uniform over the observing distances of most the contrast at which an object can be
visual aids, a representative value is used: detected against a given background for 50%
• typically, the atmospheric transmissivity is of the time, is called the threshold contrast.
taken as t = 0.74 over one nautical mile, For meteorological observations, a higher
meaning that 26% of the light is "lost" every threshold must be used to ensure that the
one nautical mile due to the atmospheric object is recognised.
transmissivity;
• a figure of t = 0.86 is occasionally used in A contrast value of 0.05 has been adopted as
regions where the atmosphere is very clear. the basis for the measurement of meteorolo-
A number of countries collect data on gical optical range.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 27 ]
3.2.1.6 use oF binocuLars the values in table 6 are derived from the
While it is generally assumed that observa- formula:
tions will be made with the naked eye, mari-
ners will quite often use binoculars. this can
allow:
• a light being observed, or the characteris-
tics resolved, at a greater luminous range than
with the naked eye;
• a limited improvement in the sensitivity of
leading lights; the factor 2.03 accounts for refraction in the
• about a 30% improvement in the detectable atmosphere. Climatic variations around the
difference from a given bearing; world may lead to different factors being
• the identification of a light operating against recommended. the typical range of factors is
background lighting conditions. 2.03 to 2.12.
Generally, the most suitable binoculars for use
at sea are considered to be the type with a 3.2.2 daymarks
magnifying power of 7 and an objective lens of A daymark is a structure with defined shape
50 mm at night, and 10 x 50 binoculars by day. and colour with the purpose of assisting with
marine navigation during daylight.
3.2.1.7 GeoGraphicaL ranGe A number of factors impact the suitability and
this is the greatest distance at which an object effectiveness of a structure as a daymark, and
or a light source could be seen under these are considered below.
conditions of perfect visibility, as limited only
by the curvature of the earth, by refraction of 3.2.2.1 VisibiLity oF a mark
the atmosphere, and by the elevation of the the visibility of a mark is affected by one or
observer and the object or light. more of the following factors:
As the observer moves further away from the • observing distance (range);
object or light source, there will come a point • curvature of the Earth;
where the object or light source is obscured • atmospheric refraction;
by the Earth. this is illustrated in table 6. • atmospheric transmissivity (meteorological
visibility);
Observer Eye Elevation of Mark/metres
• height of the aid above sea level;
Height Metres
• observer’s visual perception;
0 1 2 3 4 5 10 50 100 200 300
• observer’s height of eye;
1 2.0 4.1 4.9 5.5 6.1 6.6 8.5 16.4 22.3 30.8 37.2 • observing conditions (day or night);
2 2.9 4.9 5.7 6.4 6.9 7.4 9.3 17.2 23.2 31.6 38.1
• conspicuity of the mark (shape, size, colour,
5
reflectance, and the properties of any retro-
4.5 6.6 7.4 8.1 8.6 9.1 11.0 18.9 26.9 33.3 39.7
reflecting material);
10 6.4 8.5 9.3 9.9 10.5 11.0 12.8 20.8 26.7 35.1 41.6
• contrast (type of background such as
20 9.1 11.1 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.6 15.5 23.4 29.4 37.8 44.2 lighting, vegetation, snow, etc.);
30 11.1 13.2 14.0 14.6 15.2 15.7 17.5 25.5 31.4 39.8 46.3 • mark lit or unlit;
table 6 - Geographical Range table in nautical Miles • intensity and character.
[ 28 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
refer to iaLa publications: eye evaluates a light source, as shown in table 7.

the spectral sensitivity of the human eye (or the
• Recommendation R0106(E-106) - the Use response of the eye to different coloured light)
of Retroreflecting Material on Aids to has been evaluated in tests of large numbers of
navigation Marks within the iALA Maritime people. the results have been presented as a
Buoyage System. standard spectral sensitivity distribution or V(λ)
• Recommendation R0108(E-108) - the curve for photopic (daytime) observers and V’(λ)
Surface Colours Used as Visual Signals on for scotopic (night time) observers.
Marine Aids to navigation.
3.2.2.2 ranGe oF a VisuaL mark

the range of a Marine Aid to navigation can
broadly be defined as the distance at which the
observer’s receiver can detect and resolve the
signal. in the case of visual marks the observer’s
receivers are his/her eyes. this broad definition
of range leads to a number of more specific
definitions that are described below.
Figure 9 - Spectral Sensitivity distributions or V(λ)

and V'(λ) Curves for the human observer.
Figure 8 - Effect of Exceeding Geographical Range
3.2.3 LIghTS
3.2.3.1 photometry oF marine aids to

naViGation siGnaL LiGhts
the science of observing visible light is called
photometry, and provides a basis for creating
standards for Marine Aids to navigation signal
lights. Generally, electromagnetic radiation is
described by its wavelength in metres and its
power in Watts. Figure 10 - Chromaticity Regions of the Recommended
however, the study of photometry and the use iALA Colours for Lights
of lights for signal application has necessitated a
parallel set of units to be developed to account iALA optimum boundaries are represented by
for the physiological aspects of how the human solid lines while iALA temporary boundaries
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 29 ]
are represented by dashed lines. cameras. ‘imaging photometers’, as they are

colorimetric measurement of Lights known, are little more than calibrated digital
(Colour Measurement) cameras, some with tristimulus filtering. they
the measurement of the colour of lights is des- are capable of fast measurement of a whole
cribed in CiE Publication no 15.2 (1986) Colo- scene, making them useful for work outside the
rimetry. there are two main types of instrument
laboratory.
for measuring the colour of a light: one is a co-
lorimeter; the other is a spectroradiometer.
in summary:
colorimeters usually comprise three photore-
• tristimulus colorimeters are fast, however
ceptors, each with a coloured filter. Each filter
cheaper models suffer errors when measuring
is matched to the response of one of the three
narrowband light sources such as LEds;
eye receptors, red green and blue and such de-
vices are called ‘tristimulus’ colorimeters. • Stepping monochromators are expensive
and slow but very accurate;
the colorimeter gives three outputs, one for
• Array-based spectroradiometers are fast,
each filtered receptor, and these correspond to
relatively inexpensive, but can suffer with stray
the X, Y and Z functions of the human observer.
light errors;
spectroradiometers consist of a monochroma-
• imaging photometers are expensive and not
tor and photoreceptor. the monochromator
very accurate, but can record a whole scene
splits the light into individual wavelengths
and not just one light.
(much like a prism makes a rainbow) and is
usually rotated in steps past an exit slit. the Resultant data from colour measurements are
photoreceptor, behind the exit slit, measures usually displayed on a chromaticity chart,
different sections of the spectrum as the mono- developed by the CiE in 1931. the three X, Y, Z
chromator is rotated. the output is a series of values are reduced to two x, y values as shown
readings enabling a graph of power against in Figure 11.
wavelength to be displayed. Results may then
be weighted with the X, Y and Z functions of the
human observer to produce colour information.
Stepping monochromators of the type descri-
bed previously are fairly slow in operation and
are not suitable for measuring flashing lights.
tristimulus colorimeters, on the other hand, en-
able much faster measurements of colour. new
types of spectradiometer, known as ‘array-
based’ spectroradiometers, are now available.
instead of a single photoreceptor and a rota-
ting monochromator, a fixed monochromator
has its output directed at an array of charge- Figure 11 - CiE 1931 x,y Chromaticity Chart
coupled devices (CCds). Such devices are ca-
pable of much faster measurement speeds threshold of illuminance
than stepping monochromators. in physical terms, the threshold of illuminance
Recent developments in colour measurement is the lowest level of illuminance from a point
have resulted from the technology of digital source of light, against a given background
[ 30 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
units of measurement
Term Description Unit Abbreviation
Luminous flux This is the total light emitted from the source (i.e. lamp) The peak lumens lm
sensitivity of the human eye occurs at about 555 nanometres, a wavelength
that corresponds to green. At this wavelength, the photometric equivalent
of one watt is defined as 680 lumens.
This is the part of the luminous flux in a particular direction. Also

Luminous candela cd
expressed as the luminous flux per solid angle (or steradian 15 )
intensity
Luminance This is the portion of the luminous flux emitted in a specific direction candelas per square meter cd/m2
(Brilliance) by the surface area of a luminous body. Luminance is an important and also as candelas per cd/cm2
term for rating the brightness impression of light sources and square centimetre
illuminated objects.
Illuminance This is the density of the luminous flux incident on a surface. It is the lux (lumens/square metre) lx
quotient of the luminous flux by the area of the surface when the surface
is uniformly illuminated
Luminous This is the ratio of luminous output to radiometric output of a light source. lumens per watt of
efficacy It can also be applied to the efficiency with which electrical power is electrical power
converted to visible radiation. consumed
Colour This related to the temperature of a black body. As a body heats up, it goes Kelvin ºK
temperature through a series of different colours from red through yellow and white, to
blue white. The colour appearance of a tungsten filament lamp is similar to
a black body at the same temperature.
Colour Characterises the colour rendering quality of the light from a lamp. It is CRI
rendering the same for all incandescent lamps by definition and equal to the
index maximum value of 100.
table 7 – Photometric Units of Measurement
level of luminance, that causes a visual this condition is to be met at the outer limits
response at the eye. For visual signalling of the useful segment for the minimum
applications, the threshold of illuminance (E) meteorological visibility under which the
is taken to be 0.2 μlux at the eye of the leading lights are to be used. iALA
observer. in the case of leading lights of Recommendation R0201 – R0204 series and
limited range and with a high level of shore its associated guidance provides the method
illumination, the above figures may be found of designing Aton lights for use in daylight.
too low. it is recommended that to observe the For lights on floating aids, care must be taken
relative position of the lights easily and to to provide adequate vertical divergence so
derive the maximum possible accuracy from that the minimum illuminance at the observer
leading and sector lights, it is generally is maintained as the floating aid rolls and
necessary to have a minimum illuminance of 1 pitches.
μlux at the eye of the observer.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 31 ]
Luminous intensity Allard’s law applies only when the luminance

the luminous intensity of a navigation light is of the background is small compared to the
directly proportional to the luminance of the average illuminance of the light.
light source. the luminance of a light source
depends on its size and the luminous flux in
the direction of observation. the vertical and
horizontal divergence is also directly
proportional to the size of the light source.
Candela (cd) is the measurement unit used to
quantify the luminous intensity of a light.
inverse square Law
Light emitted from a source radiates out in all
directions. For a point source, the wave fronts refer to iaLa publication:
of light can be imagined to generate a series
of spherical surfaces. As shown in Figure 12, • Recommendation R0202(E-200-2) - Marine
the further the light travels from the source, Signal Lights - Calculation, definition and
the greater is the surface area of the sphere notation of Luminous Range
and consequently, the lower the illuminance.
Since illuminance is measured in lumens per
square metre, and the surface area of a sphere 3.2.3.2 rhythms and characters
increases in proportion to the square of the ra- iALA has produced a recommendation on the
dius, the illuminance decreases in proportion characters for light on Marine Aids to
to the square of the distance from the source. navigation. the tables of classifications and
the decline in illuminance with distance is specifications of Marine Aid to navigation
described as an inverse-square law. characters are provided in table 8.
Refer to iALA publication:
refer to iaLa publication:
• Recommendation E-110 - Rhythmic Charac-

ters of Lights on Aids to navigation.
Figure 12 - illustration of the inverse Square Law Concept.
allard’s Law the Rhythmic Characters of Lights are

the illuminance of a light source reaching an provided in table 9.
observer’s eye determines whether the light
is seen. the relationship between the
illuminance produced at the observer’s eye,
the luminous intensity of the light source, the
distance to the observer and the atmospheric
transmissivity is given by the relationships
shown in Allard’s Law:
[ 32 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
General Particular use in the IALA
Class Abbreviation IALA Specification
description Maritime Buoyage System
1 FIXED F A light showing A single fixed light should be used with care because it may not be A single fixed light shall not be
LIGHT continuously and recognized as a Marine Aid to Navigation light. used.
steadily.
2 OCCULTING A light in which the A light in which the total duration of light in a period is clearly longer
LIGHT total duration of light than the total duration of darkness and all the eclipses are of equal
in a period is longer duration.
than the total duration
of darkness and the
intervals of darkness
(eclipses) are usually
of equal duration.
2.1 Single- Oc An occulting light in The duration of an appearance of light should not be less than three A single-occulting White light
occulting light which an eclipse is times the duration of an eclipse. The period should not be less than indicates a safe-water mark.
regularly repeated 2s
1 3d
p 2s
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Example: l = 3 s; d = 1 s; p = 4 s
[ 33 ]
[ 34 ]
General Particular use in the IALA
Class Abbreviation IALA Specification
description Maritime Buoyage System
2.2 Group-occulti Oc(#) An occulting light in The appearances of light between the eclipses in a group are of equal A group-occulting Yellow light
ng light e.g. Oc(2) which a group of duration, and this duration is clearly shorter than the duration of the indicates a special mark.
eclipses, specified in appearance of light between successive groups.
number, is regularly The number of eclipses in a group should not be greater than four in
repeated. general, and should be five only as an exception.
The duration of an appearance of light within a group should not be
less than the duration of an eclipse.
The duration of an appearance of light between groups should not be
less than three times the duration of an appearance of light within a
group.
In a group of two eclipses, the duration of an eclipse together with the
duration of the appearance of light within a, group should not be less
than 1 s.
In a group of three or more eclipses, the duration of an eclipse
together with the duration of an appearance of light within the group
should not be less than 2 s.
l' 3l
Oc(2) 1 d
Example: l’ = 6 s; l = 2 s; d = 1 s; c = 3 c 1s
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
s; p = 10 s
2.3 Composite Oc(#+#) A light similar to a This class of light character is not recommended because it is
group-occultin e.g. Oc(2 + 1) group-occulting light difficult to recognize.
g light except that successive
groups in a period 1’’ l’
l’ 3 l
have different Oc(2+1)

numbers of eclipses. l d
Example: l’’ = 9 s; l’ = 3 s; l = 1 s; d = 1 c 1s
s; c = 2 s; p = 16 s
Particular use in the IALA
Class Abbreviation General description IALA Specification
Maritime Buoyage System
3 ISOPHASE Iso A light in which all the The period should never be less than 2 s, but preferably it should An isophase White light
LIGHT durations of light and not be less than 4 s in order to reduce the risk of confusion with indicates a safe-water mark.
darkness are clearly occulting or flashing lights of similar periods.
equal.
l=d
p 2s
Example: l = d = 2 s; p = 4 s
4 FLASHING A light in which the total A light in which the total duration of light in a period is clearly
LIGHT duration of light in a shorter than the total duration of darkness and all the flashes are of
period is shorter than the equal duration.
total duration of darkness
and the appearances of
light (flashes) are usually
of equal duration.
4.1 Single Fl A flashing light in which The duration of the interval of darkness (eclipse) between two A single-flashing Yellow light
flashing light a flash is regularly successive flashes should not be less than three times the duration indicates a special mark.
repeated (at a rate of less of a flash.
than 50 flashes per The period should not be less than 2 s (or not less than 2.5 s in
minute). those countries where a quick rate of 50 flashes per minute is
used).
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
d 3l
p 2s
Example: d = 3 s; l = 1 s; p = 4 s
[ 35 ]
[ 36 ]
4.2 Long LFI A single-flashing light in A long-flashing White light
flashing light which an appearance of with a period of 10 s indicates a
d 3l
light of not less than 2 s safe-water mark.
l 2s
duration (long flash) 1 is
regularly repeated. Example: d = 8 s; l = 2 s; p = 10 s
4.3 Group Fl(#) A flashing light in which The eclipses between the flashes in a group are of equal duration, A group-flashing White light
flashing light e.g. Fl(2) a group of flashes, and this duration is clearly shorter than the duration of the eclipse with a group of two flashes, in a
specified in number, is between successive groups. period of 5 s or 10 s, indicates
regularly repeated. The number of flashes in a group should not be greater than five in an isolated-danger mark.
general, and should be six only as an exception. A group-flashing Yellow light
The duration of an eclipse within a group should not be less than with a group of four, five or
the duration of a flash. (exceptionally) six flashes
The duration of an eclipse between groups should not be less than indicates a special mark
three times the duration of an eclipse within a group.
In a group of two flashes, the duration of a flash together with the
duration of the eclipse within the group should not be less than 1 s.
In a group of three or more flashes, the duration of a flash together
with the duration of an eclipse within a group should not be less
than 2 s (or not less than 2.5 s in those countries where a quick rate
of 50 flashes per minute is used).
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
d’ 3 d
Fl(2) d l
Example: d’ = 6 s; d = 2 s; l = 1 s; c c 1s
= 3 s; p = 10 s
4.4 Composite Fl(# + #) A light similar to a Light characters should be restricted to (2 + 1) flashes in general, A composite group-flashing
group-flashing e.g. group-flashing light and should be (3 + 1) flashes only as an exception. Red or Green light with a group
light Fl(2 + 1) except that successive of (2 + 1) flashes indicates a
groups in a period have d’’ d’ modified lateral
different numbers of d’ 3 d (preferred-channel) mark.
Fl(2+1)
flashes. d l A composite group-flashing
Example: d’’ = 9 s; d’ = 3 s; d = 1 s; l c 1s Yellow light indicates a special
= 1 s; c = 2 s; p = 16 s mark.
1
the term “long flash”, which is used in the descriptions of the long-flashing light and of the light characters reserved for south cardinal marks,
means an appearance of light of not less than 2 seconds duration. the term “short flash” is not commonly used and does not appear in the Classi-
fication. if an Authority requires discrimination between two flashing lights that only differ in having flashes of different durations, then the longer
flash should be described as “long flash” and be of not less than 2 seconds duration, and the shorter flash may be described as “short flash” and
should be of not more rhythmic character of such a light is than one third of the duration of the longer flash.
5 QUICK A light in which flashes A light in which identical flashes are repeated at the rate of 60
LIGHT are repeated at a rate of flashes per minute.
not less than 50 flashes
per minute but less than
80 flashes per minute.
5.1 Continuous Q A quick light in which a A continuous quick White light
quick light flash is regularly d l indicates a north cardinal mark.
repeated. ls p 1.2 s
Example: l = d = 0.5 s; p = 1 s
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
[ 37 ]
[ 38 ]
5.2 Group quick Q(#) A quick light in which The number of flashes in a group should be three or nine. An
light e.g. Q(3) a specified group of exceptional light character is reserved for use in the IALA
e.g. Q(9) flashes is regularly Maritime Buoyage System to indicate a south cardinal mark.
e.g. Q(6) + LFl repeated. Q(3) A group quick White light
d l with a group of three flashes,
d’>d in a period of 10 s, indicates
Example: d’ = 7.5 s; l = d = 0.5 s; c = 1 1 s c an east cardinal mark.
s ; p = 10 s 1.2 s
Q(9) A group quick White light

d l with a group of nine flashes,
d’>d in a period of 15 s, indicates
Example: d’ = 6.5 s; l = d = 0.5 s; c = 1 1s c a west cardinal mark.
s; p = 15 s 1.2 s
Q(6)+ d' 3 l’ A group quick White light

LF1 l’ 2 s with a group of six flashes
d l followed by a long flash of
Example: d’ = 7 s; l’ = 2 s; l = d = 0.5 1s c not less than 2 s duration, in
s; 1.2 s a period of 15 s, indicates a
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
c = 1 s.; p = 15 s south cardinal mark.
6 VERY A light in which A light in which identical flashes are repeated at the rate of 120
QUICK flashes are repeated at flashes per minute.
LIGHT a rate of not less than
80 flashes per minute
but less than 160
flashes per minute.

6.1 Continuous VQ A very quick light in d l A continuous very quick
very quick which a flash is 0.5 s p White light indicates a north
light regularly repeated. 1.6 s cardinal mark.
Example: l = d = 0.25 s; p = 0.5 s
6.2 Group very VQ(#) A very quick light in The number of flashes in a group should be three or nine. An
quick light e.g. VQ(3) which a specified exceptional light character is reserved for use in the IALA
e.g. VQ(9) group of flashes is Maritime Buoyage System to indicate a south cardinal mark.
e.g. regularly repeated. VQ(3) d' 1,5 s A group very quick White
VQ(6)+LFl d l light with a group of three
0.5 s c flashes, in a period of 5 s,
Example: d’ = 3.75 s; l = d = 0.25 s; 0.6 s indicates an east cardinal
c = 0.5 s; p = 5 s mark.
VQ(9) d' 1.5 s A group very quick White
d l light with a group of nine
0.5 s c flashes, in a period of 10 s,
Example: d’ = 5.75 s; l = d = 0.25 s; 0.6 s indicates a west cardinal
c = 0.5 s; p = 10 s mark.
VQ(6)+ d' 1.5 l’ A group very quick White
LF1 l’ 2 s light with a group of six
d l flashes followed by a long
Example: d’ = 5 s; l’ = 2 s; l = d = 0.5 s c flash of not less than 2 s
0.25 s; c = 0.5 s; p = 10 s 0.6 s duration, in a period of 10 s,
indicates a south cardinal
mark.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
7 ULTRA A light in which A light in which identical flashes are repeated at the rate of 240
QUICK flashes are repeated at flashes per minute.
LIGHT a rate of not less than
160 flashes per minute
and not more than 300
flashes per minute.
7.1 Continuous UQ An ultra quick light in

ultra quick which a flash is
light regularly repeated.
[ 39 ]
[ 40 ]
8 MORSE Mo(#) A light in which Light characters should be restricted to a single letter in the Morse A Morse Code White light
CODE LIGHT e.g. Mo(A) appearances of light of Code in general, and should be two letters only as an exception. with the single character "A"
two clearly different The duration of a "dot" should be about 0.5 s, and the duration of a indicates a safe-water mark.
durations are grouped "dash" should not be less than three times the duration of a "dot". A Morse Code Yellow light,
to represent a character Mo(A) l' 3 l but not with either of the
or characters in the d l single characters "A" or "U"*,
Morse Code. l = 0.5 s indicates a special mark.
Example: l’ = 1.5 s; l = 0.5 s; d = 0.5
s; d’ = 4.5 s; p = 7 s
9 FIXED AND F+ A light in which a low Implementation of an FFl rhythmic character is shown below.
FLASHING relevant intensity fixed light Other combinations may be implemented as necessary.
LIGHT character phase is combined
d 3l
abbreviation, with a flashing phase
l 1s
e.g. FFl, FIso of higher luminous
intensity compliant
with preceding classes Example: d = 3 s; l = 1 s; p = 4 s
of rhythmic characters
in this table.
10 ALTERNATI Al## A light showing This class of light character should be used with care, and efforts
NG LIGHT e.g. AlWR different colours should be made to ensure that the different colours appear equally
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
alternately. visible to an observer.
AlWR l d
Example: l = d = 2 s; p = 4 s
11 OCCULTING OcAl A light showing OcAlBY This class of light is particular to the use An Occulting-Alternating Blue
ALTERNATI different colours of Emergency Wreck Marking, and and Yellow light indicates an
NG LIGHT alternately and a light efforts should be made to ensure that the Emergency Wreck Marking
in which the total different colours appear equally visible Buoy mark.
duration of light in an to an observer.
period is longer than
the total duration of I d I d
darkness and the I = 1s d = 0.5s p = 3s
intervals of darkness
(eclipses) are of equal
duration
table 8 - Classification of the Rhythmic Characters of Lights

Mark Rhythmic character of the light Remarks and further recommendations
LATERAL All recommended classes of rhythmic Only the colours Red and Green are used.
character , but a composite group flashing
light with a group of (2 + 1) flashes is
solely assigned to modified lateral marks
that indicate preferred channels.
Modified Composite group flashing light with a The duration of the eclipse after the single flash should not be less
lateral group of (2 + 1) flashes, in a period of not than three times the duration of the eclipse after the group of two
(preferred more than 16 s flashes.
channel)
CARDINAL Only the colour White is used.
North cardinal (a) Continuous very quick light.

(b) Continuous quick light.
East cardinal (a) Group very quick light with a group

of three flashes, in a period of 5 s. (b)
Group quick light with a group of three
flashes, in a period of 10 s.
South cardinal (a) Group very quick light with a group of The duration of the eclipse immediately preceding a long flash should
six flashes followed by a long flash of not be equal to the duration of the eclipses between the flashes at the very
less than 2 s duration, in a period of 10 s. quick rate. The duration of a long flash should not be greater than the
(b) Group quick light with a group of six duration of the eclipse immediately following the long flash. The
flashes followed by a long flash of not less duration of the eclipse immediately preceding a long flash should be
than 2 s duration, in a period of 15 s. equal to the duration of the eclipses between the flashes at the quick
rate. The duration of a long flash should not be greater than the
duration of the eclipse immediately following the long flash.
West cardinal (a) Group very quick light with a group of

nine flashes, in a period of 10 s. (b) Group
quick light with a group of nine flashes, in
a period of 15 s.
ISOLATED (a) Group flashing light with a group of Only the colour White is used. The duration of a flash together
DANGER two flashes, in a period of 5 s. (b) Group with the duration of the eclipse within the group should be not less
flashing light with a group of two flashes, than 1 s and not more than 1.5 s. The duration of a flash together
in a period of 10 s. with the duration of the eclipse within the group should be not less
than 2 s and not more than 3 s.
SAFE WATER 8 Long flashing light with a period of Only the colour White is used.
10 s.
9 Isophase light. (c) Single occulting light.
(d) Morse Code light with the single
character "A".
SPECIAL (a) Group occulting light. (b) Single Only the colour Yellow is used.
flashing light, but not a long flashing light A group flashing light with a group of five flashes at a rate of 30
with a period of 10 s. (c) Group flashing flashes per minute, in a period of 20 s, is assigned to Ocean Data
light with a group of four, five or Acquisition Systems (ODAS) buoys.
(exceptionally) six flashes. (d) Composite
group flashing light. (e) Morse Code light,
but not with either of the single characters
"A" or “U”` .
table 9 - Rhythmic Characters[4] of the Lights in the iALA Maritime Buoyage System[5]
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 41 ]
maximum periods for Light characters

Maximum period
Character Class
(seconds)
Isophase light 12
Single-occulting light 15
Single-flashing light 15
Group very quick light 15
Group-occulting light of two eclipses 20
Long-flashing light 20
Group-flashing lights of two flashes 20
Group-quick light 20
Group-occulting light of three or more eclipses 30
Group-flashing light of three or more flashes 30
table 10 - Maximum Period for Composite group-flashing light 30

Rhythmic Characters of Marine Aids
to navigation Lights Morse code light 30
timing of astronomical events Typical

Event Condition Illumination Comment
the night-time operation of
Lux
lighted Marine Aids to
navigation is emphasised but Sunset/Sunrise Upper edge of the 600
daytime role is often as sun’s disc is
important. the astronomical coincident with the
horizon.
events that define the
transitions from day to night Civil wilight Centre of sun is at a 6 Large objects are seen but
are shown below. (start /end) depression angle of detail are not discernible.
six (6) degrees below Brightest stars and planets
the horizon. are visible and the sea
horizon is clearly defined.
Nautical Centre of sun is at a 0.06 It is dark for normal

Twilight depression angle of practical purposes and the
twelve (12) degrees sea horizon is not normally
(start /end) below the horizon. visible.
Astronomical Centre of sun is at a 0.0006 Illumination is less than that

Twilight depression angle of from starlight and other
eighteen (18) natural light sources in the
(start /end) degrees below the sky.
table 11 - timing of
Astronomical Events horizon.
[ 42 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
switch-on / switch-off Light Levels this table assumes an atmospheric transmissivity of

For lighted Marine Aids to navigation that only t=0.74 and a threshold of illumination of 0.2 μlux.
operate at night, the ambient light levels at which
an Aton light switches on should be chosen so that 3.2.3.3 backGround LiGhtinG
the Aton light switches on while the ambient light nominal range at night is calculated with no
level is sufficiently high to allow safe navigation, allowance for glare from background lighting.
while not switching on during overcast conditions Excessive background lighting, from street
when the Aton is not necessary for safe navigation. lights, neon signs etc., frequently makes a
Marine Aid to navigation light less effective and,
refer to iaLa publications: in some cases, it becomes completely lost in the
general background clutter. Such a light can be
• Guideline G1038 - Methods and Ambient
made more conspicuous by increasing its
Light Levels for the Activation of Aton Lights.
intensity, changing its colour or by varying its
rhythm.
night operations
3.2.3.4 GLare
nominal range and Luminous intensity
Glare can be caused by bright lights emitted
table 12 is an extract of the iALA recommendation
from the shore, such as car headlights, or from
R0202(E200-2) Marine Signal Lights - Calculation,
another vessel indiscreetly using a search-light.
definition and notation of Luminous Range and
A Marine Aid to navigation light can also cause
provides a conversion between nominal range and
glare if it is too bright for the shortest viewing dis-
luminous intensity.
tance, especially when the focal plane of the light
and the observer’s eye are at the same height.
this situation can arise with two station leading
lines. For Marine Aids to navigation lights, it is
generally accepted that the illuminance at the
eye of the navigator from the light:
• should not exceed 0.1 lux;
• should be reduced to 0.01 lux if the
background is very dark.
• Recommendation E-112 - Leading Lights

(including excel program);
• Guideline G1023 - the design of Leading
Lines.
in situations where glare is a problem, one or

more of the following alterations may lead to
table 12 - night time nominal range table (rounded a satisfactory result:
off to the nearest nautical mile) • raise the focal plane of the light so that the
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 43 ]
mariner uses the loom of the light or a less intense nous intensity of a light is likely to degrade bet-
part of the vertical distribution of the light; ween service (maintenance) intervals. there are
• reducing the intensity of the light source; several components to this degradation:
• reducing the size of the optic; • meteorological conditions (which may only
• masking the optic with, for example, be temporary);
perforated metal sheet; • dirt and salt deposition (which can be
• screen unnecessary arcs of the light; minimised by an efficient regular programme
• use two or more lower intensity lights of cleaning of the optical system and housing);
instead of one higher intensity light. • progressive deterioration of the light source
Whatever methods are used, it will be over the service interval.
necessary to measure or calculate the it is clearly impossible to represent such a
intensity and distribution of the modified light complex array of factors in any simple way, and
or lighting system. a proper assessment of the various effects
could only be made by measurements on site
3.2.3.5 intensity Losses at regular intervals. however, in order to give a
Some lighting equipment has to be installed more realistic figure for the performance of the
inside a protective lantern housing. Unless it is light under normal operating conditions than
practicable to measure the luminous intensity of when the luminous intensity is measured in a
the complete installation, it is normal practice to laboratory or on a photometric range, it may be
apply a de-rating factor to the intensity of the appropriate to apply a service conditions factor
lighting equipment to allow for the reflection and to the measured intensity.
transmission losses at the lantern glazing,
generally referred to as the glazing loss factor. refer to iaLa publications:
Glazing bars or astragals may reduce the intensity
• Recommendation R0202 (E200-2) - Marine
of the light at certain bearings. the installation of
Signal Lights – Calculation, definition and
non-vertical astragals will overcome this reduction
notation of Luminous Range.
to a certain extent. the focal plane of the light
should be positioned away from any horizontal
glazing bars or intersection.
3.2.3.7 day operations
iALA recommends that, in the absence of more
A number of authorities have established
definitive information, the glazing loss factor be
daytime lighted leading lines in major ports and
taken as 0.85 for a system in clean condition.
waterways to achieve a more consistent
performance than is possible with dayboards.
• Recommendation E200-5 - Marine Signal refer to iaLa publications:

Lights – Estimation of the Performance of
optical Apparatus. • Recommendation R0202 (E200-2) - Marine
Signal Lights – Calculation, definition and
notation of Luminous Range;
3.2.3.6 serVice conditions Factor • Recommendation E-111 - Port traffic Signals.
Under normal operating conditions the lumi-
[ 44 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Figure 13 and table 13 are extracts of luminous range of a light of 2 000 000 cd for
recommendation R0202(E-200-2) – Marine a meteorological visibility of 2 nautical miles
Signal Lights – Calculation, definition and under an ordinary overcast sky (luminance 1
notation of Luminous Range (december 000 cd/m²).
2017) and provide a conversion between Measure the distance A separating
nominal daytime range and luminous graduations 10 000 cd and 1 000 cd on the
intensity. auxiliary scale. transfer this distance to the
scale of abscissae from the graduation
corresponding to 2 000 000 cd (2x106 cd) in
the same sense. A point slightly to the right of
graduation corresponding to 12 nautical miles
is obtained. Erect from this point a parallel to
the axis of ordinates to meet the curve for 2
nautical miles visibility. Read off the luminous
range on the vertical scale against the point
so obtained. it should read approx. 4 nautical
miles.
Figure 13 – daytime Luminous Range diagram
the graph has been drawn for a sky

luminance of 10 000 cd/m². For other values
of sky luminance mark off along the scale of
abscissae the distance between the
luminance of 10 000 cd/m² and that under
consideration as it appears on the auxiliary
table 13 – iALA Conversion table for Luminous
scale. intensity and nominal daytime Range
example:
Suppose that it is required to calculate the
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 45 ]
Meteorological condition Luminance in cd/m Required illuminance Et in 10-3 lx
Very dark overcast sky 100 0.013
Dark overcast sky 200 0.024
Ordinary overcast sky 1 000 0.107
Bright overcast sky or clear sky away from the direction of 5 000 0.506
the sun
Bright cloud or clear sky close to the direction of the sun 10 000 1
Very bright cloud 20 000 1.98
Glaring cloud 50 000 4.91
table 14 – Required illuminance in Varying Meteorological Conditions
3.2.3.8 meteoroLoGicaL opticaL ranGe reduced by the atmosphere to the contrast thres-
this is the distance through the atmosphere hold of the observer. the visual range can be en-
that is required for 95% attenuation in the hanced if the observer uses binoculars, although
luminous flux of a collimated beam of light the effectiveness depends on the stability of the
using a source colour temperature of 2700ºK. observer’s platform. Visual range can be interpre-
the meteorological optical range is related to ted as the distance that a given light is seen by
the atmospheric transmissivity by the formula: an observer.
3.2.3.10 Luminous ranGe

this is the maximum distance at which a given
light signal can be seen by the eye of the obser-
ver at a given time, as determined by the meteo-
rological visibility prevailing at that time. it does
not take into account the: height of the light, ob-
server’s height of eye, or curvature of the Earth.
it is often convenient to simplify the above
expression by giving the distance term a value 3.2.3.11 nominaL ranGe
of one, such that: nominal range is the luminous range when
the meteorological visibility is 10 nautical
miles, which is equivalent to a transmission
factor of t = 0.74. nominal range is generally
the figure used in official documentation such
3.2.3.9 VisuaL ranGe as nautical charts, Lists of Lights, etc. nominal
this is the maximum distance at which the range assumes that the light is observed against
contrast of the object against its background is a dark background, free of background lighting.
[ 46 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
3.2.4 misceLLaneous range is considered adequate for these backup

this section includes information on audible audible signals.
signals and other options for increasing the augmentation of Floating marine aids to navi-
conspicuity of Marine Aids to navigation gation: Audible signals may also be used to aug-
structures. ment buoys, both lighted and unlighted, to
enhance their effectiveness to the mariner in re-
3.2.4.1 audibLe siGnaLs duced visibility. Audible signals on buoys are
the following provides a brief overview of most often powered by the motion of the sea and
audible Aton signals, more detailed information include bells, gongs, and whistles. Buoys may
is provided by referring to the following iALA also be fitted with electronic horns. Audible si-
publications. gnals on buoys should be used to warn mariners
of a particular hazard, such as proximity to shoals,
refer to iaLa publications: rocks or other hazards; or to alert the mariner to
a change in navigational requirements, such as
• Recommendation E-109 - Calculation of the the entrance to a restricted channel. Where elec-
Range of a Sound Signal; tronic audible signals are used to augment
• Guideline G1090 - the Use of Audible Signals buoys, they should have a nominal range of 0.25
to 0.5 nautical miles.
nominal range: Audible Aton signal range is
calculated as nominal and is expressed in nauti- 3.2.4.2 iLLumination oF structures
cal miles. the nominal range is defined by a pro- illumination of structures can provide an important
bability of 90% of hearing the signal when Aton function. illumination of fixed structures is
subjected to a noise as defined in iALA Guideline frequently called flood lighting or facade lighting.
G1090. Specific ranges cited in the above para- the purpose of structure illumination is to assist
graphs refer to the nominal range calculation. the mariner to positively identify the object and
hazard Warning: it has been iALA policy since to allow estimation of distance and relative
1985 that audible signals, also referred to as position to the object. illumination can be direct
sound signals, should only be used as a hazard or indirect and can be used on structures, signs
warning. these hazards refer to certain man-made and daymarks and is considered complementary
structures such as offshore structures, renewable to the main Marine Aid to navigation light.
energy infrastructure, bridges, breakwaters, and
isolated Aton. the Competent Authority shall de- refer to iaLa publications:
termine whether a hazard requires an audible
signal and the level of reduced visibility per year • Guideline G1061 - Light Applications -
that justifies its installation (e.g. 10 days of visibility illumination of Structures.
under 1 nautical mile per year).
Where provided, audible signals for navigational 3.2.4.3 retroreFLectiVe materiaLs
hazards should have a nominal range of at least the use of retroreflective material for Marine Aids
1 nautical mile. in addition, Competent Authori- to navigation has a widespread use in
ties may require a backup audible signal of a re- Scandinavian and other high latitude countries.
duced range (these do not necessarily need to With narrow and complicated waters and
be separate units); 0.5 nautical mile nominal fairways, including ice conditions and long and
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 47 ]
dark nights during wintertime, retroreflective the majority of Marine Aids to navigation lighting
material is a cheap and effective way to obtain systems use electricity of various types as their
high level of night time conspicuity. power source. Electricity is generally more effi-
the use of retro-reflecting material for Marine cient than gas. increasingly, electric Aton lights
Aids to navigation is particularly useful in the are powered by renewable energy sources such
case of unlighted aids where by the projection as solar, wind or wave power.
of a light, which may range from a hand-held Lamps used in electric light systems have been
spotlight to a powerful searchlight, an aid can specifically designed for Marine Aids to naviga-
more easily be located and sometimes identified. tion applications. however, lamps selected from
the enormous range of commercial products
refer to iaLa publication: have also been used or adapted for Marine Aids
to navigation. the use of Light Emitting diode
• Recommendation R0106(E-106) - Retrore-
(LEd) technology as an alternative to filament
flecting Material on Aids to navigation Marks
lamps in Marine Aids to navigation is rapidly ex-
within the iALA Maritime Buoyage System.
panding and in some countries now makes up
the majority of all lighted Aton.
3.3 VISuAL MArINe AIdS TO
NAVIgATION TeChNOLOgy 3.3.1 daymarks
Until the first application of electricity for lights the size of a dayboard should be determined for
late in the nineteenth century, all artificial light the maximum useful viewing distance and
was produced by fire. illuminants progressed minimum visibility conditions. daymarks used on
from pyres of wood (used up until the 1800’s), to leading lines are typically rectangular with the
oil wick lamps, vaporised oil and gas burners, long side vertical. the aspect ratio for the
then electric arc and tungsten filament lamps. rectangle is commonly 2:1 (height = 2 x width).
optical devices matched these developments, the typical operational range of daymarks under
first with reflector systems and later with lenses. different visibility conditions is shown in table 15.
it is interesting to note that the efforts to unders-
tand the human perception of light, to improve Operational Range of Daymarks (Nautical Miles)
the efficiency and effectiveness of Marine Aids to Daymark height (metres).

Minimum visibility
navigation illuminants and optical apparatus, (Nautical Miles)
Aspect ratio h=2w
1.8 2.4 3.7 4.9 7.3
were at the forefront of scientific endeavours for
1 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1
many years. 2 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.5
the glass lens design pioneered by Augustin 3 0.6 1.1 1.5 1.9 2.1
Fresnel around 1820 remains a principal element 4 0.7 1.3 1.8 2.3 2.7
of the modern Marine Aid to navigation light, al- 5 0.8 1.5 2.1 2.7 3.3
6 0.8 1.6 2.3 2.9 3.6

though present day lenses are often made of
7 0.9 1.7 2.4 3.3 4.0
plastic rather than glass.
8 0.9 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.2
A few countries still use Marine Aids to naviga- 9 0.9 1.9 2.8 3.8 4.5
tion lighting systems that burn acetylene or pro- 10 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
pane gas. they are typically preferred for their
table 15 – typical operational Range of daymarks
robustness and simplicity of operation. however,
[ 48 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Guidance on the impact of backround lighting and meteorological conditions on light intensity reguise to achieve a particular
range 15.
Nominal Range Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity
(cd) (cd) (cd) (cd) (cd) (cd) (cd) (cd) (cd)
Background lighting or None Minor Substantial Day VDO Day DO Day OO Day BO Day BC Day VBC
Metrological condition (see 1.3.3)
Luminance (cd/m^2) 100 200 1000 5000 10000 20000
Illuminance (bc) 2.00E-07 2.00E-06 2.00E-05 1.30E-05 2.39E-05 1.07E-04 5.06E-04 9.99E-04 1.98E-03
Transmissivity (per M) 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.78 0.79 0.81
Visibility (M) 10 10 10 10 10 10 12 13 14
Range (M)
0.2 0.03 0.3 3 2 3 16 73 144 284

0.5 0.20 2 20 13 24 107 429 961 1,890
0.7 0.41 4 41 27 50 222 1,010 1,970 3,870
1 1 9 93 60 111 495 2,230 4,310 8,410
2 5 50 500 325 597 2,670 11,400 21,700 41,700
3 15 152 1,520 986 1,810 8,110 33,000 61,600 116,000
4 36 364 3,640 2,360 4,350 19,460 75,400 138,000 256,000
5 77 767 7,670 4,990 9,170 41,000 151,000 271,000 495,000
6 149 1,490 14,900 9,690 17,800 79,700 279,000 492,000 883,000
7 274 2,740 27,400 17,800 32,700 146,000 488,000 843,000 1,490,000
8 482 4,820 48,200 31,300 57,600 258,000 818,000 1,390,000 2,410,000
9 824 8,240 82,400 53,500 98,400 441,000 1,330,000 2,210,000 3,770,000
10 1,370 13,700 137,000 89,200 164,000 734,000 2,110,000 3,430,000 5,770,000
11 2,240 22,400 224,000 146,000 268,000 1,200,000 3,270,000 5,230,000 8,650,000
12 3,600 36,000 360,000 234,000 430,000 1,920,000 5,000,000 7,840,000
13 5,700 57,000 570,000 370,000 681,000 3,050,000 7,530,000
14 8,910 89,100 891,000 579,000 1,070,000 4,770,000
15 13,800 138,000 1,380,000 897,000 1,650,000 7,390,000
16 21,200 212,000 2,120,000 1,380,000 2,530,000
17 32,300 323,000 3,230,000 2,100,000 3,860,000
18 48,800 488,000 4,880,000 3,170,000 5,840,000
19 73,400 734,000 7,340,000 4,770,000 8,770,000
20 110,000 1,100,000 7,130,000
21 163,000 1,630,000
22 242,000 2,420,000
23 357,000 3,570,000
24 524,000 5,240,000
25 767,000 7,670,000
26 1,120,000
27 1,630,000
28 2,360,000
29 3,420,000
30 4,940,000
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 49 ]
Abbreviation Metrological Condition Luminance (cd/m^2)
Day VDO Very Dark Overcast Sky 100
Day DO Dark Overcast Sky 200
Day OO Ordinary Overcast Sky 1,000
Day BO Bright Overcast Sky Away From 5,000

Sun
Day BC Bright Sky or Cloud Near Sun 10,000
Day VBC Very Bright Cloud 20,000 table 16 – night and day with Background.
this table is intended as guidance only. it is not
Day GC Glaring Cloud 50,000 to be used for nominal Range Publication
3.3.2 LiGht sources and intensity with lamp redundancy. LEds ope-
there is a variety of light sources currently used rate from a low voltage dC supply. Correct ope-
in Marine Aid to navigation applications, ration depends on accurate control of the supply
however due to developments in Light Emitting current. LEd marine lanterns are sometimes re-
diode (LEd) technology LEds are now widely ported as having intense colours and ranges lon-
used. table 17 compares the performance and ger than the current iALA calculation method
other characteristics of the various light sources. would suggest. iALA is currently investigating this.
Light source Max lifetime hours Max Lumen/Watt Flashable White Led
A semiconductor junction emitting blue/violet
Filament lamp 2000 16 Yes
light is encapsulated with an integral phosphor
Tungsten Halogen 4000 25 Yes such that both blue and broad band yellow light
Metal Halide 20,000 120 No are emitted together to form a near white light.
LED 100,000 140 Yes
Typical Use:
Low Pressure 10,000 150 No
Sodium • Lighted beacons on buoys and other short
and medium range Aton, but longer range LEd
Xenon 3,000 40 No
lanterns are increasingly available in the market;
table 17 - Light source performance and other
• Range lights consisting of flat arrays of LEds
characteristics
or single high power LEds;
• Signs and signals formed by arrays of LEds in
Light emitting diode (Led) the shape of letters, numerals, signs etc.
coloured Led
these are electronic semiconductor devices that Technical data:
produce near monochromatic light. the semicon- • Power: Single LEd: 1milliWatt to over 32
ductor junction is encapsulated in a clear plastic Watts, Cluster LEd: 1 to 60 Watts of higher
housing that usually incorporates a lens. Several • Efficiency: Luminous Efficacy of LEds is
LEds may be grouped together in a cluster, or an improving steadily.
array, to provide a light source of the required size • Lifetime: 100,000 hours
[ 50 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Advantages:
• Very long life (if input power and temperature refer to iaLa publication:
are carefully controlled) and hence low whole • Guideline G1043 - Light Sources Used in
life costs; Visual Aids to navigation.
• Life is so long that lamp-changers are not
considered necessary;
• high luminous efficiency in red and green; 3.3.3 inteGrated poWer suppLy
• Light produced in saturated signal colours Lanterns
therefore coloured filters not needed; integrated Power Supply Lanterns (iPSL) have
• Mechanically robust when compared with application advantages for certain situations.
conventional lamps; By incorporating modern technologies, they
• Light switching times are very fast; can be small, durable, reliable, cost effective
• Relatively cool operation; and fully self-contained. technological
• Easy to cluster LEds. advances in light emitting diodes (LEds),
photovoltaics (Solar Panels) and batteries
Disadvantages: complement each other and facilitate a
• Complex electronic control needed to compact lantern. in order to operate
achieve long life and high performance; efficiently, these lanterns must be designed
• Generally difficult to match to existing optics; for a wide range of solar conditions (i.e.
• Luminous efficiency decreases slowly with life; sunlight available to charge the lantern) while
• White LEds will be very inefficient with red maintaining a specified optical output over
and green filters; the expected operating lifetime.
• Lamp life can be severely reduced if input the application criteria for iPSL include
power and temperature are not carefully nominal light ranges up to 5nm, areas with
controlled. good solar insolation, areas that suffer from
vandalism or theft and small buoys with
Safety: limited weight carrying ability. they are not
no special hazard. suitable where high duty cycle rhythmic
characters are required or in areas suffering
Disposal: from icing. An iPSL device houses power
Consult local and national disposal source, power storage, LEd light source,
regulations. rhythmic character coding and switching
operating lifetime will depend on the LEd together in a single unit. iPSL can accept
junction operating temperature and operating external programming commands and
environment. include options for GPS, synchronization, and
communication modules.
detailed information on light sources and
their associated operational considerations, refer to iaLa publication:
lifetime, reliability, operating costs and power
consumption is covered in iALA Guideline • Guideline G1064 - integrated Power Systems
G1043. Lantern (Solar LEd Lanterns).
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 51 ]
3.4 MArITIMe BuOyAge SySTeM sufficiently promulgated or the danger is

ANd OTher AIdS TO NAVIgATION otherwise resolved. An appropriate risk
the iALA Maritime Buoyage System (MBS) assessment should be used to determine how
represents one of iALA’s major contributions long the EWMB should be deployed. if the
to enhancing the safety of navigation. As new danger is expected to remain, the
recently as 1976 there were more than thirty Competent Authority should mark it with a
buoyage systems in use worldwide and regular marking scheme.
conflicting sets of rules applied. in 1980 the EWMB should be equipped and of a size
Lighthouse Authorities from fifty countries and that facilitates its detection under all sea
representatives from nine international conditions.
organisations reached agreement on the rules Upon a decision to use the EWMB, it should
for a single system. in 2010 the MBS was be deployed without unnecessary delay. this
revised. Key changes made included the can be met by the use of EWMBs that are
introduction of an emergency wreck marking stored on board a vessel ready for
buoy and fixed marks. the full name of the deployment. it should be taken into
revised system is, therefore, iALA Maritime consideration that a smaller buoy, in some
Buoyage System and other Aids to instances, may be deployed more rapidly. if
navigation, still being referred to as the MBS. necessary it could subsequently be replaced
the MBS uses seven types of Marine Aids to with a larger buoy.
navigation, which may be used in
combination. the mariner can distinguish refer to iaLa publication:
between these aids by identifiable • iALA Maritime Buoyage System;
characteristics. the system includes: • Guideline G1046 - Response Plan for the
• Lateral Marks[6]; Marking of new Wrecks.
• Cardinal Marks;
• isolated danger Marks; iALA also has a consolidated recommendation
• Safe Water Marks; and guidelines for marking areas for specific
• Special Marks; navigational needs in relation to a variety of
• Emergency Wreck Marking Buoy; man-made structures including aquaculture
• other Marks. facilities and offshore resource production and
the General Principles and Rules of the iALA energy generation structures.
Maritime Buoyage System can be found in
Annex d.
3.4.2 other marks
3.4.1 markinG neW danGers other Marks are visual marks, intended to aid
the Emergency Wreck Marking Buoy (EWMB) navigation as information to mariners, not
is meant for prompt response to mark new necessarily regarding channel limits or
dangers such as a wreck. it should therefore obstructions.
only be on station until the Competent
Authority is satisfied that information
concerning the new danger has been
[ 52 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
3.4.2.1 LeadinG Lines/ranGes transits / Purposes of Leading Lines

LeadinG (ranGe) Lines A leading line may be used to:
A transit is defined as the alignment of two or • indicate the centreline of a straight section
more marks. A Leading (or Range) light is a of a navigable channel;
specialised application of a transit. • indicate to deep draught vessels the
deepest part of the waterway;
• indicate the navigable channel where fixed
and floating Marine Aids to navigation are not
available[7] or do not satisfy the accuracy
requirements for safe navigation;
• define a safe approach bearing to a harbour
or river entrance, particularly where there are
cross currents;
• separate two-way traffic (i.e. when passing
a bridge).
Design Considerations for Leading Lines

A well-designed leading line will enable the
Leading (Rear Range) Light - Photo Courtesy type and size of vessels that typically use the
of the Canadian Coast Guard channel to:
• identify the marks or lights when the ship is
A simple transit can be used to: at the inner and outer sections of the channel
• provide a turning reference; and readily detect cross track position errors
• define a clearing line for the limits of safe from the centreline of the channel;
navigation; • detect cross track position errors with
• provide a distance mark along a waterway. sufficient sensitivity that the channel can be
utilised without abrupt changes to the vessel’s
Leading Lines heading and speed;
A leading line is a Marine Aid to navigation • observe both lights together, by selection
system that comprises two separated struc- of leading light character rhythms that
tures with marks or lights that, when viewed appropriately overlap in their free running
from the centreline or deepest route along a condition. in some situations it may be
straight section of channel, are aligned. preferable to provide additional equipment
in a two station leading line, the structures lie to synchronise the light characters;
along an extension of the centreline of the no- • observe the lights in all ambient conditions
minated channel. the rear structure must have for which they are designed to be used
a greater elevation than the front structure to without glare. if lights are to be used for both
enable both marks or lights to be viewed si- day and night operations light intensities will
multaneously. need to be varied.
A leading line provides a vessel with a hea- the characters of rhythmic leading lights
ding reference and a visual indication of the should be selected so that the front and rear
size and direction of any cross track error. lights, in their free running states, can
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 53 ]
generally be observed together. the reason for the lack of a precise transition
in some situations it may be preferable to at the sector boundary is readily apparent
provide additional equipment to synchronise from Figure 14 which shows the light source,
the light characters. if lights are to be used lens and filter geometry. the transition zone is
both day and night, the light intensities should defined by an “angle of uncertainty”. A similar
be adapted for each situation to avoid glare geometry exists with multiple coloured bea-
at night. Radar transponders (RACons) may cons and masking.
be used as leading line markers. Bearings, directions of leading (range) lines
and limits of sectors should always be stated
in terms of the bearings that would be seen
• Recommendation E-112 - Leading Lights by the mariner. Bearings may carry a suffix
(including excel program); ‘tBS” or true Bearing from Seaward as confir-
• Guideline G1023 - the design of Leading mation.
Lines; it can also be noted that:
• the observed angle of uncertainty is gene-
3.4.2.2 sector LiGhts rally less than the geometric angle due to the
A sector light is a Marine Aid to navigation relative intensities of sector colours (i.e. colour
that displays different colours and/or rhythms mixing) as the observer passes through the
over designated arcs. A common means of transition zone;
creating a sector is to fit a coloured filter in • if space on the Marine Aid to navigation
front of the main light. however, sector lights structure is not a limiting factor, it is usually
with LEd light sources are being introduced possible to achieve an angle of uncertainty of
to the market thereby reducing the need for around 0.25 degree with this type of sector ar-
filters as they produce the coloured light. A rangement;
sector can also be produced by filtering or by • the angle of uncertainty can be reduced by
using a secondary light (or several lights) on decreasing the physical width of the light
the same structure. the secondary light can source or by increasing the radial distance to
take any of the following forms: the coloured filter;
• range (directional) light; • in situations where the main light has a large
• beacon with a coloured lens, masked to projected area, such as a rotating lens or re-
achieve the sector angle; flector array, it is generally preferable to use a
• beacon fitted with internal or external filter separate sector light rather than installing a
panels; coloured filter in front of the main light.
• Beacon or beacons with different coloured From time to time specialised sector lights
light sources, masked to achieve the sector have been developed to exhibit different
angle; rhythms over different sector bearings. this
• precision direction Light. capability is found in some Precision direction
the limits or boundaries of a sector are not al- Lights (PdL) [8].
ways precisely cut off due to the characteris- A PdL is a specialised form of sector light that
tics of the light source, fading of colours or can generate sharply defined sector bounda-
changing rhythms between adjacent sectors. ries. this feature is particularly useful for appli-
For a beacon fitted with coloured filter panels, cations that require one or several narrow
[ 54 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Figure 14 – Angle of Uncertainty
sectors or high precision boundaries. the PdL

may use a white light source with coloured fil-
ter, but newer designs are utilising LEd and
possibly laser as a light source.
PdL sector lights are very precise, allowing a
complete colour change at a sector boundary
to occur over an angle of less than 1 minute
of arc in most models.
applications
LEd Sector Projector Light
Photo Courtesy of Cybernetica AS
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 55 ]
the design of sector lights can be a complex A PdL allows for further applications that include
task. the process should be carried out with the ability to:
reference to an accurate chart of the area. in • produce narrow sectors with an angle of
some cases good local knowledge is also uncertainty down to approximately one minute
required. of arc;
A sector light may indicate one or more of the • define the central zone of a channel;
following: • accurately mark one side of a straight channel
• boundaries of a navigable waterway; (a pair of PdLs can cover the permutations of
• change of course position; converging, diverging and parallel channels);
• shoals, banks, etc.; • define different rhythms over adjacent sectors.
• an area or position (eg.an anchorage);
• the deepest part of a waterway; examples
• position checks for floating aids. Some examples of sector lights applications are
illustrated in Figure 15 and Figure 16.
Figure 15 - Sector Light Application
this illustration follows the iALA Maritime Buoyage System colour convention for Region A (‘red
to port when approaching the aid from seaward’). the white sector should, if possible, be wide
enough to provide a margin of safety for a vessel that inadvertently leaves the white sector. Curves
C and d indicate depth contours or limiting dangers that dictate the boundaries of sectors.
[ 56 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
design considerations for sector Lights

Where a single sector light defines a navigable
channel the following points should be
considered:
• Lateral position: there is no reference of the
vessel’s lateral position within the channel until
a sector boundary is reached. this may cause
a problem in channels subject to a strong cross
current. For vessels with local knowledge, the
zones defined by the angle of uncertainty can
sometimes provide a useful guide to the
vessel’s proximity to a sector boundary;
• safety margin: Where practicable, there
should be a margin of safety between the
sector boundary and adjacent hazards. if an
appropriate safety margin cannot be achieved
within the sector boundary, the hazards could
be marked separately.
• angle of uncertainty: Zones defined by the
angle of uncertainty should be considered an
additional margin of safety over the actual
sector boundary;
Figure 16 – Various Applications for Sector Lights
• Vessel size: the design process for a sector
the function of each light in Figure 16 is light needs to consider the draught and
described below: manoeuvrability of the largest vessels likely to
• light i is a coastal white light with a red sector utilise the sector, how quickly they can
indicating a danger. respond once they cross a sector boundary
and the situations that may develop when
• light ii is a sector light obscured over the
other vessels are in the vicinity;
shore, with two white sectors indicating a safe
• Lights and Filters: When using an
channel. When sailing towards the sector light
incandescent light source the sector design
it shows red to port and green to starboard
should take account of the spectral
following the iALA Maritime Buoyage System
distribution of the light source and the
colour convention for Region A and vice versa
proportion of this light transmitted through the
for Region B. the boundary between the red filter material as this will affect the resultant
and the green sector also indicates the position colour and intensity of the light exhibited. the
of a buoy. process should also check for potential glare
• light iii is a sector light with a red light and 4 problems;
white sectors indicating four anchorage • Flash characteristic: the period of the light
positions. it is obscured over the shore. flash should be selected to provide ample
• light iV is a sector light with a white sector time for a mariner to recognise the transitional
indicating a safe channel. phases that occur at the sector boundary ;
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 57 ]
• sector colours: A white light is normally the other Marine Aids to navigation such as audible
first preference for a lighthouse or beacon. if signals and radio Marine Aids to navigation may
a single coloured sector is added, red is often be located on or near the lighthouse. A ligh-
used. if a white sector light is used to mark a thouse may be a staffed or an automated facility,
navigation channel, coloured sectors may be although the staffing of lighthouses is becoming
used either side of the white to indicate the less common. An automated lighthouse may be
lateral limits. in such cases it is common remotely monitored and in some cases remotely
practice to use red and green sectors that controlled.
follow the convention of the iALA Maritime Beacon: Visual characteristics of a beacon are
Buoyage System; often defined by daymarks, topmarks, and by
• Lamp position and type: the position of the numbers. A marine signalling light, if fitted,
light source within the optical system is critical would generally be of a lower range than ligh-
for the correct alignment of the sectors. When thouses. in navigable channels a pile beacon may
replacing lamps or using lamp-changers, it is be used as an alternative to a buoy [9].
important to ensure that the light source (e.g. Purpose of Lighthouses and Beacons
filament) position is identical. if a lamp- A lighthouse or beacon may perform one or
changer is incorporated, the sector system more of the following navigational functions:
should be designed for the widest light source • mark a landfall position;
used in the lamp-changer. • mark an obstruction or a danger;
• indicate the lateral limits of a channel or navi-
refer to iaLa publication: gable waterway;
• indicate a turning point or a junction in a wa-
• Guideline G1041 - Sector Lights. terway;
• mark the entrance of a traffic Separation
Scheme (tSS);
3.4.2.3 Fixed marine aids to naViGation - • form part of a leading (range) line;
LiGhthouses and beacons • mark an area;
the iALA international dictionary of Aids to Ma- • provide a reference for mariners to take a bea-
rine navigation defines a beacon as “a fixed arti- ring or line of position (LoP).
ficial navigation mark” that can be recognised by
its shape, colour, pattern, topmark or light cha- other purposes for which a lighthouse can be
racter, or a combination of these. While this func- used include:
tional definition includes lighthouses and other • base for AiS equipment; racon; radar; radiona-
fixed Marine Aids to navigation, the terms ligh- vigation systems; reference station for dGnSS;
thouse and beacon are used more specifically to • coastwatch or coastguard functions;
indicate importance and size. • VtS functions;
Lighthouse: A lighthouse is generally considered • base for audible (fog) signals;
to be a large conspicuous structure (visual mark) • collection of meteorological and oceanogra-
on land, close to the shoreline or in the water that: phic data;
• acts as a daymark; • radio and telecommunication facilities;
• provides a platform generally for higher range • tourist facilities.
marine Aton signal lights.
[ 58 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
3.4.2.4 FLoatinG marine aids to • audible signals are used on buoys in some
naViGation - minor and major countries.
A floating Marine Aid to navigation serves a Light Vessels, Lightships and Large
similar purpose to a beacon or a lighthouse. navigational Buoys: Light Vessels, Lightships,
however the floating Marine Aid to and Large navigational Buoys (LnB),
navigation is normally associated with sometimes referred to as LAnBYs, are defined
locations where: as major floating aids and may carry one or
• it would be impractical due to water depth, more of: RACons, AiS Atons or audible
seabed conditions or cost to establish a fixed signals in addition to the Marine Aid to
aid; navigation light. A light vessel may also
• the hazard shifts over time (e.g. sand banks, display a white riding light to signify a vessel
an unstable wreck, etc.); at anchor. All major floating aids should be
• the aid is at high risk of damage or loss from equipped with a radar reflector and a
ice flows or ship impacts and as a monitoring unit.
consequence is treated as expendable; Major Marine Aids to navigation:
• a temporary mark is required; • generally have high operating costs;
• a seasonal mark is required. • are only deployed at critical locations;
Buoys: Buoys are defined as minor floating • are often assigned an aid availability target
aids and whilst it is normal that they are lit that is higher than for a buoy;
there are instances where no light is installed. • are not specifically covered by the iALA
these types of Marine Aids to navigation are Maritime Buoyage System.
specifically covered by the iALA Maritime
Buoyage System and tend to have circular hull refer to iaLa publication:
forms up to 3 m diameter. Buoys may be fitted
with sound signals. Most buoys are equipped • Recommendation o-104 - ‘off Station’
with a radar reflector. Signals for Major Floating Aids.
in addition, due to limitations of the structure,
the following may apply:
• where lights are exhibited, they are usually
solar or primary battery powered. there are
gas powered buoys still in operation,
although gas powered buoys are not normally
used for new installations;
• where lights are exhibited, due to power
limitations and/or operational requirements,
light ranges are typically restricted to 1 to 5
nautical miles; although longer ranges may
be required in some applications;
• additional services are restricted due to
limited power on a buoy, but RACons, AiS
Atons, and remote monitoring units are
sometimes installed in addition to a light;
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 59 ]
Figure 17 – Examples of Floating Aids
performance criteria for Floating aids be performing their specified function[10].

Availability is defined as the probability that a the availability of a floating aid is the principal
Marine Aid to navigation or a system of measure of performance determined by iALA.
Marine Aids to navigation, as defined by the the recommended availability targets are
Competent Authority, is performing its indicated in table 18. the availability objective
assigned to floating Marine Aids to navigation
specified function at any randomly chosen
conforming to the iALA Maritime Buoyage
time. this is expressed as a percentage of total
System should also apply to the topmark.
time that a Marine Aid to navigation or a
system of Marine Aids to navigation should
Description of Aid Availability Target
Floating Marine Aids to Navigation that are considered to be of vital navigational significance Category 1 99.8%
Floating Marine Aids to Navigation that are considered to be of important navigational significance Category 2 99.0%
Floating Marine Aids to Navigation that are considered to be of necessary navigational significance Category 3 97.0%
table 18 - Availability targets
[ 60 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
refer to iaLa publication: is not limited to:

• defining the operational performance charac-
• Recommendation R0130 (o-130) on teristics;
Categorisation and Availability objectives for • defining the equipment, power requirements
Short Range Aids to navigation; and power source(s);
• Guideline G1035 on Availability and • defining the type and capabilities of the ves-
Reliability of Aids to navigation. sels that will be used to service the buoy;
• selecting the initial type proportions and moo-
technical considerations for Floating marine ring for the buoy;
aids to navigation • integrating of equipment and power supply;
there are various technical considerations that • considering of the maintenance requirements;
should be taken into account, including: cost, design • identifying deployment and recovery tech-
factors, positioning, water conditions and markings. niques;
cost • protecting equipment from damage;
the cost of establishing a floating aid at a given lo- • providing the ability to rectify faults without ha-
cation will generally be less than for a fixed struc- ving to lift the buoy;
ture. the cost difference increases with increasing • determining the buoy response to the wave,
water depth and exposure to wind and waves. wind and current conditions at the site(s);
in contrast, the maintenance cost of floating Marine • optimising the design.
Aids to navigation tends to be high relative to the
capital value. this has caused many authorities to refer to iaLa publication:
critically examine the potential for savings through
design changes, use of alternative materials, alter- • iALA Maritime Buoyage System;
• Guideline G1006 - Plastic Buoys;
nate service deliveries (contracting out) and amen-
• Guideline G1067 - Selection of Power Sys-
ding maintenance practices, generally with the aim
tems for Aton and Associated Equipment;
of extending maintenance intervals.
• Guideline G1036 - Environmental Conside-
Where an authority operates a large number of rations in Aids to navigation Engineering;
floating aids, it may become practicable to operate • Guideline G1037 - data Collection for Aids
a dedicated buoy tender vessel with specialised to navigation Performance Calculation;
equipment to minimise buoy change-out times and • Guideline G1077 - Maintenance of Aids to
to improve occupational safety. navigation;
• Guideline G1043 - Light Sources Used in Vi-
refer to iaLa publication: sual Aids to navigation;
• Guideline G1094 - daymarks for Aids to na-
• Guideline G1067-0 - Selection of Power vigation;
Systems for Aton and Associated Equipment. • Guideline G1099 - the hydrostatic design of
• Guideline G1005 - Contracting out Aids to Buoys;
navigation Services. • Recommendation R0106 (E-106) - the Use of
Retro-reflecting Material on Aids to navigation
Floating marine aids to navigation design Marks within the iALA Maritime Buoyage Sys-
the process of designing a buoy to meet specific tem.
requirements is a specialised task. it involves, but
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 61 ]
mooring design station during storms or due to ice flows.

the mooring system for a floating Marine Aid Additionally, positional errors can occur while
to navigation is the sum of the components laying the anchors/sinkers.
that keep the aid within a nominated area. the positioning process for anchors/sinkers
these components have to withstand the should utilise radionavigation or radio-
forces of wind, wave, current and ice on the positioning aids. the use of dGnSS position
floating aid and drag on the mooring line. fixing is increasingly seen as the preferred
the basic assumptions made are that the: method. the benefits of dGnSS position
• mooring system tethered to the buoys fixing are: convenience, accuracy and
sinker is usually tangential to the sea bed; repeatability. A buoy tender using dGnSS can
• buoy axis is vertical under the most generally be brought to within 10 metres of
common conditions of current and wind; the nominal buoy position at the time of
• ratio of the breaking stress of the mooring releasing the anchor/sinker.
system to the calculated stress is not less than if the anchor/sinker is allowed to free-fall, its
5 under the most unfavourable conditions of final resting position will depend on the
current and wind; prevailing current, water depth, shape of the
• reserve buoyancy of the fully equipped anchor/sinker and the nature of the seabed.
floating aid is greater than the combined Controlling the decent of the anchor/sinker
loads of current and wind under the most may serve to improve the positional accuracy
unfavourable conditions. of the buoy.
An approximate value for the minimum length
of a chain mooring is given by the following markings and topmarks
formula:
• Lmin = 3h for depths less than 50 metres; markings
• Lmin = 2h for depths greater than 50 Floating Marine Aids to navigation are often
metres. L = Length of mooring line (m) identified by names, abbreviations of names,
h = depth[11] of water (m) letters and/or numbers. Authorities should
All moorings should be designed as per ensure that the actual marking is identical to
Guideline G1066 on design of Floating Aids the List of Lights reference and the charted
to navigation Moorings. marking.
topmarks
refer to iaLa publications: the type, colour and arrangement of
topmarks on a buoy are shown in the iALA
• Guideline G1066 - the design of Floating Maritime Buoyage System, extracts of which
Aids to navigation Moorings. are shown in Annex d. topmarks should
conform to Guideline G1094 on daymarks for
Aids to navigation.
positioning of Floating aids
the charted position of a floating aid defines refer to iaLa publications:
the nominal (or true) position for the anchor.
• Guideline G1094 - daymarks for Aids to
With most floating aids there is potential for
navigation.
the mooring anchor/sinker to be moved off-
[ 62 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
NOTeS
[1] CiE website address: www.cie.co.at/cie
[2] Blue surface colours may be used in inland

waterways. estuaries and harbours where the
colour may be seen at close range. See iALA re-
commendation E108. in addition, blue lights are
being tested for use on emergency wreck mar-
king buoys - iALA Recommendation o-133 re-
fers
[3] CiE website address: www.cie.co.at/cie
[4] A single fixed light shall not be used on a

mark within the scope of the iALA Maritime
Buoyage System because it may not be recogni-
zed as a Marine Aid to navigation light.
[5] A Morse Code white light with the single

character “U” is assigned to offshore structures.
[6] Lateral marks differ between buoyage re-

gions A and B.
[7] For example, in waterways where the aid

may be drifting or destroyed due to ice condi-
tions.
[8] Also known by the trade name of PEL light.
[9] in these situations the beacon will generally

show a colour scheme and topmarks in accor-
dance with the iALA Maritime Buoyage System.
[10] As adapted from the iALA Guidelines on

Availability and Reliability of Aids to navigation,
theory and Examples (Edition 2, december
2004).
[11] this is defined as the maximum depth of

water and includes the highest tide level and
half the maximum wave height at the particular
site.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 63 ]
E-NAVIGATION
4.1 INTrOduCTION 4.3 IMO’S STrATegy FOr The

the iMo-led initiative termed e-navigation is an deVeLOPMeNT ANd IMPLeMeNTATION
area which covers many disciplines. OF e-NAVIgATION
Stated simply, the goal of e-navigation is to
provide harmonised information in electronic 4.3.1 the case For e-naViGation
formats, in a seamless, customised and efficient the iMo strategy for e-navigation (MSC
manner, to better-designed navigational systems 85/26/Add.1 Annex 20) states that about 60%
on board. Ashore, e-navigation aims to of collisions and groundings are caused by di-
streamline the way maritime authorities, agencies rect human error. despite advances in bridge
and other stakeholders gather and exchange resource management training, it seems that
information. the majority of watch-keeping officers make cri-
this chapter describes areas of e-navigation tical decisions for navigation and collision avoi-
development that iALA has been involved in. dance in isolation. this is partly due to a
general reduction in manning.
4.2 BACkgrOuNd the iMo strategy also states that in human re-
liability analysis, the presence of someone
4.2.1 oriGins checking the decision making process im-
in 2006, the international Maritime organization proves reliability by a factor of 10. if e-naviga-
(iMo) approved a proposal from seven of its tion can assist in improving this aspect, through
Member States, which requested iMo develop an well-designed on-board systems and closer
e-navigation strategy. cooperation with vessel traffic management
the aim of the proposal was to “...develop a stra- (VtM) systems ashore, the risk of collisions and
tegic vision for the utilization of existing and new grounding (and their inherent liabilities and
navigational tools, in particular electronic tools, in costs to administrations) can be dramatically
a holistic and systematic manner.” (MSC reduced.
81/23/10). the sponsors of the submission were
concerned that if the introduction of new techno- 4.3.2 Vision
logy remained uncoordinated, it would result in a A vision for e-navigation includes the follo-
lack of standardization on board and an increased wing general expectations for on-board, as-
level of complexity. the proposed e-navigation vi- hore and communications elements:
sion was to create an overarching system that
would provide a greater level of safety and inci- on-board
dent prevention, resulting in reduced navigation- navigation systems that benefit from the inte-
related accidents. iMo led other international gration of own ship sensors, supporting infor-
organisations, notably iALA and the international mation, a standard user interface and a
hydrographic organization (iho) and developed comprehensive system for managing guard
a strategy for the development and implementa- zones and alerts. Core elements of such a sys-
tion of e-navigation in 2008 (MSC85/26/Add.1 tem will include actively engaging the mariner
Annex 20). A plan to implement the strategy, ter- in the process of navigation, to carry out their
med the Strategy implementation Plan (SiP), was duties in the most efficient manner, while pre-
completed in 2014 (nCSR1/28 Annex 7). venting distraction and overburdening;
[ 66 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
ashore without the need for ’e’ to be specifically defi-

the management of vessel traffic and related ned. the concept of e-navigation was first
services from ashore, enhanced through proposed by seven iMo Member States in
better provision, coordination and exchange 2006 as a process for the harmonisation, col-
of comprehensive data in formats that will be lection, integration, exchange and presenta-
more easily understood and utilized by shore- tion of maritime information. As such, the ’e’
based operators in support of vessel safety could have stood for ’enhanced’ or ’electronic’
and efficiency; and (just like the ’e’ in e-commerce), but this would
limit what can be done within e-navigation. it
communications must be noted that the generic term electro-
An infrastructure providing authorized nic marine navigation already exists in many
seamless information transfer on board ship, forms. it should not be confused with this par-
between ships, between ship and shore and ticular iMo initiative.
between shore authorities and other parties
with many related benefits. 4.3.5 key eLements
the key elements of the iMo strategy for e-
4.3.3 deFinition navigation, based on user needs include:
the iMo strategy defines e-navigation as the • Architecture
“harmonised collection, integration, ex- • human element
change, presentation and analysis of maritime • Conventions and standards
information on-board and ashore by electro- • Position fixing
nic means to enhance berth-to-berth naviga- • Communication technology and informa-
tion and related services, for safety and tion systems
security at sea and protection of the marine • Electronic navigational Charts (EnC)
environment.” • Equipment standardization
in other words, e-navigation means: • Scaleability
• the harmonised exchange and According to the strategy, the implementation
presentation of navigational information in of e-navigation should be a phased, iterative
electronic formats. process of continuous development, taking
• harmonized data exchange and improved into account the evolution of user needs and
communications. the lessons learned from the previous
• Creation of a "wide area navigation team", phase(s).
which allows the officer of the Watch (ooW) As part of the basic requirements for the im-
and the Vessel traffic Services (VtS) operator plementation of e-navigation, it was agreed
to share tactical and planning information. that e-navigation should be based on user re-
• improved design of navigational and quirements and needs and not technology-
communication equipment. driven.
4.3.4 What does the ‘e’ in e-naViGation 4.3.6 e-naViGation soLutions

stand For? the centrepiece of the current SiP is the
it is generally accepted that the iMo concept following five prioritized e-navigation
of e-navigation can be thought of as a brand, solutions:
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 67 ]
• S1: improved, harmonized and user- here, the strategy is to coordinate the further
friendly bridge design; development of VtS, e-navigation and short
• S2: means for standardized and automated range Marine Aids to navigation, taking into
reporting; account new technologies and sustainability.
• S3: improved reliability, resilience and Additionally, to continue to develop capacity
integrity of bridge equipment and navigation building activities to improve the global
information; operations and management of Marine Aids to
• S4: integration and presentation of navigation systems and related services.
available information in graphical displays
received via communication equipment; and 4.4.2 the e-naViGation committee
• S9: improved Communication of VtS Since 2006, the e-navigation Committee
Service Portfolio (not limited to VtS stations). (EnAV) has led the development of iALA’s
Solutions S1 and S3 promote the workable substantial contribution to the formulation of
and practical use of the information and data the iMo’s e-navigation strategy and the SiP.
on board. Solutions S2, S4 and S9 focus on there remains a vast amount of work to be
efficient transfer of marine information and done to translate the e-navigation concept
data between all appropriate users (ship-ship, into an operational reality. the working
ship-shore, shore-ship and shore-shore). groups of the EnAV Committee are engaged
in the following technical domains:
4.4 IALA’S rOLe • technical domain 1: data modelling and
message systems (Aton data information
4.4.1 iaLa’s strateGic Vision 2018-2026 structure, exchange, presentation, S-100 Re-
the aim of iALA is to foster the safe and gistry and Product Specifications)
efficient movement of vessels through the • technical domain 2: e-navigation commu-
improvement and harmonisation of Marine nications (VdES, satellite, MRCP and AiS tech-
Aids to navigation worldwide. this purpose is nology)
given effect by two key goals for 2026. • technical domain 3: Shore technical infra-
Goal 1 (G1) structure (resilient Pnt shore services - dGPS,
Marine Aids to navigation are developed and eLoran and virtual Aton technology)
harmonised through international cooperation • technical domain 4: e-navigation test beds
and the provision of standards. (gathering and sharing of testbed results)
the strategy for e-navigation is to improve and • technical domain 5: Maritime Services Port-
harmonise VtS, information structures, Mari- folios(design, content and implementation)
time Service Portfolios and communications, so • Several multi-million dollar projects (com-
as to achieve worldwide interoperability of pleted and underway) have made noteworthy
shore and ship systems. inroads in developing aspects of e-naviga-
tion. the iALA e-navigation portal (http:/ /
Goal 2 (G2) www. iala-aism. org/ products-projects/ e-na-
All coastal states have contributed to a vigation) provides detail on known testbeds
sustainable and efficient global network of and their results.
Marine Aids to navigation through capacity
building and the sharing of expertise.
[ 68 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
4.4.3 ansWers to FrequentLy asked first step should be to identify the need for
questions on e-naViGation information services and communication
iALA has developed answers to some Fre- infrastructure in different areas.
quently Asked Questions (FAQs) on certain as-
pects of e-navigation. these can be found on 4.5.2 the sixteen initiaL msp s
the iALA website. MSPs are being developed to achieve
harmonisation and based on use of the iho’s
4.5 MArITIMe SerVICe POrTFOLIOS S-100 Geospatial information (Gi) Registry.
the e-navigation SiP states that ”As part of the iALA is developing guidance on the 16 initial
improved provision of services to vessels services identified by the iMo. these are listed
through e-navigation, MSPs have been in table 19 below. it aims to harmonise the
identified as the means of providing format, structure and communication
electronic information in a harmonized way, networks that will be used to exchange MSP
which is part of Solution 9.” information. Although the iMo identified the
preliminary list of 16 MSPs below (MSC 94/21
4.5.1 What are msp s ? Annex 17), these may evolve with time.
A Maritime Service Portfolio (MSP) defines and
describes the set of operational and technical 4.5.3 technicaL serVices
services (and the level of service) provided by a Based on the concepts of service-oriented
stakeholder in a given sea area, waterway, or architectures, a technical service refers to a set
port, as appropriate. (nCSR 1/ 28 Annex 7 of related software functionalities that can be
refers). reused for different purposes, together with
As identified by the iMo, there is a need for a policies that govern and control its use.
harmonised framework for the electronic MSP
Number Services Responsible Service Provider
provision of information related to maritime
1 VTS Information Service (IS) VTS Authority
services between shore and ships. the list of
2 Navigational Assistance Service National Competent VTS Authority/Coastal or Port
maritime services available at a port, in a region (NAS) Authority
3 Traffic Organization Service National Competent VTS Authority/Coastal or Port
or sea area is structured into services, based on (TOS) Authority
4 Local port Service (LPS) Local Port/Harbour Operator
responsible bodies. Such a service is termed a 5 Maritime Safety Information National Competent Authority
Maritime Service Portfolio or MSP. For instance, Service (MSI)
6 Pilotage Service Pilot Authority/ Pilot Organization
“Maritime Safety information” is one such MSP, 7 Tug Service Tug Authority
with the “national Competent Authority” being 8 Vessel Shore Reporting National Competent Authority
Shipowner
the responsible body for the area in question. Operator/Master
Services in a portfolio will vary, depending on 9 Telemedical Assistance Service National health organization/dedicated health
(TMAS) organization
the port’s or region’s facilities. For example, a 10 Maritime Assistance Service (MAS) Coastal/Port Authority/Organization
11 Nautical Chart Service National Hydrographic Authority/Organization

small port may offer only a few services, whereas
12 Nautical Publications Service National Hydrographic Authority/Organization
a large port may offer a greater number of
13 Ice Navigation Service National Competent Authority/Organization
services. 14 Meteorological information service National Meteorological Authority/WMO/ Public
Institutions
the objective of the MSP concept is to align 15 Real time hydrographic and National Hydrographic and Meteorological
environmental information Service Authorities
maritime services globally with the need for 16 Search and Rescue (SAR) Service SAR Authorities
information and communication services in a

table 19: initial Maritime Service Portfolios (MSPs)
defined operational area. to achieve this, the
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 69 ]
A technical service is a service offered by one integration (and harmonisation of) different
electronic device to another electronic device. systems can offer new opportunities to
often operational services are implemented improve maritime safety and efficiency.
by electronic devices that rely on one or more the iMo, by developing the e-navigation
technical services. strategy (and a plan to implement the
A technical e-navigation service should be strategy) aims to address the above issues by
formally specified and documented, as introducing harmonisation and establishing a
described by an iALA guideline. At the time digital information exchange framework.
of writing, this draft guideline aims at From an iALA perspective, harmonisation and
improving the visibility and accessibility of digitalisation will have an impact on shore
available e-navigation technical services and services. For example, a VtS centre will be
information provided by them. this will enable able to use iALA-defined inter VtS Exchange
service providers, consumers and regulatory Format (iVEF) to exchange information with
authorities to have a common understanding other VtS centres.
of a technical service and its implementation.
4.6.1 architectures
4.6 MArITIMe dIgITAL INFrASTruCTure the maritime domain is a complex eco-socio-
Like other industries, the maritime industry technical system, with many different actors and
has also adopted the use of modern stakeholders. the international maritime indus-
information and communication technologies try is witnessing more and increasingly larger
on board ships and ashore. For example, ships being built. Growing ship numbers result
ships have, for centuries, used paper charts to in an increase of marine traffic. therefore, a safe,
navigate. these have recently partially given reliable and environmentally sustainable ship-
way to the use of Electronic Chart display and ping industry is needed to ensure international
information Systems (ECdiS). in the early trade.
2000s, the iMo introduced the Automatic the introduction of new information technolo-
identification Systems (AiS), as one of the first gies and their associated system architectures,
fully digital data exchange systems in the with increased ability to receive, analyse and
maritime domain, to improve maritime safety. present information to optimise a vessel’s pas-
these are but two examples. however, the sage, is changing international shipping. these
introduction of new regulations is systems do more than enhance safety and se-
characteristically slow - major changes take curity in the shipping domain. For example: traf-
time to be agreed upon and introduced at fic management and port call optimisation
international level. technologies are interwoven into other do-
this modernisation of navigation and mains such as transport logistics.
communication systems, incrementally and the evolution of technology and its data requi-
over time, has led to ship and shore facilities rements leads to an increased need for mari-
being fitted with heterogeneous systems. time systems with bandwidth demands, such as
different technologies and increased broadband connections on the high seas. Ad-
information flows can contribute to ditionally, the growing number of new develop-
information overload on ship bridges and ments in the shipping industry results in a large
shore-based facilities. on the other hand, the and diverse number of maritime systems.
[ 70 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
these complex information and Communica- implementation process of new e-navigation

tions technology (iCt) systems need an archi- approaches. Furthermore, it contributes to the
tecture to address organisational and technical necessity of setting new e-navigation
aspects and to ensure alignment with regula- approaches in a broader context within the
tions, governance and operational processes. current state of the maritime domain and the
the Maritime Architecture Framework (MAF) is e-navigation strategy (and relatives) (see
introduced below, to provide a common plat- Figure 18 below).
form for the design of maritime architectures.
the Common Shore-based System Architec-
ture (CSSA) is introduced as a blueprint for a
specific architecture.
4.6.1.1 maritime architecture

FrameWork
the Maritime Architecture Framework (MAF) is
an architecture framework for maritime eco-
socio-technical system-of-systems (SoS). it
provides a methodology to structure the
specification of architectures in a common way,
and furthermore provides an architecture model
to enable the representation of the architecture
in a maritime SoS context. the MAF orients
towards the e-navigation and other related
Figure 18 - Contextualisation of e-navigation in the
approaches such as e-maritime.
maritime domain
Current technology innovations in the maritime
domain allow for a holistic approach to guide
common engineering processes among (new) the Maritime Architecture Framework faces the
maritime systems, and their field of activities in challenge of bringing the maritime domain, with
the operational context – state more simply. its manifold and divergent aspects, into an
therefore, it is essential to establish a order. it also encapsulates different views on
standardised methodology to analyse, design, architectures, with the goal of ensuring a
compare and discuss different maritime it- comprehensive architecture description of a
architectures and socio-technical systems, system. it is based on enterprise architecture-
including related regulations within their engineering methods and supports the
(envisioned) maritime context, in a consistent harmonisation of systems from relevant
and harmonised way. perspectives: Conceptual, organisational and
therefore, the MAF take iMo’s e-navigation technical.
approach into account to provide a
methodology and architecture model to
compare maritime systems with each other,
and to identify overlaps or gaps on different
interoperability levels in order to support the
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 71 ]
new system architectures and their integration

into the maritime environment, the iMo’s Mari-
time Service Portfolios and the maritime environ-
ment is relevant. there are design principles
from a broad field of system engineering which
affect the building of systems. Finally, non-go-
vernmental organizations, such as iALA, should
recommend reference architectures such as the
CSSA (Common Shore-based System Architec-
ture, as described below), which must be reflec-
ted within the design of system architectures.
Figure 19: the structure of the Maritime Architecture
Framework the multidimensional model of the maF (the
structural Framework)
As seen in Figure 19, the framework exists of a the MAF integrates within its methodology a
set of elements arranged around, and integrated multidimensional model approach. this enables
into, a system design methodology. this metho- the visualisation of those architecture aspects in
dology is for the specification of socio-technical a “cube” for an easy identification of interopera-
system architectures and its maritime SoS envi- bility issues, gaps and overlaps between the
ronment and follows an iterative approach. the mapped system components. this establishes
Structural Framework element is a multidimen- clear relationships between:
sional architecture model for the allocation and • existing business objectives;
representation of system architectures in the ma- • governmental aspects, which regulates the
ritime and interoperability context. maritime domain;
the Requirements Management and Analysis • technical functions, that are required to realise
elements provide methods and processes for the business objectives;
continuous requirements management during • information exchange between those technical
the specification, as well as for multiple kinds of functions, including the related information types
analyses on reflected system architectures. the and/or data models;
optional (*) design rules element, is intended for • communication protocols to allow the aspired
the definition of a set of rules concerning the information exchange; and
inherent structure of a defining system architec- • components required to implement the tech-
ture, with the goal to establish a template for nical hardware.
how the system elements need to be arranged.
All elements of the MAF contribute to the real the benefits of having these are various: Firstly,
maritime environment, its systems and technolo- it supports optimal alignment of technical sys-
gies and towards design and reference architec- tems with organisational concepts. this integra-
ture that stem from engineering principles. ted view is required to ensure technical and
therefore, during the application of the MAF, a organisational interoperability. Secondly, it sup-
common terminology shall be considered by its ports the potential integration of systems into a
users and existing maritime systems and techno- system environment by providing a model for the
logies. Furthermore, if used for the definition of combined mapping of multiple Systems compo-
[ 72 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
nents. A component can be for instance a consti- categories cover economic and governmental
tuent system itself (System of Systems, SoS). aspects (fields of activity), operation control
the model consists of a three-dimensional struc- parts of maritime systems (operations), the
ture of architectural aspects assembled in a mea- technical (Systems, technical Services, Sensors
ningful way. it is structured in layers to “cut” the and actuators) as well as physical components
cube at each category along each dimension. (transport objects). Each layer addresses both
therefore, the terminology “axis” is used for the technical and human aspects.
name of the dimension, and “layer” for the sur- • Fields of activity: Systems which support or
face with all aspects which belong to a category. manage different markets or eco systems along
All aspects on a layer can be sub-structured by the maritime domain.
the categories of other dimensions. • operations: Global, regional, national and
With regards to the iMo’s e-navigation architec- local operational perspectives used by compa-
ture and its definition, the cube covers interope- nies or authorities (e.g. a traffic flow manage-
rability aspects to support different views on the ment).
interaction of maritime systems. Furthermore, it • Systems: technical systems which integrate or
features the distinction between ship-side and use technical services for gaining a virtual repre-
shore-side and breaks down the structure of ma- sentation and control of the transport pro-
nagement and control systems in the maritime cesses.
domain into a hierarchical order. • technical Services: Single technical and logi-
the model represents characteristics of the ma- cal services.
ritime domain using the three dimensions, inter- • Sensors & actuators: Local infrastructure for
operability axis, topological axis and hierarchical detecting objects with physical means, and re-
axis (see Figure 20 below). the different axes of ceiving and processing the results with physical
the multidimensional model are further descri- systems and hardware.
bed below. • transport objects: Entities of maritime trans-
port processes such as vessels, floating objects
and aircrafts operating in the maritime domain.
these layers help to understand the definition
and role of operational services, as for instance
described in the Maritime Service Portfolio
(MSP). this includes their provision by technical
systems providing technical services.
topological axis
Figure 20: the multidimensional model of the MAF
the Structural Framework covers the elements
and its interrelationship of the maritime domain.
hierarchical axis it reflects the maritime structure from a topolo-
the hierarchical axis brings the maritime do- gical perspective as defined in iMo’s e-naviga-
main into an order. the layers of this hierarchy tion architecture. this axis is sub-structured into
reflect the structure and aggregation of the or- the following categories:
ganisational aspects (management) and control • Ships and other maritime traffic objects: Re-
systems in the maritime domain. the dimension presenting entities in the maritime domain (e.g.,
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 73 ]
vessels). it covers the ship-side entities of the e- tion is to consider it from a user’s perspective.
navigation architecture. in Figure 21 below, the architecture can be divi-
• Link: Representing entities dedicated to phy- ded into three parts; ship-side, shore side and
sically interact between maritime traffic objects the interaction between ship and shore.
and shore, such as telecommunication methods the ship-side represents the users on-board a
and protocols. Represents the three levels of ship, whilst the shore side typically represents
operational links, Functional links and Physical users from communities like VtS, allied services
Links between ship-side and shore-side. and users from the logistics domain.
• Shore: Representing entities of the shore side
infrastructure, activities and systems on shore in-
cluding interfaces to logistical movements
in/out of the maritime domain.
interoperability axis
the interoperability layers cover organisational,
informational and technical aspects and include Figure 21: e-navigation users' perspective at a given
the different levels of interaction (operational, moment and place
functional, technical and physical) as stated in to enable both sides to communicate and ex-
the iMo’s e-navigation vision. this axis is sub- change information, e-navigation uses the ge-
divided into the following categories: neric term “service”. From a user’s perspective,
• Regulation & governance: Role and legal the important services will be the “operational
basis of international, regional or national services”. these services are referred to within a
(shipping) authorities. Maritime Service Portfolio (MSP). the MSP
• Function: Functions and (elemental) services concept was conceived to achieve harmonisa-
including their relationships. tion. however, there also needs to be “technical
• information: data and information that is services” to be able to support and provide
being used and exchanged between functions, these operational services (see Figure 22 below).
services and components. it describes data and
information objects including its semantic and
data models.
• Communication: Protocols and mechanisms
for the interoperable exchange of data between
components.
• Component: Required components in engi-
neering terms. this includes, amongst others:
systems, actors, applications, services and net-
work infrastructure.
4.6.1.2 imo architecture Figure 22: the e-navigation services concept

As mentioned previously, the iMo has identified
a generic architecture for e-navigation. one these base concepts are detailed in the
way of understanding the concept of e-naviga- overarching e-navigation architecture, which is
[ 74 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
defined in the iMo e-navigation Strategic 4.6.1.3 common shore-based

implementation Plan (SiP). system architecture (cssa)
iALA Guidelines 1113 (design and implemen-
tation Principles for harmonised System Archi-
tectures of Shore-based infrastructure) and
1114 (A technical Specification for the Com-
mon Shore-based System Architecture (CSSA))
identify the principles of a shore-based system
architecture and propose its technical specifi-
cation. As stated earlier, there are three major
components of the e-navigation architecture
that interact with each other.
they are:
Figure 23: iMo e-navigation architecture
1. Shipboard systems that process informa-
Figure 23 shows the most important features tion/data;
and elements. these are: 2. Application-to-application data exchange
1. the distinction between the ship and shore- via physical links;
sides; 3. Shore-based systems that integrate a variety
2. the distinction between the information and of shore based technologies and data proces-
data domains; sing devices.
3. the notion of request/fulfilment relations- the CSSA describes the technical set-up of the
hips throughout; shore-based system of a shore authority. the
4. the technical human Machine interfaces
main building block of the CSSA is the techni-
(hMis);
cal service, which encapsulates all primary
5. the notion of operational and technical ser-
functions dealing with a specific technology or
vices provided to shipping, as defined by Ma-
user, depending on the kind of technical ser-
ritime Service Portfolio(s);
vice. to reap the maximum benefit, all technical
6. the ‘shipboard technical equipment sup-
porting e-navigation’; services of the CSSA should adhere to the
7. the ‘common shore-based technical system same object-oriented engineering model. All
harmonised for e-navigation’; technical services are self-contained and pro-
8. the overarching role of the Common Mari- vide all capabilities needed for their tasks, in-
time data Structure (CMdS) within the data cluding their own service management.
domain; the CSSA is modelled in a client-server-
9. the shore-to-shore data exchange facilities, fashion. the individual technical services can
and the required Machine-to-Machine (M2M) regularly assume either role, i.e. clients or ser-
interfaces, and ver, depending on their present role in a given
10. the dependency on the World Wide Radio interaction chain, in support of a given applica-
navigation System (WWRnS). tion-to-application data exchange within the
overarching architecture.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 75 ]
Examples of data collection and data transfer

services are AiS, radar services, direction-
finding services and dGnSS augmentation
services. Some value added data processing
services are position determination services,
ship data consistence algorithms and data
mining services.
4.6.2 common maritime data structure

the purpose of the iMo-defined Common
Figure 24: the Common Shore-based System Maritime data Structure or CMdS (see Figure
Architecture concept 25) is to harmonise data exchange in the
maritime domain, by providing a common,
Figure 24 provides the main concepts of the authoritative reference. the CMdS is an
CSSA: abstract representation of entities within the
• data collection and transfer services are a maritime domain. it should be accessible by
group of technical services interfacing the any stakeholder and should be the reference
shore system, via physical links to the for the development of maritime services,
electronic systems of traffic objects’, to the applications and databases.
waterways and to the natural environment. Considering the extent of the maritime
• Value added data processing services are domain with all of its stakeholders, the
also a group of individual technical services. responsibility for the CMdS is subdivided into
their main task is to add value to (raw) data smaller units, each of which is governed by a
by processing, combining, comparison etc., recognised authority. however, these
store data and information and to provide it authorities need to cooperate to harmonise
upon request to other technical services. the CMdS as a whole (e.g. to avoid
• the user interaction service – an individual duplication of entries). this is one of the main
technical service – is specialised to provide the tasks of the iMo established iMo/iho
human-Machine-interface (hMi) to the harmonisation Group on data Modelling
primary users of the CSSA, i.e. such users as (hGdM).
are supported directly by the system via iho developed the iho Gi Registry[1], S-100
dedicated displays, keyboards and other provides the data framework for the
human interaction devices. development of the next generation of EnC
• the gateway service – another individual products, as well as other related digital
technical service – specialises in shore-to- products required by the hydrographic,
shore data exchange. it interfaces mainly to maritime and GiS communities. the Gi
the external systems of third parties. Upon Registry is generic in setup and has been
authorised request, external systems provide adopted by iMo to support development of
data to and/or receive access to relevant data the CMdS.
from own system. the Gateway Service can
also interface different shore-based systems
locally, regionally, and globally.
[ 76 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
4.6.3 common maritime

inFrastructure
in order to facilitate the integration of e-
navigation into the maritime domain, shared
and broadly available infrastructure is needed.
GMdSS and its services are good examples for
such a critical infrastructure. new technological
developments and their deployment, like
better satellite bandwidth and terrestrial
mobile data services, will foster internet based
Figure 25: the harmonised Common Maritime data Structure technologies in this global system.
in order to provide such infrastructures and
interoperability between used technologies,
Figure 25 describes the simplified generic the introduction of common approaches for
structure of the Gi Registry. the major features identity management or Maritime Resource
of the registry include registers for: name (MRn) are necessary.
• Product Specifications – includes everything
needed to fully describe and specify a 4.6.3.1 identity manaGement
‘product’, such as data exchange protocols the notion of identity is vital for all information
and references to hMi and CMdS entities from exchange and communication technologies.
the Gi Registry. Just as human-to-human communication on a
• human-Machine interface (hMi) – hMi defi- global scale would be impossible without
nitions/specifications can also include refe- unique telephone numbers/email addresses, so
rences to CMdS entities from the Gi Registry. too is a globally agreed digital maritime identity
(this register is named Portrayal by iho). required for the various participating ‘actors’.
in the maritime sector, there are already many
identity systems in place (e.g. iMo number,
MMSi). these are managed by different
organisations. the challenge in creating a single
maritime identity regime is to create a solution
that satisfies the most common identification
needs of the entire maritime industry, on a
global scale, while also being compatible with
already established identity systems. A key task
is to establish authentication between maritime
users.
the way in which a human user or machine may
be authenticated typically falls into three
different categories, based on what is
commonly known as the factors of
authentication: something the user knows,
Figure 26: Simplified View of the iho Gi Registry
something the user has and something the user
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 77 ]
is. Each authentication factor covers a range of communication framework that will enable
elements used to authenticate or verify a efficient, secure and reliable electronic
person's identity prior to being granted access, information exchange between authorised
approving a transaction request, signing a stakeholders. Basically, it defines the
document or other work product, granting standards, protocols, infrastructure and
authority to others and establishing a chain of governance for information exchange based
authority. on the Service oriented Architecture concept.
• Knowledge factors: passwords, pass it is not a storage cloud – nor is it cloud
phrases, pins, challenge / response computing. neither does it provide a
• ownership factors: id card, cell phone, communications infrastructure. the MCP will
certificates make use of new communication platforms
• inheritance factors: Fingerprint, retinal and provide a standardised use concept.
patterns, facial and voice recognition
Emerging approaches, such as the Maritime
Communication Platform, address the identity
issues.
4.6.3.2 maritime resource name (mrn)

in order to assist with the implementation of
the Common Maritime data Structure
(CMdS), iALA has proposed the concept of
Maritime Resource name (MRn).
iALA has developed a draft guideline on
Unique identifiers for Maritime Resources,
introducing the concept of a MRn as a means Figure 27: the Maritime Connectivity Platform concept
for the creation of globally unique identifiers.
the MRn is a Universal Resource name (URn)
scheme that makes national Aton numbers the MCP is structured such that:
globally unique by applying a (national) prefix. • communications is based on the client-
in addition to Aton numbers, the larger scale server concept;
use of unique identifiers is necessary for e- • services can be easily registered,
navigation, for harmonisation across domains discovered and used;
and services. navigationally unique objects • identities can be verified and used to
such as Aton, VtS products and services and digitally sign communication; and
other maritime resources require • messages can be exchanged between
identification to avoid duplication and components connected to the MCP. these
misalignment. can be either clients operated by humans or
services.
4.6.3.3maritime connectiVity pLatForm Geographic and organisational contexts (e.g.
the Maritime Connectivity Platform (MCP) a vessel’s location) are used as key parameters
(formerly known as the Maritime Cloud) is an for service discovery, identity verification and
emerging concept for a proposed message exchange.
[ 78 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
the MCP offers a Service Registry. Connected information technology and operational
components "ask" the service registry how to technology onboard ships are increasingly
access and use a service. Additionally, the being connected – to each other and to the
MCP provides a Maritime Messaging Service world wide web. this gives rise to greater risk
(MMS). this component can be thought of as of unauthorised access or malicious attacks to
an automated switchboard. it uses the ships’ systems and networks. Risks may also
communication channel available for occur from personnel having access to the
communication to a service while the access systems onboard, for example, by introducing
point stays the same. depending on the malware via removable media.
request (name, type, location etc.), the end Responding to the increased cyber threats,
user is provided with possible service BiMCo undertook a comprehensive analysis
providers, and can then choose which service of cyber security related threats and risks and
to use. the MCP offers means to digitally produced Guidelines on Cyber Security
assure the identity of the communicating onboard Ships in 2017. these guidelines are
partners (thereby doing away with the need designed to assist companies develop
for signed documents to prove authenticity). resilient approaches to cyber security
the MCP does not include data storage or onboard ships.
application hosting. this remains the Relevant personnel should be trained to
responsibility of service providers and identify typical modus operandi of cyber-
organisations. the MCP is focused on attacks. the safety, environmental and
improving communication and digital commercial consequences of not being
interactions based on open standards, while prepared for a cyber incident may be
reusing existing components and significant.
infrastructure within the current organisations Approaches to cyber security will be
to enable a cost-effective and smooth company, ship and service provider specific,
transition to adoption. but should be guided by appropriate
standards and the requirements of relevant
4.6.4 cyber security national regulations.
digitalisation in the maritime industry
presents new threats such as systems failures 4.7 COMMuNICATIONS
and cyber security. AiS, GnSS and GMdSS
provide no protection against cyber-attacks. 4.7.1 introduction
they can be attacked very easily, with little the e-navigation concept aims to enhance the
financial or technical effort. the only resilience efficiency, safety and security of navigation and
against cyber-attacks is the redundancy of communications in the maritime sector. e-
systems. AiS is an unencrypted system navigation relies on applications which
operating in the VhF maritime mobile band; provide mariners with the information they
positioning technologies use resilient systems need in a more secure and efficient manner.
to overcome vulnerability. however, the risk these applications require communication
of concentrated actions, which can lead to technologies that can provide the necessary
system failures, is ever-present. capability for ship-ship and ship-shore
As technology continues to evolve, (including ship-satellite) communication.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 79 ]
the role of communications as a cornerstone however, studies and user requirement

in safety at sea was highlighted by the sinking workshops have been conducted to better
of titanic in 1912. the two radio operators, determine the data transfer requirements, to
Jack Philips and harold Bride, transmitted the address e-navigation elements and facilitate
first SoS message, which resulted in the rescue development of digital communications
of some 700 persons. Effective and efficient solutions for the maritime environment.
radiocommunications at sea are vital for the development of robust and reliable
safety of life, protection of the environment, communications infrastructure is not only
efficiency of ship movements and maritime related to the implementation strategy for e-
Search and Rescue (SAR). navigation, but is also a core element of the
the nine GMdSS functional requirements modernisation of GMdSS.
cover not only distress alerts and SAR commu- Work on maritime communications not only
nications, but Maritime Safety information looks at more effective use of existing systems,
(MSi), general radiocommunications and but also developments in digital
bridge-to-bridge communications as well. the communications. Some of the technologies for
four levels of priority in radiocommunications future digital maritime communications
are described in the itU Radio Regulations. include:
they are distress, urgency, safety and other • VhF data Exchange System: VdES is being
communications. developed to meet the increasing need for
data communication between maritime users,
4.7.2 diGitaL communications and was driven by the increasing use of AiS
digital communications are now an integral resulting in a significant rise in load on the VhF
part of our daily lives – be it for work, social data Link. VdES will provide faster data transfer
interaction or recreation. the introduction (and rates with greater integrity than current VhF
expectation) of ‘anytime, anywhere’ access to data link systems.
up-to-date information via the internet, text and • digital Selective Calling: dSC transmits
image-rich communications, geospatial packets of data over existing maritime radio
locating and more, are driving demand for spectrum, on VhF, MF and hF. the system uses
faster, more robust, and more integrated Maritime Mobile Service identity (MMSi) and
communication solutions. enables direct transmission or group/area
Almost every e-navigation solution currently transmissions of basic data. dSC is included in
being developed (and foreseen) depends the Global Maritime distress and Safety System
upon efficient and robust ship-ship, ship-shore (GMdSS) as a distress sand calling mechanism.
or shore-ship electronic data transfer. Existing • nAVdAt: this system is an enhancement of
communications systems may in many places the current nAVtEX system. the service will
be adequate to serve these needs. however, it support the same major functions as nAVtEX,
is necessary to develop new methods to realise namely navigational warnings, weather
the full potential of e-navigation. the forecasts and emergency information for
performance requirements, in particular data shipping, but will provide a much greater
capacity, for communications systems to capacity and data rate.
support e-navigation are, in many cases, • digital VhF: digital VhF is the evolution of
unknown and are likely to change over time. analogue-based mobile radio systems
[ 80 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
currently used by mariners for voice ii. inmarsat C - GEo satellite constellation.
communication, transmission/reception of Existing short burst data, store and forward
distress and safety information and reception system, providing low data rates for small
of urgent marine information broadcasts. As message size transfers and also supporting the
well as digitally encoding voice transmissions, Global Maritime distress and Safety System
digital VhF will enable the exchange of data (GMdSS).
messages. this may be a longer term iii.iridium - LEo satellite constellation. Existing
development. low-earth orbiting communications system,
• digital hF: digital hF is the evolution of providing voice and limited internet access.
analogue-based mobile radio systems in 2009, iALA developed a Maritime Radio
currently used by mariners for voice Communications Plan (MRCP) for the
communication, transmission/reception of communications required to support e-
distress and safety information, and reception navigation. the MRCP has been updated in
of urgent marine information broadcasts. As 2017. it can be found at http:/ / www. iala-
well as digitally encoding voice transmissions, aism.org/product-category/publications/other-
digital hF will enable the exchange of data publications/
messages. digital hF, including standards for the MRCP is intended to meet the key e-
digital hF, exist, but are not commonly used. navigation strategy element of identifying
• Wi-Fi: provides local area wireless data communications technology and information
transfer using the 2.4 Ghz to 5 Ghz radio wave systems to meet user needs. this can involve
band. however, the coverage of this system is the enhancement of existing systems and the
limited to small areas within a port or harbour development of new systems. the iALA plan
environment. identifies existing and future systems, then
• 4G: a mobile telecommunications standard draws on identified user requirements to
supporting mobile internet broadband, assess the information flows and the data
succeeding 3G. Provides mobile broadband channels needed.
with data rates of 100 Mbps for mobile users.
Systems that perform to the 4G standard 4.7.3 VhF data exchanGe system
include WiMAX and LtE. LtE developments
include LtE-Advanced, which will provide 4.7.3.1 oVerVieW
greater range. the Automatic identification System (AiS)
• 5G: the Long term Evolution (LtE) planned provides an effective means to transfer digital
for 4G, with data rates expected to be 1 Gbps data. in addition to the originally-intended
and intended for availability in the year 2020. purpose of providing vessel position and
• Satellite communication systems and related information to aid in collision
services including, but not limited to: avoidance, support VtS operations and
i. inmarsat Global Xpress - GEo satellite contribute to the safety of navigation, AiS is
constellation. the latest set of services to be being used for a number of other applications.
offered by inmarsat, including shared channel this has seen an overloading of the VhF data
iP packet-switched internet broadband service link in some areas.
with fast data rates provided by satellites in the At the World Radio Conference 2015, the
Ka band with global coverage. international telecommunications Union
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 81 ]
identified an additional 6 duplex channels in goals will be achieved through efficient and ef-
the VhF maritime mobile band for the use of fective use of maritime radiocommunications,
digital data transfer. the frequencies form part incorporating the following functional require-
of the developing VhF data Exchange System ments:
(VdES). With the ability to group these 1. As a means of AiS.
frequencies together to provide more 2. As a means of radiocommunications
bandwidth for data transfer, the VdES will equipment through exchange of digital data
enhance digital data functionality in the future. between ship and ship, ship and shore
VdES provides a solution to ensure that the including satellite via AiS, Application Specific
existing AiS VhF data link does not become Messages (ASM) and VhF data Exchange
overloaded. VdES is made possible by the (VdE).
development of software definable radios 3. As a means of applications external to the
(SdRs) and the frequency allocation in addition VdES equipment itself. these applications use
to the existing AiS within the system. VdES AiS, ASM or VdE separately or combined.
includes VhF data Exchange (VdE) and implementation of VdES has commenced,
Application Specific Messages (ASM). the VdE building on the allocation of spectrum at WRC-
includes an agreed terrestrial element (VdE-t) 15 where the itU approved a standard for
as well as a developing Satellite element (VdE- VdES (Recommendation itU-R M.2092-0). A
S). the satellite component of VdES will ensure remaining issue is the approval of the satellite
global communication capability including the component for the VdE channels which is
polar-regions. VdE-S is under development, targeted for approval at WRC-19.
with studies to be provided to the World Radio the system concept including VdES functions
Conference in 2019. VdES is seen as an and frequency usage are illustrated pictorially
effective and efficient use of radio spectrum, in Figure 28 (entire system, including satellite
building on the capabilities of AiS and allocations).
addressing the increasing requirements for
data through the system. VdES will include AiS
as it currently exists. it will also include new
techniques that provide higher throughput
using multiple channels which can:
• be merged to provide higher data rates; and
• provide simultaneous message diversity
from multiple sources.
Furthermore, the VdES network protocol is
optimized for data communication. the
objective is that each VdES message is
transmitted with a high degree of confidence
of reception. Figure 28: VdES functions and frequency use – a view
the VdES should improve the safety of life at of the entire system
sea, the safety and efficiency of navigation, the
protection of the marine environment and en-
hance maritime safety and security. these
[ 82 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Transmitting frequencies (MHz) for ship and coast stations
Channel number in Ship stations (ship-to-shore) (long range AIS) Coast stations Ship stations
RR Appendix 18 Ship stations (ship-to-satellite) (ship-to-ship) Satellite-to-ship
AIS 1 (was 87B) 161.975 161.975
AIS 2 (was 88B) 162.025 162.025
75 (long range AIS) 156.775 (ships are Tx only) N/A
76 (long range AIS) 156.825 (ships are Tx only) N/A
2027 (ASM 1) 161.950 (2027) (SAT Up1) 161.950 (2027) (SAT Up1)
2028 (ASM 2) 162.000 (2028) (SAT Up2) 162.000 (2028) (SAT Up2)
24/84/25/85 (VDE 1) 100 kHz channel 100 kHz channel

(24/84/25/85 lower legs (24/84/25/85 upper legs merged) Ship-to-ship,
merged) Ship-to-shore Shore-to-ship
Ship-to-satellite (SAT Up 3) Satellite-to-ship under certain conditions
(SAT2 possible extension)
24 157.200 (1024) 161.800 (2024)
84 157.225 (1084) 161.825 (2084)
25 157.250 (1025) 161.850 (2025)
85 157.275 (1085) 161.875 (2085)
26/86 50 kHz channel 50 kHz channel

(26/86 lower legs merged) (26/86 upper legs
VDE 2 Ship-to-satellite merged) Satellite-to-
(SAT Up3) ship (SAT 1)
26 157.300 (1026) VDE 2, SAT Up3 161.900 (2026) (SAT 1)
86 157.325 (1086) VDE 2, SAT Up3 161.925 (2086) (SAT 1)
80/21/81/22 100 kHz channel 100 kHz channel

(80/21/81/22 lower legs (80/21/81/22 upper legs
merged) Ship-to-shore merged) Shore-to-ship
(VDE-T) (VDE-T)
80 157.025 161.625
21 157.050 161.650
81 157.075 161.675
22 157.100 161.700
82 157.125 161.725
Ship-to-shore (VDE-T) Shor-to-ship (VDE-T)
23/83 50 kHz channel 50 kHz channel

(23/83 lower legs (23/83 upper legs
merged) Ship-to- merged) Shore-to-ship
shore (VDE-T) (VDE-T)
23 157.150 (VDE-T) 161.750 (VDE-T)
83 157.175 (VDE-T) 161.775 (VDE-T)
table 20: VdES Channel allocation
iALA has published a guideline that provides an overview of VdES, including the road map to
develop and implement this system.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 83 ]
4.7.3.2 ais AiS is a critical element of VdES as a system.

the issue of correlating a ship’s identity and its overview information on AiS can be found in
position in coastal waters and port approaches iALA Guideline G1082 (An overview of AiS).
had been frustrating shore authorities for some this and numerous other iALA guidance
time. it was long realised that an automatic re- documents are available at the Publications
porting device fitted to vessels would mitigate area of the iALA website (http:/ / www. iala-
this problem. it would contribute greatly to the aism. org/ product-category/ publications/ ).
safety of navigation and traffic management by there are also a number of AiS reference
exchanging information such as identity, posi- documents published by the iMo, itU and iEC.
tion, time, course and speed between ship and Satellite AiS terrestrial AiS systems have the
shore regularly, automatically and autono- benefit of continuous coverage and detection
mously. Vessel traffic Services (VtS) and ports rates that approach 100% close to shore.
have a requirement for clear and unambiguous terrestrial AiS includes both receive and
identification of vessels within their area, while transmit capabilities, although many shore
the ability to provide such information ship-ship stations (AiS base stations) may be capable of
was identified as a benefit for safety of naviga- only receiving AiS information. terrestrial AiS,
tion and collision avoidance. Separately, the ma- however, has the disadvantage of limited
ritime community was developing the range and relatively high cost per square mile
technology and rules for a VhF radio system covered.
which would enable ships to automatically com- Satellite AiS (S-AiS) is a receive-only system,
municate data with each other for the purpose but has the advantage of providing complete
of safe and efficient navigation. this was the Uni- global coverage with comparable average
versal Automatic identification System, now detection performance, as well as low cost per
known as just AiS. it quickly became clear to square mile covered. it has the disadvantages
shore authorities that AiS also had the potential of lower detection rates close to shore stations
to support a wide range of maritime regulatory and only periodic vessel refresh.
and traffic monitoring activities and assist with Satellites carrying AiS units are placed in Low
maritime security. these include: Earth orbit (LEo) where they travel at about
• ship operations; 27,400 km/h at a distance of 650 to 800km
• vessel tracking; above the surface of the earth.
• investigations and prosecutions; A single revolution around the earth takes
• search and rescue; approximately 90 minutes. As these are LEo
• environment protection; satellites, a constellation of satellites is
• port State control; required to provide coverage in a timely
• casualty management; method.
• compliance with pilotage requirements; Satellite and terrestrial AiS systems provide ca-
• vessel traffic services; pabilities offering unique and complementary
• planning of navigational services (e.g. ships’ benefits to national administrations, which
routeing measures); mean that both are needed for complete mari-
• monitoring of (and use as) Marine Aids to time domain awareness. Refer to iALA Recom-
navigation; and mendation A-124 Appendix 19 (Satellite AiS).
• strategic planning.
[ 84 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
asm and Vde channels led to the development of digital mobile radio
VhF data exchange refers to the exchange of standards and systems.
data in a digital manner on specified digital VhF should enable full communications
frequencies within VdES. the itU identified six – duplex and simplex – with higher data rates
duplex channels for VdE-t and two channels for and more efficient use of spectrum.
each AiS and ASM use (detailed in table 20.)
the two ASM frequencies were identified 4.7.4.1 diGitaL seLectiVe caLLinG (dsc) (VhF,
specifically to provide increased capability for mF and hF)
the transmission of application specific dSC is a tone signalling system, which sends
messages. in a terrestrial environment, ASM can packets of digital data over radio spectrum.
be both transmitted and received. ASM can the MF/hF dSC distress and safety channels
also be received by satellite, similar to the are 2187.5, 4207.5, 6312.0, 8414.5, 12577.0,
reception of AiS by satellite. and 16804.5 (khz); the VhF dSC distress and
the VdE frequencies were agreed to address safety channel is channel 70.
the ongoing requirement for digital data dSC is similar to the tone dialling on a tele-
exchange as identified in e-navigation. the phone, but with the ability to include data such
ability to group frequencies together within as the vessel’s identification number, the pur-
VdES will provide for increased bandwidth pose of the call, the vessel’s position, and the
within the VdE aspect of VdES. the frequencies channel for further voice communications. With
allocated to VdE can be used individually (as dSC there is the ability to call individual vessels
25 khz channels) or grouped together to directly by use of their MMSis (similar to a tele-
provide 50 khz or 100 khz. the increased phone number), or send a signal to vessels in
bandwidth, coupled with revised approaches the area – for example when sending a dis-
to access the bandwidth, will support increases tress/Urgency call. table 21 presents the key
in data transfer when compared with existing characteristics of dSC.
AiS. Following itU-WRC 2015, the VdE System Frequency Bandwidth Data Rate
frequencies were agreed for transmit and DSC 22187.5, 4207.5, 6312.0, VHF – 25 kHz VHF – 1,200
8414.5, 12577.0, HF – bandwidth constrained by bps
receive at the terrestrial level, while work is and 16804.5 SSB modulation scheme HF – 100 bps
continuing to enable satellite use of the (kHz)
156.525 MHz
frequencies to enable a truly global digital data
table 21: dSC characteristics
exchange capability.
4.7.4.2 diGitaL VhF, mF and hF radio (other
4.7.4 diGitaL VhF, mF and hF than dsc)
VhF is commonly used worldwide in the MF/hF is commonly used worldwide in mari-
maritime industry for general voice time for general voice communication, transmis-
communication, transmission/reception of sion/reception of distress and safety
distress and safety information and reception of information, and reception of urgent marine in-
urgent marine information broadcasts, formation broadcasts. Long-range hF commu-
nominally for ‘line of sight’ distances. VhF has nications rely on refraction of signals by the
been traditionally based on analogue ionosphere. MF can have a range of between 50
technologies. Changing user requirements and - 300 kms, with long-range hF reaching to 4,000
a demand for more sophisticated services have kms. the greater range depends on antenna
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 85 ]
configuration, power levels and atmospheric the iEEE 802.11ai standard is a recent
conditions. standard introduced which is solely based on
other than dSC (previous section refers), MF/hF the 5 Ghz band and is able to theoretically
is based on analogue technologies. Changing transfer data at rates up to 1.3 Gbps. the
user requirements and a demand for more so- higher frequency 5 Mhz channels have a lower
phisticated services have led to the develop- range than the lower frequency 2.4 Mhz
ment of digital mobile radio standards and channels, however 2.4 Mhz is a very congested
systems, in the land mobile environment. digital band and may experience interference.
techniques for hF, including digital voice, have
been developed to address the inherent weak- 4.7.6 4G and 5G netWorks
nesses of hF such as susceptibility to interfe- 4G is the 4th generation of mobile telecommu-
rence, fading and dropouts due to ionospheric nications, succeeding the 3rd generation
effects and frequent poor voice quality. system, 3G. 4G is defined as a set of standards
digital hF systems should enable full duplex to provide a given level service for a communi-
communications, higher data rates and more ef- cation system. Within these standards, various
ficient use of spectrum. table 22 provides the technologies are built, which can then be iden-
technical characteristics for digital VhF/UhF. tified as 4G, if they met the required standards.
two systems that are considered to meet this
System Frequency Bandwidth for a 9.6-19.2 kbps/4.8 kbps
simplex channel standard are WiMax and LtE. WiMax was
Digital VHF/UHF 156-162 25 kHz/6.25 kHz 9.6-19.2 kbps/4.8 kbps
MHz/450-470 initially invested in heavily, with the technology
MHz
table 22: digital VhF/UhF system characteristics
offering high speed internet connection within
a large coverage areas. however, the uptake
4.7.5 Wi-Fi of WiMax has been limited and some providers
the Wi-Fi communication system is one that are decommissioning networks. in contrast, LtE
runs across local networks, and is defined by the (long term evolution) is widely used, with the
institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers more recent development, LtE-Advanced (LtE-
(iEEE) . Wi-Fi networks consist of routers and A) regarded as a fully compliant 4G network.
adapters which translate a wired ethernet 4G is defined by the set of iEEE standards and
connection into a local wireless network for LtE-A is a technology that complies with these
devices to connect. Wi-Fi can provide internet standards. the LtE-A network uses orthogonal
access to users. Wi-Fi hot spots may be set up Frequency-division Multiplexing (oFdM), by
in public places, such as ports, airports and encoding data on multiple frequencies. table
restaurants to enable users to access the 24 presents the key characteristics of LtE-A.
internet whilst on the move. Wi-Fi networks may
be set up on board a vessel to enable data System Frequency Bandwidth Data Rate
4G – LTE Advanced 700 MHz, 1.7 to 2.1 GHz 20 MHz 600 Mbps
transfer within the ship, but access to internet is and 2.5 to 2.7 GHz (download)
reliant on access through a service provider. table 24: 4G –LtE Advanced system characteristics
table 23 presents the key characteristics of Wi-Fi.
5G is a development from the 4G network and
System Frequency Bandwidth Data Rate
is advertised to be delivered from 2020. this
Wi-Fi 802.11ai 2.4 and 5 GHz 40 MHz Up to 1.3 Gbps
latest development includes faster mobile data
table 23: Wi-Fi system characteristics rates. the updated standards that will define
[ 86 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
the 5G network are still under consideration, bits are at just over 20,000 km with an orbital pe-
but network trials have been successfully riod of 12 hours. these satellites are commonly
implemented. in bench trials speeds with a used for navigation services. MEo have recently
peak bitrate of 1 tbps have been achieved. it been introduced into the Cospas/Sarsat system
is anticipated that realistic rates for 5G will to support search and rescue (MEoSAR).
achieve 1.2 Gbps. in addition, it is envisioned LEo satellites operate at altitudes between 80 -
that 5G will have a satellite component. 2,000 km. the majority of LEo satellites make a
5G developments will ensure a much faster complete revolution of the Earth in approxima-
connection than 4G. not only will the data rate tely 90 minutes. For persistent coverage of any
be increased, but the capacity is also intended one area of the Earth, there is a need to have a
to increase allowing for more users to access grouping of multiple satellites, known as a
the higher speeds simultaneously. table 25 ‘constellation’. the footprint of a LEo satellite
provides the technical characteristics for 5G. would be in the realm of 3,281 km or 1,770 nau-
tical miles. these satellites use different orbiting
planes and can provide full global coverage, but
5G SHF – above 6 GHz Greater than 4G 1.2 Gbps
(download)
coverage is reliant on the orbit of the satellite
table 25: 5G system characteristics
and no one spot on the Earth’s surface can be
served continuously by a single satellite.
4.7.7 sateLLite communication inmarsat is an example of a GEo satellite
systems and serVices constellation. inmarsat was originally establi-
there is a wide range of satellite services that shed on the initiative of the international Mari-
are currently provided, with plans for new ser- time organization (iMo) to operate a satellite
vices to be introduced in the near future. Satel- communications network for the maritime com-
lite in itself is not a communications technology; munity, including public safety services. Current
rather the satellite carries a payload for commu- data services include support for GMdSS, high
nications and uses spectrum that is allocated by data rate internet broadband/data streaming,
altitude. Satellite services are provided from low data rate, low latency, high availability data
geostationary (GEo) satellites, medium earth reporting, short burst data and store and for-
orbit (MEo) and low earth orbiting (LEo) satel- ward capabilities.
lites. Galileo is an example of an MEo constellation.
GEo satellites operate at an altitude of about there are 18 satellites available within the Gali-
36,000 km in orbit over the Equator (0 degrees leo satellite service. the complete constellation
latitude), at various longitudes. these satellites will comprise of 30 satellites, 6 of which are
have an orbital period equal to the rotation of spares.
the Earth and appear stationary above a fixed iridium is an example of a LEo satellite constel-
point on the Earth’s Equator. they provide conti- lation. iridium uses a constellation of over 60
nuous coverage for the majority of the earth’s cross-linked LEo satellites to provide high-qua-
surface, but do not provide coverage in the lity voice and data connections, including cove-
polar-regions (e.g. at latitudes typically greater rage over polar regions with the use of polar
than 70°). orbiting satellites.
MEo satellites operate at altitudes between Some sample GEo and LEo satellite options
2,000 - 35,786 km. the most common MEo or- are presented. As satellite technology is deve-
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 87 ]
loping rapidly, this is not an exhaustive repre- provides the capacity that is required for delive-
sentation but provides a general overview of the ring a high bandwidth internet connection. the
existing, and expected, capabilities to address service uses a number of spot beams, giving a
maritime requirements. high data rate to a wider area, with further stee-
rable beams also available to provide additional
4.7.7.1 Geostationary sateLLites (Geo) capacity where it’s needed. however, this ser-
noting that the satellite itself is the means to vice is not reserved solely for maritime meaning
deploy a specific payload for communications, there is a higher risk of system overload.
there are a number of existing or developing the inmarsat GX system functions in the ShF-
technologies that can be deployed on GEo EhF frequency bands (26.5 - 40 Ghz) and pro-
satellites. vides higher bandwidth for internet connection.
the service is expected to facilitate a data rate
inmarsat c of 50 Mbps.
inmarsat C is a store and forward satellite ser- table 27 provides the technical characteristics
vice used to transmit data from shore-ship, ship- of inmarsat GX.
ship and ship-shore. it provides global coverage
(excluding the polar regions) and is designed to Inmarsat GX 26.5-40 GHz 64 MHz per spot beam 50 Mbps
send low data packages such as position re- 200 MHz for high capacity overlay
ports, meteorological reports and navigational

table 27: inmarsat Global Express system characteristics
warnings. the benefits of this technology in-
clude the restriction to maritime services, redu- 4.7.7.2 LoW earth orbitinG sateLLites (Leo)
cing the load on the system. noting that the satellite itself is the means to
inmarsat C is used for low data transmissions. deploy a specific payload for communications,
the data rate provided by the inmarsat C ser- there are a number of existing or developing
vice is 600 bps and works in the L band. technologies that can be deployed on LEo sa-
tellites.
Inmarsat C 1626.5-1645.5 MHz 15-20 MHz 600 bps
(transmit)
iridium
1530.0- 1545.0 MHz (receive) iridium has been effectively providing satellite
communication services since 2001. While the
table 26: inmarsat C technical characteristics
initial service was seen as effective for rescue
inmarsat Global Express (GX) is the latest satel- services and missions to remote areas of the
lite service offering from inmarsat providing hi- globe, the demand for services has led to the
gher bandwidth than the existing inmarsat development of iridium next. the revised basic
SwiftBroadband and FleetBroadband services. functions include additional bandwidth, end-to-
As a global service, it provides broadband ac- end iP technology and the incorporation of
cess to vessels outside the reach of normal ter- earth imaging and other secondary payloads.
restrial broadband, such as 4G and 5G. With the the iridium satellite system uses L band trans-
Ku band becoming increasingly saturated, the ponders to communicate with users, using fre-
inmarsat GX system has migrated the broad- quencies in the band 1616 - 1626.5 Mhz. it
band services to the Ka band. Although the Ka provides up to 134 kbps bidirectional (open-
band is more susceptible to rain attenuation, it Port broadband service).
[ 88 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
table 28 provides the technical characteristics the differences in the technologies are not only
of iridium (Pilot). related to area of coverage and data rate, but
also to the transmission process - for example,
Iridium (Pilot) Ground users - 1616 – 1626.5 31.5 kHz Up to 134 some are addressed (point to point only), while
MHz (L-band) kbps
others can be addressed, broadcast to a group
Terrestrial gateway 29.1 – 29.3 GHz
of ships or broadcast to a geographic area.
table 28: iridium (Pilot) system characteristics
4.7.8 oVerVieW oF diGitaL communications systems

table 29 provides a summary matrix outlining the communication technologies.
Communication
Data rate Infrastructure Coverage Transmission Maritime / public
Technology
NAVDAT 12-18 kbps Based on NAVTEX 250/300NM Broadcast Maritime
VDES VDE 307 kbps VHF Data link, Line of sight, approx Addressed / Maritime
RR Appendix 15NM-65NM broadcast
18 channels Satellite component
provides further coverage
VDES ASM 19.2 kbps VHF Data link, Line of sight, approx Addressed / Maritime
RR Appendix 15NM-65NM broadcast
18 channels
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11ac) 1,300 kbps Routers/Access points 50m Addressed Public
Digital VHF 9.6-19.2 Base station/mobile Line of sight, approx Addressed Maritime
kbps radios 15NM-65NM
Digital HF 19.2 kbps Base station/mobile Global Addressed Maritime

radios
4G (including LTE) 600 Mbps 4G Base stations 5-30km (3-6 NM) Addressed Public
5G 1,200 5G base stations 5-30km (3-6 NM) Addressed Public

Mbps
GEO Satellite
Inmarsat C 600 bps Satellite service Global, spot beams Addressed / Maritime
broadcast
Inmarsat GX 50 Mbps Satellite functioning Global, spot beams Addressed / Cross Industry
on Ka band broadcast
LEO Satellite
Iridium Up to 134 Satellite functioning Global, dependent on Addressed / Cross Industry
kbps on L band constellation size broadcast (Iridium Pilot
Maritime)
table 29: Summary of communication technologies
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 89 ]
4.8 POSITIONINg, NAVIgATION ANd processed to derive speed over ground (SoG),
TIMINg course over ground (CoG), etc.); and
• timing.
4.8.1 introduction this information may refer to a stationary obser-
Positioning, navigation and timing (Pnt) ver (static positioning) or to a moving observer
information is used widely in the maritime (kinematic positioning).
sector, both to navigate ships and in Marine Several Global navigation Satellite Systems
Aids to navigation (timing and positioning). (GnSS) have been deployed, fully or partially, or
there are a number of systems available that are under development. GPS, GLonASS, Bei-
deliver Pnt. dou and Galileo have been recognised as com-
More details of these systems can be found in ponents of the WWRnS. it is planned that
the iALA World Wide Radio navigation Plan regional GnSS components like QZSS and
(WWRnP). nAViC will become operational in the next few
years and may be submitted for recognition in
4.8.2 eLectronic position FixinG WWRnS in due course. GPS, Galileo, Beidou,
systems QZSS and nAViC operate interoperable ser-
vices under the framework of the international
4.8.2.1GLobaL naViGation sateLLite systems telecommunication Union (itU).
Global navigation Satellite System (GnSS) is the
generic term for a satellite system that provides Global positioning system
a world-wide position determination, with time the Global Positioning System (GPS) is a three-
and velocity capability, for multi-modal use. dimensional positioning, velocity and time sys-
GnSS is based on a constellation of active satel- tem that became fully operational in 1995. the
lites which continuously transmit coded signals system is operated by the United States Air Force
in one or more frequency bands. these signals on behalf of the United States Government.
can be received by users anywhere on the the U.S. Government provides two levels of GPS
earth’s surface to determine the user’s position service. the Precise Positioning Service (PPS) pro-
and velocity in real time, based on ranging mea- vides full system accuracy to designated users.
surements. the Standard Positioning Service (SPS) provides
if a GnSS is recognised by the iMo as a compo- accurate positioning to all users.
nent of the World Wide Radio navigation Sys- GPS has three major segments: space, control
tem (WWRnS), as set out in iMo Resolution and user. the GPS Space Segment consists of a
A.1046 (27), the receivers of that GnSS will sa- nominal constellation of 24 satellites in six orbital
tisfy the iMo carriage requirements for position planes. the satellites operate in circular 20,200
fixing equipment referred to in Chapter V of the km (10,900 nm) high orbits at an inclination angle
SoLAS Convention. of 55 degrees and with a 12-hour period.
GnSS receivers in combination with other the GPS SPS is available on a non-discriminatory
equipment are able to provide Pnt information basis, free of direct user fees, to all users with an
such as: appropriate receiver. the service satisfies the re-
• absolute positioning; quirements for general navigation and harbour
• relative positioning (this can be further approach with a horizontal position accuracy of
9 metres (95% probability) [2]
[ 90 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
A modernisation program aims to improve the China’s independently constructed and operated
accuracy and availability for all users and involves GnSS system. it can be compatible with other
new ground stations, new satellites and four ad- GnSS in the world. Beidou can provide all-time,
ditional navigation signals: three new civilian si- all-weather Pnt services with high accuracy and
gnals known as L2C, L5 and L1C and a new high reliability for all kinds of users. A joint office
military code termed M-Code. established by related governmental depart-
Further information on GPS can be found at the ments, China Satellite navigation office (CSno) is
USCG nAVCEn website (www.navcen.uscg.gov). in charge of management on the construction, ap-
the website also has a link to the latest United plication promotion and industrialisation of BdS.
States Federal Radionavigation Plan that pro- BdS consists of three major components: the
vides a comprehensive account of current and space constellation, the ground control segment
future developments for GPS. and the user segment. the space constellation
consists of 5 GEo satellites and 30 non-GEo sa-
Global navigation satellite system tellites. Upon completion of the full system, BdS
the GLobal nAvigation Satellite System (GLo- will provide positioning, velocity measurement
nASS) is a three-dimensional positioning, velo- and timing services to users worldwide. it can
city and time system managed by the Russian also provide wide area differential services with
Space Agency for the Russian Federation. the accuracy of better than 1m.
it is available on a non-discriminatory basis and it is expected that when fully operational, the Bei-
free of direct user fees to all users with an ap- dou constellation will consist of approximately
propriate receiver. With a full complement of 24 40 satellites and be capable of providing global
satellites, the service satisfies the requirements coverage. For further details on BdS, including
for general navigation and gives a horizontal the number of satellites currently in orbit, please
position accuracy in the region of 12.4m (95%) refer to the CSno website [4]
over any 24-hour interval, given a position dilu- Further information on BdS can be found on
tion of precision (PdoP) of 2. [3] the CSno website
Recent launches have included the improved (http://en.beidou.gov.cn/index.html)
GLonASS M satellites with a second civil signal.
Since 2011, the constellation is being repleni- Galileo
shed with GLonASS-K satellites that provide a Galileo is the European GnSS designed to be
third civil signal on L3. GLonASS satellites use interoperable with other GnSS, managed and
Frequency division Multiple Access (FdMA). ho- operated under civil control. the Galileo pro-
wever new satellites will provide additional si- gramme is currently in its deployment phase
gnals using code division multiple access and is due for completion in 2020. initial ser-
(CdMA), to become interoperable with other vices were declared in 2016. Galileo will offer
GnSS. Further information on GLonASS and fu- the following services:
ture developments can be found on the Russian An open Service (oS): With positioning accu-
Space Agency, information Analytical Centre rate to around 1 metre using up to three diffe-
website (www.glonass-ianc.rsa.ru). rent frequencies (E5a, E5b and L1), free of user
charges and providing positioning and synchro-
beidou nisation information intended mainly for high-
Beidou navigation Satellite System (BdS) is volume satellite navigation applications.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 91 ]
A Public Regulated Service (PRS): Restricted to indian regional navigational satellite system
European Union government-authorised users, the indian Regional navigational Satellite Sys-
for sensitive applications which require a high tem (iRnSS) with an operational name of
level of service continuity. it will use strong, en- nAViC (navigation with indian Constellation)
crypted signals. it may be accessed by non-EU will be an independent navigation system co-
states and international organisations subject to vering the indian region through a space seg-
bilateral agreements. ment of 3 GEo satellites and 4 iGSo satellites.
A contribution to the Search and Rescue Service the inclination of the orbital plane of the iGSo
(SAR) of the CoSPAS-SARSAt system: Galileo’s satellites is low, so that all the satellites can be
worldwide search-and-rescue service will for- seen simultaneously over india.
ward distress signals to a rescue coordination three nAViC services are anticipated:
centre by detecting emergency signals from • open Service using signals in the L5 and S
beacons and relaying messages to them in near bands;
real time. • precise Positioning Service using signals in
A Commercial Service (CS): Encrypted for au- the L5 and S bands; and
thentication purposes and offering very high ac- • restricted Access Service using signals in the
curacy to the sub-decimetre level, it will target L5 band only.
applications for professional or commercial use. the open and Precise services target dual fre-
it will offer improved performance and data with quency users, but it is also intended to com-
greater added value than that obtained through pute and broadcast ionosphere-corrections to
the open service. support single frequency users. owing to the
Galileo will use a constellation of 24 satellites to limited coverage of the nAViC network of re-
achieve its positioning performance targets but ference stations, the satellites will, apart from
aims to have a constellation of 30 satellites the navigation payload, also include a dedica-
when fully operational (including in-orbit ted C-band uplink/down-link ranging payload
spares).[5] to support precise satellite orbit determination.
4.8.2.2 reGionaL systems 4.8.2.3 diFFerentiaL GLobaL naViGationaL

quasi-Zenith satellite system sateLLite systems
Japan is developing a Quasi-Zenith Satellite the aim of GnSS augmentation services such as
System (QZSS). QZSS is based on three satel- differential Global navigational Satellite Sys-
lites in highly elliptical, inclined orbits and one tems (dGnSS) is the improvement of GnSS-
geo-stationary satellite. the final constellation based positioning in a given area. in this
is expected to consist of 7 satellites, with each context, various methods can be applied to in-
transmitting 6 signals in the L-band: 3 in L1, 1 crease the accuracy of GnSS-based positioning,
in E6, 1 in L2 and 1 in L5. the signal in E6 (L6) and to verify the integrity of applied compo-
aims to support a commercial service with high nents (systems, services) and provided data. An
data rate (2 kbps). Full implementation will also essential basis for the provision of dGnSS ser-
provide augmentation services to GPS and vice is own GnSS measurements gathered in
QZSS. real time at single reference stations or a net-
Further information is available at work of stations.
http://QZSS.go.jps/. dGnSS service provides correction in terms of
[ 92 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
ranging errors per satellite in view. this principle • be informed about the usability of services or
is applied by iALA Beacon dGnSS providing other information.
range and range rate corrections, derived at a Currently, dGnSS services are provided for
reference station site from differences between operational satellite navigation systems such as
surveyed and known distances to satellites in GPS and GLonASS. in principle, similar dGnSS
view. Satellite Based Augmentation Systems services can be provided for developing GnSS
(SBAS) provide an area correction parameter, such as GALiLEo, Beidou and QZSS.
whose application enables the determination of Each dGnSS service can be separated into two
range and range correction for users in large- parts - generating and distributing the augmen-
scale regions such as continental Europe. in this tation data. the generation of dGnSS augmen-
case, a network of ranging and integrity moni- tation data requires own GnSS measurements
toring stations (RiMS) is used to measure and gathered at a single reference station or a net-
model the spatial varying error behaviour. work of stations. different dGnSS messages
Centimetre-level accuracies can be achieved by and services may use different generation me-
dGnSS services employing the application of thods and means of dissemination. At present,
real time kinematic techniques (RtK) for positio- certain communication channels used for the
ning. the gain of accuracy is achieved by the provision of dGnSS augmentation data are as-
common processing of range and phase mea- signed to specific dGnSS services. For example,
surements collected at reference station and the provision of dGnSS augmentation data is
user site, to apply single and double difference realised by terrestrial radio transmitters (i.e. iALA
methods during position determination. beacon transmissions or AiS) or via satellite
in safety-critical applications, dGnSS services transponders (SBAS).
should be enriched with integrity functions, rea-
lising the monitoring of data and system inte- terrestrial augmentation systems
grity in real time. the monitoring can be realised the following sections consider the different
by plausibility and consistency tests as well as correction methods which used ground-based
methods estimating error behaviour and bud- infrastructure. iALA Beacon dGnSS
gets. Results of the integrity monitoring inform the aim of iALA beacon dGnSS is the provision
the user about the current usability of applied of non-encrypted differential corrections, as well
components and provided output data. as integrity information, to maritime users to
the dGnSS service provision is realised by improve accuracy and integrity of GnSS based
radio signals carrying augmentation, correction determination of position, velocity and time
and integrity data. Users operating in service data (PVt). the method of differential
areas and equipped with appropriate receivers positioning was developed in the 1990s, is
can use this augmentation data to: internationally accepted and supported in most
• enhance accuracy of GnSS based positio- coastal waters, especially in areas of high traffic
ning; density. the differential corrections are
• notify of faulty satellites or GnSS failure; determined at known positions of reference
• detect satellite signals with increased propa- stations or a network of stations. For this
gation errors; purpose, the difference between expected and
• exclude disturbed signals from positioning; measured ranges is used to derive actual range
and and range rate corrections.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 93 ]
Additionally, integrity monitoring functionalities ais for dGnss transmissions

are implemented to assess the usability of GnSS Automatic identification System (AiS) is a ship
signals and provided dGnSS service. to ship and ship to shore data exchange and
the radio link used for the provision of dGnSS broadcast system, operating in the VhF
correction and integrity data is internationally maritime band. it is described in more detail in
defined at itU (Recommendation itU-R M.823- Section 7.
3). At present, the dGnSS signal transmission is AiS has the capability of providing dGnSS
realized in the maritime radionavigational band corrections to onboard equipment using
(283.5 to 325 khz)[6] . At user sites, type- standardised transmissions (Message no 17)
approved dGnSS radio beacon receivers as described in iALA Recommendation A-124.
(meeting iEC 61108-4 test and performance
standards) are necessary to enable the ship-side maritime phase-based Gbas (mGbas)
use of dGnSS services for an improved PVt in the past few decades, the development of
data determination. phase-based measurement techniques was
the recapitalisation of dGnSS infrastructure is driven by surveying needs, to achieve position
an ongoing process. of the options available, accuracies with GnSS in the centimetre level. in
some service providers have opted to replace iALA Recommendation on the Future of dGnSS
existing hardware with similar dedicated (R-135), the RtK technique is mentioned as an
Reference Stations and integrity Monitors approach to meet maritime requirements on
(RSiM); some have invested in software RSiM; high-precision positioning in port areas and for
while others have adopted a network of docking. Several manufacturers of maritime
reference stations to create virtual RSiMs. other GnSS/dGnSS equipment provide solutions
solutions, such as integration with SBAS may supporting RtK-based positioning.
evolve within the enhancement of the maritime it is noted that RtK is a short-range system, and
Pnt system. that there is a need to introduce monitoring and
the full list of about 400 maritime radiobeacon assessment of the integrity of RtK services and
based dGnSS stations (as notified to iALA by RtK based positioning in the context of safety-
Marine Aids to navigation authorities) is at the critical applications.
iALA website (www.iala-aism.org).
rtk over ais
refer to iaLa publication: in survey applications, the RtK correction infor-
mation is usually distributed to users via
• Recommendation R-115 (Provision of maritime VhF/UhF radio modems or via commercial
radionavigation services in the frequency band broadband internet. however, when used in hy-
283.5-315 khz in Region 1 and 285-325 khz in drographic measurements further away from the
Region 2 and 3); shoreline, these communication options might
• Recommendation R-121 (Performance And not be always available. the communication op-
Monitoring of dGnSS Services in the Frequency tions in these areas would then be via satellite or
Band 283.5-325khz); and via AiS (the latter is also available only within co-
• Guideline 1112 (Performance and Monitoring astal VhF coverage, usually up to 50 - 70 km from
of dGnSS Services in the Frequency Band 283.5- the coast line).
325khz) RtK over AiS is in operational use for selected
[ 94 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
user groups in some countries and it has been re- european Geo-stationary navigation overlay
ported to function without major problems and service
deliver the required positioning accuracy. the European Geostationary navigation over-
When using RtK over AiS, it should be noted that lay Service (EGnoS) is the European satellite-
it puts a high demand on the VhF data Link. based augmentation system that provides
other limitations of this technique are that only safety critical navigation services to aviation,
one mobile user can be served by one AiS base maritime and land-based users over most of
station at a time, there is reduced understanding Europe. EGnoS augments the GPS L1 Co-
of accuracy due to rapid atmospheric fluctua- arse/Acquisition (C/A) civilian signal by provi-
tions and that it may not be applicable in areas ding corrections and integrity information.
of high channel loading. the channel loading
EGnoS provides three services:
problem may be addressed in the future by using
• open Service (oS), freely available to any
the additional channels allocated for VdES.
user. the main objective of the EGnoS oS is
achievable positioning accuracy by correcting
satellite based augmentation systems
several error sources affecting GPS signals;
Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)
• Safety of Life (SoL) Service, provides the most
support wide-area or regional augmentation
stringent level of signal-in-space performance
through the use of additional satellite-broad-
developed primarily to support aviation. its use
cast messages. the basic arrangement is to use
in the maritime sector is being explored with a
a set of monitoring stations (at precisely known
view to supporting maritime SoL users in the fu-
positions) to receive GnSS signals. these will
ture;
be processed in order to obtain estimations of
• EGnoS data Access Service (EdAS) is the
these errors that are also applicable to the users
(i.e. ionospheric errors, satellite position/clock EGnoS terrestrial data service which offers
errors, etc.). once these estimations have been ground-based access to EGnoS data in real
computed, they are transmitted to the users by time and also in a historical FtP archive to au-
means of a GEo satellite. thorised users (e.g. added-value application
providers) (https://egnos-user-support.essp-
Wide area augmentation system sas.eu/new_egnos_ops/sites/default/files/li-
the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) brary/official_docs/egnos_edas_sdd_v2_1.pdf.
has been implemented by the US Federal the EGnoS Space Segment comprises 3 geos-
Aviation Authority (FAA) to support the use of tationary (GEo) satellites. the EGnoS Ground
GPS for general and commercial aviation over Segment comprises a network of Ranging inte-
continental United States. it was recently grity Monitoring Stations (RiMS), two Mission
extended to cover parts of Mexico and Control Centres (MCC), six navigation Land
Canada. At present, the WAAS architecture Earth Stations (nLES), and the EGnoS Wide
includes 38 reference stations, 3 master Area network (EWAn) which provides the com-
stations, 4 up-link stations, 2 geostationary munication network for all the components of
satellite links and 2 operational control the ground segment.
centres. Further information on WAAS can be Further information on EGnoS can be found
found on the USCG navigation Centre via website http://www.egnos-portal.eu/ and
website (www.navcen.uscg.gov). https://egnos-user-support.essp-sas.eu/).
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 95 ]
multi-satellite augmentation system in Japan, processes in the next several years before its
the Multi-Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS) provision of safety of life (SoL) service in the
is a SBAS similar to EGnoS and WAAS. MSAS has aviation sector in october 2022. Further infor-
been commissioned for aviation use, with two mation on KASS can be found via website
GEo-links using the L1 band via dedicated (www.kass-eng.re.kr).
satellites, shared with communications and
meteorological missions. the system has been 4.8.2.4 terrestriaL systems
operational since 2007 and there are plans to add Loran-c
additional services on L5 in the future [7]. Further Loran–C is a hyperbolic radionavigation system
information on MSAS can be found via the that was developed during the 1960’s to meet
website: (www.kasc.go.jp/_english/msas_01.htm). U.S. department of defense requirements. the
Russian Federation operates a similar radiona-
Gps-aided Geo augmented navigation system vigation system called ChAYKA. there are cur-
india is developing a GPS-Aided Geo Augmen- rently about 19 Loran - C and ChAYKA chains
ted navigation system (GAGAn), which is a operating around the world. the principal cove-
SBAS similar to WAAS and EGnoS. GAGAn in- rage areas include Saudi Arabia, China Sea,
cludes 8 reference stations, 1 mission control Korea, north West Pacific, Russian Federation
centre, 1 up-link station and 1 GEo-link through and north West Europe.
the L1/L5 transponder on the inMARSAt 4-F1 Loran - C chains comprise between three to five
satellite. At the time of writing, further informa- stations that have a spacing of 600 to 1000 nau-
tion on GAGAn may be found at www.isro.org. tical miles. the signal format is a structured se-
quence of specially designed radio pulses on a
system for differential corrections and carrier wave frequency centred on 100 khz. one
monitoring of the stations is designated as the ‘master’ and
Russia is developing an augmentation to transmits groups of 9 pulses. the other stations
provide corrections for GLonASS and GPS are called ‘secondaries’ and these transmit
called the System for differential Corrections groups of 8 pulses.
and Monitoring (SdCM). this system will the spacing between groups of ‘master’ pulses
consist of 3 geostationary satellites, assigned from a single chain is a characteristic unique to
PRn codes 125,140 and 141. two satellites that chain and is referred to as the Group Repe-
have been launched and are in operation. tition interval (GRi).
the 100 khz carrier wave frequency favours the
korea augmentation satellite system propagation of a stable ground wave over long
Republic of Korea is developing a Korea Aug- distances. Careful signal design allows Loran re-
mentation Satellite System (KASS), which is an ceivers to determine positions using the ground
SBAS similar to WAAS and EGnoS. KASS in- wave and reject the delayed sky wave that
cludes 7 reference stations, 2 master stations, 2 would potentially distort the received signal.
up-link stations, and 2 operational control cen- the transmissions from each chain are monito-
tres. Upon completion of system development red and controlled continuously. System abnor-
and establishment, scheduled in 2019, KASS will mality indicators are built into the signal format
begin to provide its open service in 2020. it will and can be identified by the receiver providing
then undergo a series of system certification inherent integrity warnings.
[ 96 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
eLoran station for dissemination to the user over the

Enhanced Loran (eLoran) is a terrestrial naviga- eLoran data channel.
tion system developed from Loran-C. it is a Po- the inclusion of a data channel as part of the
sitioning, Velocity, and timing (PVt) service for main transmission is one of the inherent features
use by land, sea and air navigation, as well as of eLoran. it can be used to provide other data
other applications reliant on timing data. services in addition to differential corrections.
eLoran is independent of and has dissimilar fai- For more information, the reader is encouraged
lure modes to GnSS, and therefore comple- to seek advice from the Radio technical Com-
ments GnSS. Although offering reduced mission for Maritime Services Special Commit-
accuracy, it will allow GnSS users to retain the tee 127 (SC-127) on eLoran Systems.
safety, security and economic benefits of GnSS,
even when their satellite services are disrupted. compatibility between eLoran and Loran-c
eLoran provides positional accuracy in the re- Legacy receivers are able to use both eLoran
gion of 8 - 20 metres and time and frequency and Loran-C signals as eLoran stations form
performance (to stratum-1 level) similar to cur- part of the presently organised chains.
rent GnSS. however, legacy Loran-C receivers will likely
eLoran differs from Loran-C as it uses an all-in- not provide the user with the best accuracy
view method of operation, calculating the dis- performance.
tance to all eLoran stations in view. eLoran Users should ensure their receivers are able to
stations are also synchronised with, but inde- decode the Loran data Channel to receive
pendently of, GnSS time. Synchronising to a integrity alerts, UtC time and differential-Loran
common time source allows receivers to employ correction data. they should also ensure their
a mixture of eLoran and GnSS signals. eLoran receiver is capable of storing and applying up-
receivers calculate the distance from each sta- to-date ASF data.
tion by firstly assuming that the entire earth’s
surface is covered in sea-water. By knowing the receiver autonomous integrity monitoring
speed of the signal over sea-water, along with Receiver Autonomous integrity Monitoring
the times of transmission and reception, a pseu- (RAiM) is a technology developed to assess the
dorange can be calculated. this pseudorange is integrity of GnSS signals, and therefore the in-
then adjusted to take into account the propaga- tegrity of GnSS-based positioning. this kind of
tion delays due to the signal passing over land. integrity monitoring is autonomously realized
these delays are called Additional Secondary within the user’s receiver with special impor-
Factor delays (ASFs). ASFs are measured by the tance for safety critical applications, such as
service provider and are supplied to users as a aviation and maritime.
database built into their receivers. ASFs may Range measurements are required from at least
change slightly due to weather or seasonal ef- four GnSS satellites to enable the determination
fects, reducing the efficiency of the correction of position, velocity and time data. however, the
and affecting accuracy. however, this is resolved application of RAiM in a navigation receiver re-
by installing a differential Loran reference sta- quires redundancy in the range measurements.
tion nearby, which is able to measure the diffe- Safety-critical RAiM algorithms might use only
rence and calculate a correction. the correction “Fault detection” (Fd) or “Fault detection and
information is then passed back to the eLoran Exclusion” (FdE), which enables the continua-
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 97 ]
tion of operation in the presence of a single could be an expensive option and it is more li-
GnSS satellite and signal failures. to detect a kely that time would be sourced from a low fre-
faulty satellite, at least five range measurements quency radio time clock or eLoran.
are required, whereas to isolate and exclude a
faulty satellite, at least six range measurements 4.8.3 radar marine aids to naViGation
are required. While RAiM can detect many fai- Radar Marine Aids to navigation are devices
lure modes, it cannot detect some failures affec- that provide returns to a ship’s radar that help
ting multiple satellites. to locate and/or identify a navigation mark. the
the upcoming availability of various GnSS will iMo carriage requirements contained in Chap-
increase the usable number of navigation si- ter V, Regulation 19 of the SoLAS Convention
gnals for RAiM-based positioning. new and mo- 1974 (as amended), states all ships of:
dernized GnSS supports the provision of GnSS • 300 gross tonnage and upwards are to carry
signals in two or more frequency bands and the- a 9 Ghz radar;
refore improves the capability of GnSS based • 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards are to be
ranging. fitted with a 3 Ghz radar or, where considered
Future advancement in RAiM algorithms should appropriate by the Administration, a second 9
improve the availability and continuity of RAiM Ghz radar.
based positioning. Such enhanced RAiM tech- Some administrations may impose other car-
niques - called Advanced RAiM (ARAiM) - may riage requirements.
become available to maritime users (www.navi- iMo Resolution MSC.192 (79) Adoption of the
pediA.net/index.php/araim). Revised Performance Standards for Radar
Equipment (december 2004) states that 9 Ghz
ranging mode radars should be capable of detecting radar
Studies are being conducted on the benefit of beacons, SARts and radar target enhancers. By
expanding the functionality of existing systems omission, 3Ghz radars are not required to de-
by providing a timing signal from which the tect radar beacons and SARtS. With the remo-
user may then calculate their position indepen- val of the 3Ghz radar racon detection
dently from GnSS. this is known as Ranging requirement, ship-owners are free to use hi-
Mode (R-mode). gher performing radars, often referred to as
At present, the iALA MF beacon system and AiS new technology (nt) radars, discussed below.
services are being considered as candidates for 9 Ghz radars are also extensively carried by
modification to add R-mode functionality. By vessels not covered by SoLAS or local regula-
providing timing information over their normal tion. due to this high rate of carriage, radar Ma-
MF or VhF transmissions, a shipboard receiver rine Aids to navigation in the 9 Ghz band are
may then calculate a distance (range) to the especially useful.
transmitter. By calculating the range to several
stations, the user is able to calculate the ship’s 4.8.3.1 radar reFLectors
position. Coverage, geometry and interference A radar reflector is a passive device designed
issues would need to be investigated. to return the incident radar pulses of electroma-
the provision of R-Mode services would require gnetic energy back towards the source and the-
the availability of an accurate non-GnSS timing reby enhance the response on the radar
source at the transmitter. high stability clocks display. By design, a radar reflector attempts to
[ 98 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
minimise absorption and random scattering ef- shown RtEs to have provided an effective radar
fects. A radar reflector is generally installed as cross section (RCS) of about 100 m2, compa-
a supplementary device at sites that would also red with an RCS of 20 to 30 m2 for passive
be marked with a light. the main objectives are radar reflectors typically fitted to buoys.
to enhance: to date, commercially available RtEs only ope-
• target detection at long ranges (for example, rate in the 9 Ghz band. RtE use is subject to
for landfall navigation); multipath fading effects.
• target detection in areas of sea or rain clutter;
and 4.8.3.3 radar beacons
• radar conspicuity of Marine Aids to naviga- Radar beacons (racons) are receiver/transmit-
tion to reduce the risk of collision damage. ter devices operating in the maritime radar fre-
the performance of a radar reflector can be de- quency bands (9 and 3 Ghz) that enhance the
fined in terms of its effective radar cross section detection and identification of certain radar tar-
(RCS). this is a value determined by comparing gets. Please note that iMo MSC.192 (79) has
the strength of radar signals returned by the done away with the requirement for 3Ghz
radar reflector with the equivalent return from radar to detect racons.
a radar reflective sphere of 1m2 reflecting area. A racon responds to the presence of a ship’s
the range at which a radar reflector target can radar by sending a characteristic pulse train.
be detected is dependent on the heights of the the response appears as a coded mark (or
radar antenna, the reflector and the output “paint”) on the ship’s radar display (refer Figure
power of the radar. there are analogies to the 29) that highlights the range and bearing of the
geographical range of visual marks. the radar racon. the display paint can be fixed to a spe-
navguide: Chapter 4 - e-navigation 100 cified length or can be dependent on the radar
performance of corner cluster reflectors may range setting. it uses a Morse Code letter cha-
vary considerably from one make to another. racter for identification.
Use of small radar reflectors can also be subject
to multipath fading effects. Please see iALA Gui-
deline no.1010 on Racon Range Performance
for a discussion on multipath fading.
Most radar reflectors are designed for use by 9
Ghz radars. the reflectors can also be used with
3 Ghz radars; however, the effective radar cross
section is about an order of magnitude less.
4.8.3.2 radar tarGet enhancers

A Radar target Enhancer (RtE) is a device that
amplifies and returns the pulse from a ship’s Figure 29: A Racon (left) and a Radar display (right)
radar to give an enhanced image on the radar with and without the Racon character
screen. the returned signal from an RtE is not
coded. the RtE was designed primarily for applications
buoys and small vessels that might normally A racon is generally considered to be a
carry a passive radar reflector. RtE testing has supplementary Marine Aid to navigation
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 99 ]
installed at sites that would also be marked iALA recommends that the availability of a
with a light. the number of vessels capable of racon should be at least 99.8%.
making use of a racon is effectively unlimited. For more information on racons, refer to the
A racon can be used for: following iALA publications:
• ranging and identification of positions in ice
conditions or on inconspicuous or featureless refer to iaLa publication:
coastlines;
• identification of Marine Aids to navigation, • Guideline 1010 - Racon Range Performance
both sea-based and land-based; • Recommendation R-101 - Maritime Radar
• landfall identification; Beacons (Racons)
• indicating centre and turning points in • Recommendation enAV-146 Strategy for
precautionary areas or traffic Separation Maintaining Racon Service Capability
Scheme (tSS); • Recommendation o-113 - the Marking of
• marking hazards; Fixed Bridges over navigable Waters
• indicating navigable spans under bridges;
and
• identifying leading lines. 4.8.3.6 racon technicaL considerations
there are a number of technical
4.8.3.4 Frequency-aGiLe racon considerations in the use of racons to assist
A frequency-agile racon responds on the with the navigation of a ship:
frequency on which it is interrogated and the • to avoid masking other features on the
response can be re-painted on each radar radar display, the racon response is usually
sweep. the purpose of frequency agility is to switched on and off on a pre-set cycle;
provide a signal to the radar that is within the • the angular accuracy of the bearing
receiver bandwidth of the radar. between the ship and racon depends entirely
signal characteristics on the interrogating radar, while the accuracy
Racons operate in the 9 Ghz band with of the range measurement depends on both
horizontal polarisation, and/or in the 3 Ghz the radar and racon;
band, with horizontal and optional vertical • When racons are used in leading line
polarisation. applications, an alignment accuracy of about
0.3 degrees can be expected; and
Preferred Terminology Alternatives • When a ship is very close to a racon, side-
9 GHZ 9300 9500 MHZ X-BAND 3 CM
lobes from the radar antenna can trigger the
racon. the resulting multiple responses on the
3 GHZ 2900 3100 MHZ S-BAND 10 CM
radar display may be a distraction and can
table 30: Preferred terminology for the description of mask other targets. Side-lobe suppression
Racon operating Frequencies techniques are standard features of frequency
agile racons.
4.8.3.5 racon perFormance criteria
the availability of a racon is the principal 4.8.3.7 use With neW technoLoGy radars
measure of performance determined by iALA. All currently available and installed racons are
in the absence of any specific considerations, designed for use with high power pulse radars.
[ 100 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
in comparison, new technology (nt) radars 4.8.4 non-radio positioninG

use low power transmissions with long pulses. systems
due to the low received peak signal strength,
long pulse at the racon and modulation tech- 4.8.4.1 inertiaL systems
nique, current racons may not detect nt radars Many studies have been carried out on the inte-
and may not transmit a response usable by nt gration of GnSS with inertial Measurement Units
radars. Studies have shown that pulsed nt ra- (iMU) for marine navigation. there exist various
dars are able to reliably trigger racons at shor- grades of iMU, from the very expensive naviga-
ter ranges than would have been achieved with tion grade, through to tactical grade and low
a conventional magnetron pulsed radar. the cost units based on the Micro-engineered
iMo regulations regarding X band radars and Electromechanical System (MEMS) and nuclear
racons remain unchanged and although detec- Magnetic Resonance (nMR). the iMU grade
tion and triggering range might be reduced, it characterizes the achievable performance of
is the responsibility of manufacturers of X band data provision covering velocities and orienta-
nt radars to retain racon functionality. tions. A small iMU grade is associated with hi-
despite changes to the iMo regulations rela- gher drift rates. depending on the different drift
ting to S band racons, existing racons with 3 rates, an iMU can provide contingency for va-
Ghz capability will continue to be useful to 3 rious lengths of GnSS outages.
Ghz pulse radars of both Magnetron and pul- in combination with a GnSS compass, an iMU
can provide accurate and stable heading data
sed new technology variants. Advanced clut-
for longer GnSS outages. none of the currently
ter reduction techniques of nt radars do not
available inertial systems is capable of maintai-
automatically mean that racons are no longer
ning all levels of navigation accuracy during a
useable. Some manufacturers are continuing to
lengthy outage of GnSS. For ocean areas, both
provide racon compatibility in their nt 3 GhZ
navigation and tactical-grade iMUs will give pro-
radars.
tection for appreciable outages over 15 minutes
Please refer to Recommendation enAV-146
and navigation grade iMUs approximately 1
Strategy for Maintaining Racon Service Capa-
hour. For coastal areas, the required accuracy of
bility for more information on nt radars.
10 meter could be obtained for 3.5 minutes with
a navigation-grade iMU and 1.5 minutes with a
4.8.3.8 radar reFerenced positioninG tactical grade iMU.
Algorithms may be developed to allow the
radar display to be overlaid upon the 4.8.4.2 epeLorus
electronic chart using detectable recognised An electronic pelorus (ePelorus) is a device for
navigational features (racons, passive radar taking bearings of visual marks and converting
beacons or land edge patterns etc.). this them to an electronic format for input to an
technique, although unlikely to challenge the electronic chart system. Such a device would
accuracy of a GnSS based position fix, might enable the integration of visual Aton with e-
be adopted as part of a Pnt integrity navigation.
assessment and/or as a back-up in the event the feasibility of constructing a low-cost ePe-
of GnSS service or equipment failure or lorus from commercial off-the-shelf compo-
corruption. nents is being investigated to demonstrate its
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 101 ]
effectiveness as a backup, and to evaluate the then available to everyone involved with e-na-
potential for integrating visual Aton with e-navigation and testbeds.
vigation. it is important that outcomes or lessons learnt
from test-bed projects be considered in the
4.9 TeSTBedS context of the main elements of the iMo Stra-
the term testbed is used across many tegy implementation Plan (i.e. user needs, ar-
disciplines to describe a platform that is used chitecture, gap analysis and solutions that are
for research, development or testing. the subject of cost-benefit and risk analyses).
testbeds generally involve rigorous,
transparent and replicable testing of scientific
theories, innovative solutions, computational NOTeS
tools and new technologies. [1]A registry is simply a bookkeeping device
iALA Guideline G1107 (on Planning and where definitions/specifications are kept in
Reporting of e-navigation testbeds) states organised locations known as registers. the
that e-navigation testbeds allow for early registry eases the tasks of development of
identification and assessment of new system new things, by providing a centralised source
functionality, operational usability, areas of for finding definitions/ specifications
enhancements, identification of weaknesses [2]GPS Performance Standards, 2008
and socio-technical impact. Such testbeds [3]United nations office for outer Space
should not be limited or restricted by current Affairs, “Current and Planned Global and
architecture, data structures or procedures. Regional navigation Satellite Systems and
note that not all testbeds may lead to Satellite-based Augmentations Systems”,
commercial implementation of solutions. 2011
[4]At the time of writing, further information
4.9.1 testbed inFormation on Beidou may be found on the internet
As e-navigation evolves from concept to ope- hhttp://www.en.beidou.gov.cn/csnclist.html
rational reality, the importance of testbeds [5]Further information on Galileo can be
continues to grow. found at the following website:
in order for e-navigation solutions to have http://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/space/ga
global application, iALA facilitates the colla- lileo/
tion and sharing of the outcomes of testbeds. [6]A 1kW transmitter will generally allow
A list of testbeds that are known to iALA can position fixing to better than 10 metres over a
be found at: radius of about 200 nautical miles
http://www.iala-aism.org/products-projects/e- [7]United nation office of outer Space Affairs
navigation/test-bedsprojects/
testbed managers are encouraged to share
results (including interim and final reports) of
testbeds with the maritime community,
through iALA. iALA can post testbed findings,
including an executive summary and descrip-
tion, as provided by the testbed manager, at
the testbeds page of the iALA website. it is
[ 102 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
VESSEL TRAFFIC SERVICES
Chapter 5 - Vessel Traffic Services
5.1 INTrOduCTION effectiveness of VtS, including those with

this chapter provides a first point of reference, management responsibility at national level
basic information and guidance on where and those who deliver services to the mariner.
more detailed guidance related to Vessel
traffic Services may be obtained. 5.5 OBjeCTIVeS
the purpose of vessel traffic services is to im-
5.2 PurPOSe prove the safety and efficiency of navigation, sa-
SoLAS Chapter V Regulation 12 (Vessel traffic fety of life at sea and the protection of the
Services) states, inter alia, that: marine environment and/or the adjacent shore
Vessel traffic Services (VtS) contribute to safety area, worksites and offshore installations from
of life at sea, safety and efficiency of navigation possible adverse effects of maritime traffic.
and protection of the marine environment, adja- A clear distinction may need to be made bet-
cent shore areas, work sites and offshore instal- ween a Port or harbour VtS and a Coastal VtS.
lations from possible adverse effects of maritime A Port VtS is mainly concerned with vessel traffic
traffic. to and from a port or harbour or harbours, while
Contracting Governments undertake to arrange a Coastal VtS is mainly concerned with vessel
for the establishment of VtS where, in their opi- traffic passing through the area. A VtS could
nion, the volume of traffic or the degree of risk also be a combination of both types. the type
justifies such services. Contracting Governments and level of service or services rendered could
planning and implementing VtS shall, wherever differ between both types of VtS; in a Port or
possible, follow the guidelines developed by the harbour VtS a navigational assistance service
organization (iMo Resolution A.857(20), Guide- and/or a traffic organization service is usually
lines for Vessel traffic Services (VtS)). provided for, while in a Coastal VtS usually only
an information service is rendered.
5.3 deFINITION the benefits of implementing a VtS are that it
A VtS, as defined by iMo Resolution A.857(20), allows identification and monitoring of vessels,
Guidelines for Vessel traffic Services, is: strategic planning of vessel movements and
“A service implemented by a competent provision of navigational information and assis-
authority, designed to improve the safety and tance. it can also assist in prevention of pollution
efficiency of vessel traffic and to protect the and co-ordination of pollution response.
environment. the service should have the the efficiency of a VtS will depend on the relia-
capability to interact with the traffic and respond bility and continuity of communications and on
to traffic situations developing in the VtS area.” the ability to provide good and unambiguous
information. the quality of accident prevention
5.4 IALA VTS MANuAL measures will depend on the system's capability
the iALA VtS Manual is acknowledged by the of detecting a developing dangerous situation
VtS community as being the most comprehen- and on the ability to give timely warning of such
sive guide to VtS as well as a point of reference dangers.
for further detailed study. the precise objective of any vessel traffic service
the contents are aimed at a wide readership to will depend upon the particular circumstances
encompass all who are in any way involved with in the VtS area and the volume and character of
the policy for provision, operation and maritime traffic
[ 104 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
5.6 FuNCTIONS
VtS functions can be subdivided into internal 5.7.2 traFFic orGaniZation serVice
and external functions. internal functions are the A traffic organization Service (toS) is a service
preparatory activities that have to be performed to prevent the development of dangerous
to enable a VtS to operate. these include data maritime traffic situations and to provide for the
collection, data evaluation and decision making. safe and efficient movement of vessel traffic
External functions are activities executed with within the VtS area. A traffic organization Service
the purpose of influencing the traffic provides essential and timely information to
characteristics by means of active traffic assist the on-board decision-making process and
management strategies including the provision may advise, instruct or exercise authority to direct
of information, advice, warnings and instruction. movements. it concerns the operational
Amongst the most important functions that a management of traffic and the planning of vessel
VtS may carry out are those related to, movements and is particularly relevant in times
contributing to and thereby enhancing: of high traffic density or when vessel movements
• safety of life at sea; may affect the traffic flow. A traffic organization
• safety of navigation; Service should be responsible for separating
• efficiency of vessel traffic movement; traffic in the interest of safety. this separation
• protection of the marine environment; could be defined in space, time and/or distance.
• supporting maritime security;
• supporting law enforcement; 5.7.3 naViGationaL assistance serVice
• supporting allied and other services; A navigational Assistance Service (nAS) may be
• protection of adjacent communities and provided in addition to an information Service
infrastructure. and/or traffic organization Service. it is a service
to assist in the on-board navigational decision-ma-
5.7 TyPeS OF SerVICe IN VTS king process and is provided at the request of a
iMo Resolution A.857(20) states that a VtS vessel, or when deemed necessary by the VtS. it is
should comprise of at least an information a service that provides essential and timely naviga-
Service and may also include others, such as a tional information to assist in the on-board naviga-
navigational Assistance Service or a traffic tional decision-making process and to monitor its
organisation Service, or both. effects. it may also involve the provision of infor-
mation, warning, navigational advice and/or ins-
5.7.1 inFormation serVice truction.
An information Service (inS) provides essential the navigational Assistance Service is especially
and timely information to assist the on-board important in difficult navigational or meteorologi-
decision-making process. An information Ser- cal circumstances or in case of defects or deficien-
vice involves maintaining a traffic image and al- cies. A navigational Assistance Service is an
lows interaction with traffic and response to important supplement to the provision of other na-
developing traffic situations. An information vigational services, such as pilotage. navigational
Service should provide essential and timely in- Assistance Service may be provided at the request
formation to assist the on board decision-ma- of a vessel, irrespective of whether a pilot is on
king process. board, or when a navigational situation is observed
and intervention by the VtS is deemed necessary.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 105 ]
5.8 SurVeILLANCe requIreMeNTS • VtS data System;

the extent of the VtS area, amongst other fac- • recording and replay systems;
tors, should be taken into account with regard to • data Processing;
determining the operational requirements for • decision Support;
• external information Exchange.
surveillance equipment. the operational require-
ments for surveillance should be determined by
a needs analysis as described in iALA Recom-
5.10 PerSONNeL
VtS personnel, masters, bridge watch-keeping
mendation V-119. this analysis should take into
personnel, pilots and all other stakeholders share
account variations in weather and general local
a responsibility for good communications,
conditions and any impact they might have on
effective co-ordination and understanding of each
the performance of surveillance equipment.
other’s role for the safe conduct of vessels in VtS
Most VtS use VhF for communication, and ob-
areas. they are all part of a team and share the
tain a traffic image through use of a combination
same objective with respect to the safe movement
of Radar, AiS and CCtV in some areas.
of vessel traffic.
depending on the size and complexity of the VtS
5.9 equIPMeNT requIreMeNTS area, service type provided, as well as traffic vo-
iALA Recommendation V-128 and iALA Guideline
lumes and densities, a VtS centre may include VtS
G1111 provide guidance on the preparation of
operators, VtS Supervisors, VtS on-the-Job trai-
operational and technical performance for VtS
ning instructors and a VtS Manager. it is for the
systems. Competent/VtS Authority to determine the ap-
VtS Equipment may be defined as the individual propriate types of service, operational procedures
items of hardware and software which make up and equipment in order to meet its obligations
the VtS System. the VtS System is considered to and to ensure that appropriately trained and qua-
be the hardware, software and their behaviour as lified personnel are available.
a coherent entity. this excludes personnel and iALA Recommendation R0103 provides guidance
procedures. on the standards for the recruitment, training
traffic density and structure, navigation hazards, and certification of VtS personnel. there are cur-
local climate, topography, environmental require- rently five model courses related to VtS:
ments, commercial aspects and the extent of a • V-103/1 VtS operator;
VtS area sets the requirements for VtS equipment • V-103/2 VtS Supervisor;
and these factors will have substantial impact on • V-103/3 VtS on-the-Job training;
life cycle costs of a VtS and the acquisition of VtS • V-103/4 VtS on-the-Job training instructor;
equipment. Equipment examples include: • V-103/5 VtS the revalidation process for VtS
• communications (VhF; telephone; Satellite te- qualification and certification.
lephone; Mobile telephone; E-mail; AiS messa-
ging); 5.11 PrOMuLgATION OF INFOrMATION
• radar System; information on VtS areas and procedures can
• automatic identification System (AiS); be found in internationally recognised marine
• electro optical Systems (EoS); publications and individual websites.
• radio direction Finders (RdF);
• hydro-meteo Equipment;
[ 106 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
fic Service beyond territorial seas;

• Guideline G1083 – Standard nomenclature to
identify and refer to VtS Centres;
• Guideline G1089 - Provision of VtS Services (inS,
toS & nAS);
• Guideline G1110 – Use of decision Support tool
for VtS personnel;
• Guideline 1102 - VtS interaction with Allied or
other Services;
• Guideline 1070 - VtS role in managing Restricted
or limited access areas;
• Model Course V-103/1 – Vessel traffic Services -
operator training;
Figure 30 - overview of types of VtS Services and Functions • Model Course V-103/2 – Vessel traffic Services -
Supervisor training;
5.12 SuMMAry on-the-Job training;
Readers are encouraged to refer to the:
• iALA VtS Manual
on-the-Job training instructor;
• Model Course V-103/5 - the Revalidation Process
for VtS qualification and certification.
• Recommendation V-102 - the Application of User
Pays Principle to Vessel traffic Services;
• Recommendation R0103(V-103) - Standards for
training and Certification of VtS personnel;
• Recommendation V-119 - the implementation of
Vessel traffic Services;
• Recommendation V-120 - Vessel traffic Services in
inland Waters;
• Recommendation V-125 - the Use and Presenta-
tion of Symbology at a VtS Centre;
• Recommendation V-127 - operational Procedures
for Vessel traffic Services;
• Recommendation V-128 - operational and tech-
nical Performance of VtS Systems;
• Recommendation V-145 - the inter-VtS Exchange
Format (iVEF) Service;
• Recommendation R1013 – Auditing and Assessing
Vessel traffic Services (VtS);
• Guideline G1017 - Assessment of training for VtS;
• Guideline G1018 - Risk Management;
• Guideline G1071 – Establishment of a Vessel traf-
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 107 ]
OTHER SERVICES
AND FACILITIES
6.1 PILOTAge • sailing directions;

• restrictions applicable to the piloted vessel.
6.1.1 introduction • being able to quickly adapt to:
Pilotage is a specialised (and usually licensed) • operational culture aboard the vessel;
• the vessel’s handling characteristics;
service to navigation, specifically in restricted
• the state of the navigation equipment aboard.
and/or navigationally challenging waters. the
skill of the pilot draws on local knowledge
6.1.2 portabLe piLot units (ppu)
related to geographic and hydrographic
A Portable Pilot Unit (PPU) can be generally
points of interest, Marine Aids to navigation,
described as a portable, computer-based
submerged features, hazards to navigation,
system that a pilot may bring on board a
the navigable depth of water and any
vessel to use as a decision-support tool for
limitations associated with the waterway in
navigating in confined waters. interfaced to a
which pilotage is being conducted. Pilots
positioning sensor such as GnSS/dGnSS and
must also possess a high degree of ship
using some form of electronic chart display, it
handing skills, be cognisant of the local tides,
shows the vessel’s position/movement in real-
currents, and climatic conditions, as well as
time. in addition, PPUs provide information
the handling characteristics for the specific
about the location/movement of other vessels
ship receiving the pilotage service.
via an AiS interface. increasingly, PPUs are
Pilotage may be required in coastal waters,
being used to display other types of
estuarial waters, rivers, channels, ports, navigation-related information such as
harbours, lakes, canals, enclosed dock soundings/depth contours from recent hydro
systems or any combination of these areas. in surveys, dynamic water levels, current flow, ice
addition, deep sea pilotage services are coverage and security zones.
provided in some international waters, such
as the north Sea, English Channel, Entrances 6.1.3 types oF piLotaGe
to the Baltic Sea and the Baltic Sea. Pilotage services exist within declared ports
When a pilot boards a vessel, he / she is given but may also exist in some coastal areas, lakes
“conduct of the vessel”, but not “command”. and inland waterways. these areas would
the role of the pilot often includes: normally fall within the definition of restricted
• giving necessary instructions to ship's waters.
personnel who operate equipment essential Where pilotage services are licensed, it is
to the safe navigation and manoeuvring of the usual for the applicable pilotage area to be
vessel; stated on the licence. the individual pilot may
• assisting local communication with a VtS then be described as a port pilot or a coastal
centre, port control and other vessels; pilot etc. Various levels of enforcement can be
• communicating instructions to tugs and applied to a pilotage area:
linesmen if berthing or sailing; • Compulsory (Mandatory) Pilotage: Applicable
• providing current and specialist knowledge of: vessels must take a pilot when entering a
• local conditions and traffic; declared area.
• operational status of Marine Aids to Some Competent Authorities require
navigation; compulsory (mandatory) pilotage for vessels
[ 110 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
of certain characteristics and/or carrying

specific types of cargo when entering a
declared area.
in Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSA)
approved by iMo, Additional Protective
Measures may be applied to shipping, which Photo Courtesy of Swedish Maritime Administration
could include compulsory pilotage
arrangements. in some instances, individual When developing proposals for marking
countries may establish a system of pilotage or restricted waterways, the requirement for
domestic laws which give effect to the pilotage services should be considered
compulsory pilotage arrangements established concurrently with the selection of the Marine
in association with and iMo-approved PSSA. Aids to navigation.
• Recommended Pilotage: An authority can
promulgate notices recommending that 6.1.5 simuLation piLot traininG
masters of applicable vessels, who are and certiFication
unfamiliar with a particular area, should the iMo Assembly in 2003 adopted Resolution
engage a licensed pilot. A.960(23) Recommendations on training and
certification and operational procedures for
maritime pilots other than deep-sea pilots. iMo
Resolutions encouraging the use of pilots on
board ships in certain areas are described
further below:
• Resolution A.480(Xii) (adopted in 1981) re-
commends the use of qualified deep-sea pilots
in the Baltic;
• Resolution A.620(15) (adopted 1987) recom-
mends that ships with a draught of 13 metres or
more should use the pilotage services establi-
Photo Couresy of instituto hidrografico (Portugal)
shed by Coastal States in the entrances to the
Baltic Sea;
• Resolution A.486(Xii) (adopted 1981) recom-
6.1.4 other piLotaGe considerations mends the use of deep-sea pilots in the north
Pilotage services can be provided by public Sea, English Channel and Skagerrak;
or private operators, however the pilot • Resolution A.579(14) (adopted 1985) recom-
licensing authority should generally be mends that certain oil tankers, all chemical car-
government-regulated to maintain the riers and gas carriers and ships carrying
highest standards of service. radioactive material using the Sound (which se-
the iMo has set the minimum standards for parates Sweden and denmark) should use pilo-
pilots and includes recommendations on the tage services;
qualification and training of pilots other than • Resolution A.668(16) (adopted 1989) recom-
deep sea pilots [1]. individual countries may mends the use of pilotage services in the Euro-
however, impose more stringent standards. Channel and iJ-Channel (in the netherlands);
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 111 ]
• Resolution MEPC.133(53) recommends that sed by ships colliding or grounding in or near

Governments recognize the need for effective environmentally sensitive areas.
protection of the torres Strait and inform ships the precise objectives of any routeing system
flying their flag that they should act in accor- will depend upon the particular hazardous cir-
dance with Australia’s system of pilotage for cumstances which it is intended to alleviate, but
merchant ships 70m in length and over or oil may include some or all of the following:
tankers, chemical tankers, and liquefied gas car- • separation of opposing streams of traffic so as
riers, irrespective of size, when navigating the to reduce the incidence of head-on encounters;
torres Strait and the Great north East Channel; • reduction of dangers of collision between
• Resolution A.827(19) (adopted 1995) on crossing traffic and shipping in established traf-
Ships’ Routeing includes in Annex 2 Rules and fic lanes;
Recommendations on navigation through the • simplification of the patterns of traffic flow in
Strait of istanbul, the Strait of Canakkale and the converging areas;
Marmara Sea the recommendation that “Mas- • organization of safe traffic flow in areas of
ters of vessels passing through the Straits are concentrated offshore exploration or exploita-
strongly recommended to avail themselves of tion;
the services of a qualified pilot in order to com- • organization of traffic flow in or around areas
ply with the requirements of safe navigation."; where navigation by all ships or by certain
• Resolution A.960(23) gives recommendations classes of ship is dangerous or undesirable;
on training and certification and operational • organization of safe traffic flow in or around
procedures for Maritime Pilots other than deep or at a safe distance from environmentally sen-
Sea pilots; sitive areas;
• Resolution A.1045(27) on Pilot transfer Arran- • reduction of risk of grounding by providing
gements gives recommendations on the special guidance to vessels in areas where water
construction of pilot ladders. depths are uncertain or critical; and
• guidance of traffic clear of fishing grounds or
6.2 ShIPS rOuTeINg the organization of traffic through fishing
the General Provisions on Ships’ Routeing are grounds.
established by SoLAS Chapter V, Regulation
10. (note2) 6.2.2 deFinitions
the following terms are used in connection with
6.2.1 objectiVes matters related to ships’ routeing:
the purpose of ships’ routeing is to improve the Approach Channel: Any stretch of waterway lin-
safety of navigation in converging areas and in king the berths of a port and the open sea. there
areas where the density of traffic is great or are two main segments; the seaway or outer
where freedom of movement of shipping is inhi- channel, and the main approach or inner channel
bited by restricted sea-room, the existence of which lies in relatively sheltered waters.
obstructions to navigation, limited depths or un- Area to be Avoided: An area within defined limits
favourable meteorological conditions. Ships’ in which either navigation is particularly hazar-
routeing may also be used for the purpose of dous or it is exceptionally important to avoid ca-
preventing or reducing the risk of pollution or sualties that should be avoided by all ships, or
other damage to the marine environment cau- just certain classes of ship.
[ 112 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
deep-water Route: An accurately surveyed route Recommended track: A route which has been
within defined limits that is clear of obstructions specially examined to ensure, so far as possible,
to a specified depth as indicated on the applica- that it is free of dangers and along which, ships
ble navigation chart. are advised to navigate.
Established direction of traffic Flow: A traffic flow Roundabout:(note3) A routeing measure compri-
pattern indicating the directional movement of sing a separation point or circular separation
traffic as established within a traffic separation zone and a circular traffic lane within defined li-
scheme. mits. traffic within the roundabout is separated
inshore traffic Zone: (note 3) A routeing measure by moving in a counter clockwise direction
comprising a designated area between the land- around the separation point or zone.
ward boundary of a traffic separation scheme Routeing System: Any system of one or more
and the adjacent coast, to be used in accordance routes or routeing measures aimed at reducing
with the provisions of rule 10(d), as amended, of the risk of casualties, it includes traffic separation
the international Regulations for Preventing Col- schemes, two-way routes, recommended tracks,
lisions at Sea, 1972 (CoLREGs). areas to be avoided, inshore traffic zones, roun-
Mandatory Routeing System: A routeing system dabouts, precautionary areas and deep water
adopted by the international Maritime organiza- routes.
tion, in accordance with the requirements of Separation Zone or Line: (note 3) A zone or line
SoLAS Regulation V/10, for mandatory use by all separating the traffic lanes in which ships are pro-
ships, certain categories of ships or ship carrying ceeding in opposite or nearly opposite direction
certain cargoes. or separating a traffic lane from the adjacent sea
no Anchoring Area: A routeing measure compri- area; or separating traffic lanes designated for
sing an area within defined limits where ancho- particular classes of ship proceeding in the same
ring is hazardous or could result in unacceptable direction.
damage to the marine environment. Anchoring traffic Lane: (note 3) An area within defined limits
in a no anchoring area should be avoided by all in which one-way traffic is established. natural
ships or certain classes of ships, except in case of obstacles, including those forming separation
immediate danger to the ship or the persons on zones, may constitute a boundary.
board. traffic Separation Scheme: (note 3) A routeing
Precautionary Area: A routeing measure compri- measure aimed at the separation of opposing
sing an area within defined limits where ships streams of traffic by appropriate means and by
must navigate with particular caution and within the establishment of traffic lanes.
which the direction of traffic flow may be recom- two-way Route: A route within defined limits in-
mended. side which two way traffic is established, aimed
Recommended direction of traffic Flow: A traffic at providing safe passage of ships through wa-
flow pattern indicating a recommended directio- ters where navigation is difficult or dangerous.
nal movement of traffic where it is impractical or
unnecessary to adopt an established direction of 6.2.3 VesseL manoeuVerinG
traffic flow. if a waterway is defined as a series of straight
Recommended Route: A route of undefined and turn sections, the passage of a vessel
width, for the convenience of ships in transit, along the waterway can be described by a
which is often marked by centreline buoys. number of navigational phases that are
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 113 ]
illustrated in Figure 31. these comprise: Aton are normally intended to function as part
• turning; of a system(s) and therefore mariners should
• recovery; make use of all information provided by the
• track keeping. system of Aton.
the type of manoeuvre within a section Whether designing a new waterway system or
determines the information that the navigator evaluating an existing one, there are many fac-
requires from the Marine Aids to navigation. tors that must be considered. the identification
of these factors allows Competent Authorities
to develop a greater understanding of the risks
and threats that are present within a particular
waterway.
Waterways will vary in their characteristics. Site
analysis, needs analysis, simulation, and opera-
tional analysis provide the necessary frame-
work to evaluate the overall risks that may be
present and identify measures that reduce the
risk to safe transit to an acceptable level.
once the evaluation has been completed,
Competent Authorities should use this infor-
mation to design the Aton system. in comple-
ting the design it is important to note that the
entire waterway must be viewed using a syste-
matic approach, recognizing that each indivi-
dual element of the waterway design by itself
will not reduce transit risk. While individual
areas of the waterway must be considered, the
overall Marine Aids to navigation system must
Figure 31 - Vessel Manoeuvring Phases support a smooth transit of the entire water-
way. the tools used for waterway design
6.3 MINIMuM COMPreheNSIVe MIx consists of the iALA MBS (Annex A of this do-
OF ATON FOr ChANNeLS ANd cument) and the technical tools referred to in
WATerWAyS section 3.1 (Aton) and Chapter 4 (e-naviga-
the primary goal of the design of Aton sys- tion), which are also described in iALA Recom-
tems for a waterway is to facilitate safe and ef- mendations and Guidelines.
ficient movement of vessels while playing a
prevention role in the protection of the marine the specific Marine Aids to navigation system
environment. the responsible provision of implemented should enable waterway users
Aton systems requires that systems be des- to transit an area safely and efficiently,
igned to meet the minimum requirements for avoiding groundings, obstructions to
safe and expeditious navigation through spe- navigation, and collisions with other vessels.
cific waters in accordance with the type and vo- in order to satisfy the information
lume of traffic and the degree of risk. requirements of users, a system of Marine
[ 114 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Aids to navigation must: 6.3.1 desiGn considerations

• be available at the time it is needed; during design, different design parameters
• provide timely warnings of channel limits should be considered.
and fixed obstructions to navigation; in this phase the functional requirements have
• enable mariners to determine quickly their to be translated into physical systems.
location within the channel, relative to fixed however, it is often a question of utilising
obstructions to navigation, and relative to practical experience with Aton, if the
other vessels; performance parameters are to be met.
• enable a safe course for the vessel.
Aton systems may be provided for the safety accuracy
of navigation in various areas such as: the required accuracy depends on the
• fairways, dredged channels and canals; difference between the manoeuvring lane of
• waters adjacent to the coast; the ship and the width of that part of the
• archipelagic waters, in pristine and/or fairway, which is used by a ship of a particular
improved condition; draft. the available under keel clearance has
• estuarine rivers; to be taken into account. the ship’s
• river systems; manoeuvring lane depends on the ship’s
• straits; beam, length and manoeuvring ability and on
• isthmuses; environmental conditions (wind, currents, etc.).
• open sea.
availability
once the system has been established, main-
in those areas in which the level of risk has been
taining the availability of this system is critical to
determined to be high, the use of certain types
controlling overall risks.
of Marine Aids to navigation may prove to pro-
it is useful to analyse the functional require-
vide greater risk mitigation. however, the plan-
ments of the design in a number of parts. For
ner must also consider higher availability
example, the open water component or outer
criteria that may be required. Competent Au-
channel, and the inner channel component
thorities should refer to iALA Recommendation
which may lie in relatively sheltered waters.
o-130 on Categorisation and Availability ob-
the design process requires inputs from a jectives for Short Range Aids to navigation for
number of disciplines, including: additional information in relation to the catego-
• ship dynamics; rization of individual Marine Aids to navigation,
• vessel size and behaviour; the calculation of availability targets, and re-
• human factors; commended availability criteria.
• maritime engineering; Aton systems should be designed to assist mari-
• marine Aids to navigation; ners regardless of weather, sea and ice conditions.
• the physical environment (including bathyme- Short Range Aton, especially buoys, should be
try and hydrometeorology). designed with regard to their visual informa-
tion, radar information (active or passive) and
the joint PiAnC-iAPh Working Group ii-30 in other modes of information (for example AiS).
cooperation with iMPA published a document System design must take into account the visi-
“Approach Channels - A Guide for design”. bility and radar availability implications. des-
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 115 ]
igning for worst case visibility is not usually the position uncertainty, at the 95% confidence
practical; however, reduced visibility due to level, should be recorded together with the sur-
haze and fog must be considered. vey datA. the position of the following items
in designing and modernising systems, past in- should be determined such that the horizontal
cidents such as groundings, collisions or near- uncertainty meets the requirements specified:
misses must be considered. Such incidents • Soundings;
should be well documented to ensure accuracy • dangers;
of the information used for a decision to • other significant submerged features;
change or not to change the configuration of • Aton features significant to navigation;
aids in a system. • Coastline and topographical features.
Additionally, integrity and continuity can be this includes all uncertainty sources not just
used to define requirements, if appropriate. those associated with positioning equipment.
refer to iaLa publication: 6.3.4 desiGn VaLidation and

VisuaLisation and the use oF
• Recommendation R0130(o-130) - Catego- reLated tooLs
risation and Availability objectives for Short Prior to implementing a new Aton system or
Range Aids to navigation. changing an existing one, Competent Authori-
ties should consider using simulation techniques
to assess the overall safety and effectiveness of
6.3.2 dredGinG considerations these changes. the use of Geographic informa-
Competent authorities should consider the tion System (GiS) technology can improve the ef-
contribution that proper use of Marine Aids to ficiency of Aton deployment and waterway
navigation make in improving positioning ac- layout. GiS enables the volume of traffic to be
curacy and navigational accuracy and hence to overlaid (e.g. taken from AiS data), and planning
the efficiency of major dredging projects and the position and type of Aton to mitigate the
waterways maintenance. in some instances, the identified risks for all users. having designed a
required channel width could be reduced as potential Aton configuration in this manner, the
can the costs for major and maintenance dred- Competent Authority can use simulation tools to
ging. the PiAnC Guide “Approach Channels,” model a ship passages using combinations of
contains further information on this matter. various types of vessels, in order to validate the
design. Simulation is best done in consultation
6.3.3 hydroGraphic considerations with appropriate stakeholders eg. local pilots.
Usually, the uncertainty of positioning an Aton to achieve a high level of realism in the simula-
should not be greater than the uncertainty in hy- tions, GiS data can be integrated to the waterway
drographic surveys and charts. models used in the simulator.
horizontal uncertainty is the uncertainty of a po- in addition, simulation could be useful for ensu-
sition defined as the uncertainty of the sounding ring sufficient channel width, channel depth, and
or feature within the geodetic reference frame. optimal orientation and design of breakwaters
Positions should be referenced to a geocentric as well as ensuring that the lay-out of a channel
reference frame based on the international ter- and port is suitable from a manoeuvring pers-
restrial Reference System (itRS) e.g. WGS84. pective.
[ 116 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Sophisticated computer simulation techniques 6.3.6 simuLation

are becoming increasingly available, and they Simulation tools are capable of providing very
provide an important tool to assist in decision realistic and accurate results and input to inves-
making. tigation and evaluation of channel and port des-
Simulating the placement and operation of Aton ign including the placement of Aton. the
by day and night, and under various conditions purpose of simulation for design evaluation is
of visibility assists in ensuring that Aton are ef- to evaluate the risks of a given design ship ope-
fective and provided in a cost effective manner rating in a specific fairway and port area. it also
that suits the purpose of providing a predeter- includes evaluation of channel layout, place-
mined level of safety. this is particularly impor- ment of Aton and manoeuvring aspects.
tant as Marine Aids to navigation become more Simulations offer a relatively low cost method to
sophisticated (synchronised and sequential help ensure that the Aton solution provided
lights, LEd with flicker, and other new light cha- meets the users’ requirements in an effective
racteristics). and efficient manner.
By providing a simulation tool to the user an
refer to iaLa publications: overall improvement in safe and efficient ope-
ration can be realised by assisting in demons-
• Recommendation o-138 - the Use of GiS trating the operation of the waterway, channel
and Simulation by Aids to navigation design and associated Aton before the reality
Authorities; of navigating a vessel in the area.
• Guideline G1116 – Selection of Rhythmic User consultation is an integral part of all Aton
Characters and Synchronisation of Lights for planning and simulation processes. Accurate si-
Aids to navigation. mulation tools will potentially improve the use-
fulness of the feedback obtained from users. it
is important that the providers of the simulation
6.3.5 economic considerations services include the key stakeholders in the si-
A comparative analysis of cost effective combi- mulation studies including experienced mari-
nations of aids (cost-effectiveness analysis) is re- ners and engineers, local pilots and competent
quired to select from viable alternatives. the authorities who can ensure that applicable re-
effectiveness of different alternatives can be as- gulations and recommendations are followed.
sessed using iALA risk assessment tools, espe- the use of simulators can be of real benefit in
cially the Port And Waterway Safety Assessment confirming the effectiveness of marking propo-
(PAWSA) tool as a qualitative risk assessment sals that will have a high cost or that are inten-
procedure and the iALA Waterway Risk Assess- ded to meet the needs of a complex
ment Program (iWRAP) as an analytical risk as- navigational situation. When defining simulation
sessment program. tools for design evaluation (as opposed to trai-
it is necessary to establish comparative direct ning in, for example generic ship handling or
costs - including maintenance costs - of each watch keeping) it is important that the ship, tug
proposed Aton, to assist in determining the and area models used are very realistic and ac-
most cost-effective system of Marine Aids to na- curate and that the simulation provider can do-
vigation. Simulation offers a method to help en- cument the realism and accuracy such that it
sure that Aton are appropriate. does not become a “black-box” study with non-
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 117 ]
transparent processes. iALA is monitoring the developments of these

the requirement for realism and accuracy is structures and will continue to create and
increasingly important as the industry is update documentation as required to ensure
constantly striving for improved safety levels clear and unambiguous marking of waterways
and increased efficiency. for safe navigation, protection of the
it is important to note that accurate simulation environment and protection of the structures
of Aton is a complicated process due to the themselves.
challenges of visual simulation. Providing visual Effective and consistent marking of these
images for observation and detection of Aton diverse structures, during their construction
during night and day time, at sufficient or decommissioning phase and when
resolution, light intensity and contrast pushes established, are an significant challenge for
the capability of modern projectors and Marine Aids to navigation Authorities. iALA
monitors to the edge and even beyond. Recommendation o-139 for the Marking of
Understanding the human eye and the physics offshore Structures provides comprehensive
of light are prerequisites for developing information on the required marking. the
adequate simulation models. marking of the various structures are set out
A number of different simulation tools are in five groups:
available for design studies and have different • offshore Structures (in general);
usability and applications. the following types • oil and Gas Platforms;
of simulation tools are the most common: • offshore Wind Farms;
• Fast time; • Wave and tidal Energy devices;
• desktop; • Aquaculture Farms.
• Part task;
• Full Mission;
• traffic Flow.
• Recommendation o-138 - the Use of GiS and

Simulation by Aids to navigation Authorities;
• Guideline G1058 - the Use of Simulation as a
tool for Waterway design and Aids to navigation
Planning.
Figure 32 - Sample for Marking Wave Energy devices
6.4 The MArkINg OF MAN-MAde

OFFShOre STruCTureS refer to iaLa publications:
there has been an increasing development in
man-made structures at sea, which may affect • Recommendation o-113 - the Marking of
shipping. these structures can be isolated or Fixed Bridges over navigable Waters;
in groups, small or large, and close to or far • Recommendation o-139 - the Marking of
from navigation zones. Man-made offshore Structures;
[ 118 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
6.5 NAuTICAL PuBLICATIONS the iho in 1977.

the World-Wide navigational Warning Ser-
6.5.1 naViGationaL WarninGs vice is administered through 21 nAVAREAS,
as is shown in Figure 33. Each nAVAREA has
SoLAS Chapter V Regulation 13 requires for
an Area Coordinator who is responsible for
contracting governments to provide navigatio-
collecting information, analysing it, and trans-
nal information to mariners.
mitting nAVAREA Warnings. the delimitation
Regulation 13 states that Contracting Govern-
of nAVAREAS is not related to, and shall not
ments undertake to arrange for information re-
prejudice the delimitation of any boundaries
lating to aids to navigation to be made
between states.
available to all concerned users. Changes in the
transmissions of position-fixing systems which
6.5.3 Lists oF marine aids to
could adversely affect the performance of re-
naViGation
ceivers fitted in ships shall be avoided as far as
Lists of Marine Aids to navigation (e.g. lights,
possible and only be in effect after timely and
buoys, radar, audible signals) are produced
adequate notice has been promulgated. by (or for) most Competent Authorities as part
this information falls into three basic catego- of the navigational information made
ries: available to mariners in support of SoLAS
• information about planned changes, such as: Chapter V Regulation 13.
• dredging, surveying, platform installation, they provide details of:
pipe and cable laying; • name;
• changes to an existing aid or the establish- • location;
ment of new Marine Aids to navigation; • the characteristics of the aids;
• changes to traffic arrangements; • operating schedule.
• commercial maritime activities; these lists may not include buoys and unlit
• short term events (naval exercises, yacht Marine Aids to navigation.
races, etc.).
• information about navigational unplanned
events, such as:
• the failure to Marine Aids to navigation;
• marine incidents (groundings, collisions,
wrecks etc.);
• search and rescue activities.
• new information arising from survey work
or previously undiscovered hazards.
6.5.2 WorLd-Wide naViGationaL

WarninG serVice
the promulgation of information on naviga-
Figure 33 - World-Wide navigational Warning Service:
tional safety is coordinated by means of the Limits of nAVAREAS
World-Wide navigational Warning Service
that was established jointly by the iMo and
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 119 ]
6.5.4 standard descriptions

the Joint iMo/iho/WMo Manual on Maritime Safety information (iMo MSC.1/Circ.1310) Edition 3
2009 provides definitions of standard terms to describe particular events that should be used when
composing navigational warnings. Some of the terms that are relevant to the condition of Marine
Aids to navigation have been Term Definition
defined as indicated in table 31. UNLIT Use UNLIT in place of: Out, Extinguished, Not Burning, Not Working.
LIGHT Use LIGHT UNRELIABLE in place of: Weak, Dim, Low Power, Fixed, Flashing Incorrectly, Out of
UNRELIABLE Character, Incorrect colour of light, Sector limits unreliable.
DAMAGED Use only for major damage, e.g., loss of significant functionality
DESTROYED Do not use “Temporarily destroyed”.

table 31 - terms that are relevant
OFF STATION Not in charted position, but still in the vicinity of original location. The actual position may be informed,
to the condition of Marine Aids if known.
to navigation MISSING Completely absent from position.
RE-ESTABLISHED Use for previously charted or listed as DESTROYED or TEMPORARILY REMOVED.
the above list of terms and definitions do not adequately cover all of the situations that an Authority
might want to use when issuing a navigation warning. An expanded set of definitions of terms for use
in navigation warnings is provided for Competent Authorities’ consideration in table 32.
Term Definition
STATION The authorised and exact location of a Marine Aid to Navigation.
ESTABLISHED IN Any type of aid placed in operation for the first time at a given station.
POSITION
RE-ESTABLISHED IN Any type of aid placed in operation at a station at which a similar type of aid with identical
POSITION characteristics had been previously established, but subsequently destroyed, withdrawn or discontinued.
UNLIT When a light is out because of defective equipment, or any unintentional or deliberate occurrence and it
is intended to restore it to normal as soon as practicable.
UNRELIABLE When an aid of any type is not exhibiting its correct characteristics and it is intended to restore it to
normal as soon as practicable.
REDUCED POWER When an aid of any type is not operating at its correct power, but is exhibiting the correct
characteristics and it is intended to restore it to normal replace it as soon as practicable.
OFF STATION When a floating aid is adrift, missing or out of position and it is intended to replace it as soon as
practicable.
ALTERED When the characteristics or structure of any aid have been altered, without changing the type of aid or its
station.
ALTERED IN POSITION When a change is made to the station of an aid (e.g. its location) without changing the type of aid,
character or type of structure.
DESTROYED Any type of aid that has been damaged to the extent that it is no longer of use as a Marine Aid to
Navigation, but the structure may remain.
RESTORED TO NORMAL Any type of aid that has been previously described as unlit, unreliable, reduced power or temporarily
discontinued and has now been serviced so as to exhibit its correct characteristics and power.
REPLACED IN POSITION When a floating aid previously described as off station or temporarily discontinued is returned to station
or replaced by another with the same characteristics.
TEMPORARILY When any aid is discontinued, temporarily withdrawn or off station and another aid of
REPLACED BY different type or characteristics is immediately established at the same station.
TEMPORARILY When a floating aid has been entirely removed from its station and no similar aid is left in its place, but it
WITHDRAWN is intended to re-establish the aid in the near future.
TEMPORARILY When a sound signal or radionavigation service is silent because of maintenance requirements, or any
DISCONTINUED unintentional or deliberate occurrence, and it is intended to restore it to normal as soon as practicable.
table 32 - Suggested
PERMANENTLY When a floating aid has been entirely removed from its station with no similar aid is left in its place Expanded List of Standard
WITHDRAWN and it is not intended to re-establish that aid in the near future.
terms for Use in navigation
PERMANENTLY When any aid, other than a floating aid, is removed from a station or the service is terminated or silenced
DISCONTINUED because it is no longer required.
Warnings
[ 120 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
6.5.5 positions the appropriate datum reference. (for example

the Joint iMo/iho/WMo Manual on Maritime 51° 04.372’n, 100° 26.794’E (WGS 84)).
Safety information states that positions should al-
ways be given in degrees, Minutes and decimal refer to iaLa publication:
minutes in the form:
• dd-MM.mmm n or S; • Recommendation o-118 - the Recording of
• ddd-MM.mmm E or W; Aids to navigation Positions.
• leading zeros should always be included;
• the same level of accuracy should be quoted bearings
for both Latitude and Longitude. Bearings, directions of leading lines (ranges) and
limits of sectors should always be stated in terms
recording of marine aids to navigation positions of the bearings that would be seen by the mari-
Marine Aids to navigation positions can be re- ner. observing a practice of communicating bea-
corded in number of ways: rings with the suffix ‘tBS’ or true Bearing from
• where an Authority has operational dGnSS Seaward will minimise the risk of confusion.
stations, a program should be implemented to
determine the WGS84 positions of each Marine 6.5.6 MArITIMe SAFeTy INFOrMATION
Aid to navigation (fixed and floating) within the Within a nAVAREA, there can be a hierarchy of
coverage area, and for this information to be warnings promulgated by the national co-ordi-
passed to the hydrographic authority for future nator. Collectively referred to as Maritime Safety
use. it is anticipated that the information would information (MSi), the warning hierarchy covers:
assist the hydrographic authority in checking the • naVarea Warnings that are concerned with
accuracy of charts, planning future survey requi- information that ocean-going vessels require for
rements and for updating List of Lights. safe navigation:
• in the case of lighted fixed Marine Aids to na- • are transmitted in English and, where appro-
vigation, the WGS84 position should be measu- priate, in other languages;
red close to the focal centre of the light so that • are promulgated by:
the WGS84 elevation is also determined. Alter- • radiotelephony;
natively, several positions around the optic or • digital Selective Calling (dSC);
lantern house could be measured and a central • Enhanced Group Calling (EGC);
position computed. • nAVtEX[4] (used for the automatic broadcast
• in the case of unlighted fixed Marine Aids to of localised Maritime Safety information (MSi)
navigation, the WGS84 position should be the using radio telex);
base of the structure. • cover the specific nAVAREA and portions of
• in the case of floating Marine Aids to naviga- adjacent areas;
tion, the WGS84 position should be the position • have broadcast schedules which are shown in
of the anchor or sinker. the List of Radio Signals published by hydrogra-
• each position should be recorded to three de- phic offices and in the publications of the inter-
cimal places of a minute and include the time, national telecommunication Union (itU);
date and details of the measuring equipment. • are generally promulgated for a sufficient
• where an Authority has to refer to charts of dif- period of time to ensure its safe reception after
ferent datum, positions are communicated with which it is cancelled or published in a notice to
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 121 ]
Mariners; is generally used to overcome the sometimes

• coastal Warnings that are concerned with considerable differences between actual tide
information relating to a regional area covering heights and predicted values due to meteoro-
100-200 nautical miles from the coast: -- are logical and mean sea level fluctuations.
transmitted from a national network of coastal these systems are supplemented in areas of
radio stations; -- are broadcasted at scheduled risk by tsunami early warning systems.
times; -- use English and the national language; Authorities that are procuring or upgrading sea
• Local Warnings that cover the area within the level measurement devices, are encouraged to
limits of a harbour or port authority: -- consider using equipment that can support the
supplement Coastal Warnings; -- may be limited requirements of the Global Sea Level obser-
to the national language. ving System (GLoSS) coordinated by the inter-
• off-station Warnings for major Floating aids governmental oceanographic Commission.
that pertain to any unmanned Light Vessel / typically this calls for gauges capable of mea-
Lightship, or LnB (occasionally referred to as suring to centimetre (1 cm.) accuracy in all wea-
LAnBY), is out of position such that it could be ther (especially wave) conditions and for the
misleading to navigation: free exchange of hourly sea level data with an
• any light, sound and Racon signal used as international Sea Level Centre. information on
Marine Aids to navigation should be the GLoSS Programme can be found at
discontinued; www.gloss-sealevel.org [6]. technical recom-
• it should, to avoid risk of collision, exhibit two mendations on sea level observations can be
all-round red lights in a vertical line where they found at http://www.psmsl.org/.
can best be seen, which should be exhibited in
accordance with CoLREGS Rule 27 (A) for a 6.7 uNder keeL CLeArANCe
vessel not under command; MANAgeMeNT SySTeMS
• if requiring a sound signal to be operated, it the Under Keel Clearance (UKC) of a vessel
should be coded MoRSE ‘d’ as prescribed by should always be such that a safe passage is en-
rule 35 of the CoLREGS for a vessel ‘not under sured. the iMo helsinki Committee has quoted
command’; a UKC value of 20% -10% of the ship’s draught,
• if requiring a Racon to be deployed, it should based on many years practical experience, which
be coded MoRSE ‘d’. should be applied depending on whether the
passage is exposed or sheltered. As shown in Fi-
refer to iaLa publication: gure 34, the UKC related to the ship at zero
speed and the mean water level must allow for
• Recommendation o-104 – ‘off Station’ the squat at speed, the ship motions due to
Signals for Major Floating Aids. waves and swell, heel due to wind and turning
and remaining uncertainties in water level and
bottom level. note, however, that the figures ad-
6.6 TIde gAugeS ANd CurreNT MeTerS vised by iMo address the dynamic UKC, which is
A number of countries operate tide gauges and the UKC remaining when the vertical motions as
current meters to assist the prediction of tidal well as the squat underway are deducted.
heights and streams or for the broadcast of the largest allowance usually has to be made for
real-time information to shipping [5]. the latter the wave response. As the wave spectrum is
[ 122 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
transformed into a motion spectrum of the ship, real-time monitoring system to be used during a
there is not a specific maximum value to the passage. For both, prediction of conditions over
ship’s vertical motions. What allowance has to be the hours ahead is important to make decisions
reserved for a safe passage then? the key is to in time.
define a maximum probability (per unit of time) there is an increasing use of Probabilistic tidal
that the vessel would contact the bottom. this Window calculation systems in ports. the general
value should be subject to the bottom type rationale for those is that a fixed UKC criterion will
(sandy and flat or with rocks), the type of vessel under most circumstances be unnecessary large,
and cargo, the ecological vulnerability of the area in order to ensure that all passages under all per-
and the possibility that the harbour entrance mitted conditions will be safe. the fixed UKC cri-
would be blocked as a result of a contact. terion is then governed by the worst conditions
that only occur during a small percentage of the
time. Under more favourable conditions the ac-
tual UKC may be smaller without compromising
safety, which leads to a better accessibility of the
port.
Real-time UKC monitoring may be performed for
different purposes and in different ways. one
purpose is of course to ensure the safety of navi-
gation, providing an early warning if the UKC
gets too small. Another important purpose is to
evaluate the performance of the prediction sys-
tems used, so that these may be improved. the
way in which the UKC is monitored depends on
the available data sources. to improve a predic-
ted value, the actual value must be deducted
from the measured data.
Figure 34 - Vessel Under Keel Clearance (UKC) the predicted data comprise:
• Water level;
For the passage concerned, tidal windows may • Current;
be calculated on basis of this probability, instead • Wind;
of using a fixed value of UKC. to this end, the ex- • Wave height and direction;
pected motion spectrum of the vessel during the • Water density.
passage must be determined. in order to remain other parameters are known with only limited ac-
manoeuvrable, a minimum UKC (e.g.1.0 m) has curacy or certainty:
to be maintained at all times disregarding the • Vessel Characteristics (wave response; draught
motions due to waves. Additionally, the motions fore, mid and aft);
during the actual passage may be monitored, so • Squat, trim and heel;
that the passage plan might be adapted if condi- • Actual Bathymetry.
tions differ from the expectations. UKC manage- Metocean models are used for the prediction of
ment may exist as a system to calculate wind, water level and current, and wave spectra,
Probabilistic tidal Windows for a passage or as a often as localised models nested within ocean-
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 123 ]
wide models. observed data are provided by may have to wait one or more tides before pas-
tide gauges, wave buoys and other devices as sage is safe enough.
available near the passage. the vertical position it is imperative that a robust operational model(s)
of the vessel may in some areas be monitored ac- and governance framework(s) is in place for the
curately with GPS in RtK mode. this yields the di- introduction of a flexible UKC system. the accu-
rect measurement of the bottom elevation, but racy of charted depths and predicted tide levels
also the squat of the vessel if the actual water is integral to the management of UKC. hydrogra-
level is known or vice versa. phic surveys have inherent technical limitations
Vessel transits plans or tidal windows are deter- due partly to uncertainties in tidal reductions.
mined using predicted information. the closer to therefore, nautical charts cannot always be com-
the time of transit, the more accurate the predic- pletely reliable in their representation of depth.
tion will be as it is corrected using observed va- Furthermore, in some areas where there are sand
lues transits may be executed with the assistance waves the shape and hence the depth of the sea-
of portable systems that can receive real-time en- bed is constantly changing.
vironmental data (tides, waves, current, weather). Potential components of that framework include:
this enables a pilot to execute a transit having full
• initial validation of the UKC calculation outputs
regard to real-time environmental conditions. if
of the system by an independent person or or-
there is time and manoeuvring space for it, the
ganisation e.g. hydrographers, hydrodynamics
pilot may be able to fine-tune a ship’s actual UKC
experts, using accepted validation techniques
by varying speed, which affects squat/ settlement,
such as:
and rate of turn, which affects angle of heel, to en-
• regular calibration of sensors providing hydro-
sure it remains within predefined limits.
meteo data inputs;
Predictive and real time UKC software applica-
• accuracy limitations of charted depths and
tions including associated portable pilot software
tidal predictions must be factored into any UKC
applications require a ground truthing approach
system.
for ensuring their operational integrity and Com-
Competent Authorities should ensure an appro-
petent Authorities seeking to implement real
time UKC management systems may need to priate minimum under keel clearance limit is en-
provide additional Marine Aids to navigation forced in conjunction with the operation of the
and related infrastructure (e.g.hydrometeo sen- UKC management system.
sors, fully redundant communications links) to
support a real time UKC management system. NOTeS
Competent Authorities considering implemen- [1]iMo Resolution A.960(23).
ting UKC management systems should under- [2]Refer to iMo Publication 'Ships; Routeing',
take a rigorous assessment of the economic iMo, 2015 Edition
benefits that would accrue to the shipping indus- [3]these terms are used in the 1972 CoLREGs
try through the extension of tidal windows and [4]Also known as narrow Band direct Printing
the increase in maximum draughts that may be (nBdP).
accommodated through the use of real time UKC [5]iALA Recommendation V-128 – operatio-
management systems. Using a probabilistic tidal nal and technical Performance Requirements
window regime implies that the larger the for VtS Equipment Edition 3.0 June 2007.
draught, the larger the probability that the ship [6]http://www.gloss-sealevel.org
[ 124 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
POWER SUPPLIES
7.1 TyPeS 7.2 eLeCTrIC - reNeWABLe

A wide range of power systems and energy eNergy SOurCeS
sources have been used or contemplated for
operating lighthouses and floating aids. 7.2.1 soLar poWer (photoVoLtaic ceLL)
Everything from clockwork to radio-active iso- Solar power is an ideal power source for many
topes have been used. Some of the more Marine Aids to navigation applications. it offers:
common types are listed in table 33.
Electric Energy Sources Non-Electric Energy
Sources
Utility generated electricity Acetylene
Photovoltaic solar modules Propane
Diesel and petrol engine driven Butane

generators Photo Courtesy of the
Primary battery cells Kerosene Australian Maritime
Safety Authority
Wind generators
Wave activated generators • a power source with no moving parts;

Fuel cells using alcohol or hydrogen • no maintenance requirements other than
being cleaned;
table 33 - Power Sources for operating Lighted Marine
• slight deterioration in power output over its
Aids to navigation.
life;
there is a general trend away from gas, using • low life-cycle costs;
utility generated electricity where available and • enhanced electrical safety on extra low vol-
photovoltaic solar power where mains electric tage systems.
power is not available or are unreliable. When used to power a light, the battery rechar-
iALA has created a series of documents to assist ging process is separated from the operation of
in the selection of electrical power systems for the light source so that the recharge voltage
Marine Aids to navigation. can be optimized without detriment to the
light’s operation.
Potential difficulties associated with solar power
• Guideline G1067-0 - Selection of Power Sys- are:
tems for Aton and Associated Equipment; • finding ways to minimise bird fouling;
• Guideline G1067-1 - total Electrical Loads of • ensuring power remains reliable during pe-
Aton; riods of poor weather;
• Guideline G1067-2 - Power Sources; • solar array footprint can be large at high lati-
• Guideline G1067-3 - Electrical Energy Storage tudes;
for Aton. • protecting solar modules from:
- wave damage on buoys and exposed ligh
refer to: thouses;
• Applicable national standards for the safe - vandalism and theft; and,
handling of gases. - lightning
[ 126 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Marine Aids to navigation exposed to icing cations where high ambient temperature
conditions are perhaps the only applications exists. it should be noted that better output is
unsuited to the use of solar modules. achieved when the panel voltage is at least
twice that of the nominal battery voltage.
types
the three common technologies employed in module or array orientation
the manufacture of silicon based solar modules in the northern hemisphere, solar modules are
are listed in table 34. normally installed facing south and inclined at
an angle to the horizontal that is related to the
Technology Comments
Made from a thin slice cut from a single large crystal of
latitude of the site such that they can maximise
silicon, usually produced as a circular section rod. output during the period of the year when ir-
Generally have the highest efficiency of the three
Monocrystaline radiance is least, and vice versa for the sou-
Cells technologies. If circular wafers of silicon are used, the
module fill factor is significantly less than with thern hemisphere. the inclination angle for
polycrystalline cells. It is now usual for the cells to be
trimmed to approximate a square.
solar modules is often optimised for the parti-
Made from a thin slice cut from a large cast billet of cular site as part of the sizing calculations.
Polycrystaline silicon comprising many crystals. Are slightly less
one of the main problems experienced with
Cells efficient than the mono crystalline cell but they can be
shaped to completely fill the module. solar powered Marine Aids to navigation has
Made by depositing thin films of silicon directly onto been bird fouling. numerous, innovative solu-
Thin Film a glass or stainless steel substrate a thin slice cut from
Technology a single large crystal of silicon. The cell has a lower tions have been trialled, generally with mixed
efficiency than either of other technologies but can be results. Generally solar modules mounted at an
multi-layered for enhanced performance. Problems
have been found with lifetime of these cells. angle or vertically benefit from self-washing
from rain.
table 34 - Silicon Solar Cell technology
the cost of additional solar modules needed
in addition to the silicon cell technologies, for a vertical installation may be largely off-set
there are two optional module configurations by the savings that result from simplifying the
based on the numbers of series connected mounting arrangements or framework.
cells. the standard module normally has 36
cells in series to give an open circuit voltage of 7.2.2 Wind enerGy
around 20 volts. For all battery charging appli-
cations, a voltage (charge) regulator is consi- marine aids to navigation applications
dered essential. Wind generators (or wind turbines) have been
Modern developments in electronics have al- used by a number of iALA Members to power
lowed new voltage (charge) regulators to be their Marine Aids to navigation. the most po-
developed that use maximum power point pular type were horizontal axis machines with
tracking (MPPt). this ensures that they operate a two or more bladed (propeller type) turbine.
the solar module at a level to obtain the maxi- the maintenance requirements arising from
mum power, for any given level of irradiance. the number of moving parts of a wind gene-
this operating level is independent to the bat- rator and susceptibility to storm damage, has
tery charge voltage level. this technology can limited the wide use of wind generators.
lead to up to 30% more output than would be
achieved with conventional voltage regulators installations
and can ensure effective solar charging in lo- Wind generator installations at Marine Aids to
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 127 ]
navigation sites pose a number of problems: efficiency (95% vs.80%) than the nickel cad-
• wind generators tend to require a lot of mium battery. however, the nickel cadmium
maintenance if operated in turbulent air flows; battery can operate in lower temperatures and
• if the wind generator is installed on a sepa- for a greater number of deep discharge cycles.
rate mast some distance from the Marine Aid Recently, new secondary battery technologies
to navigation, consideration has to be given have appeared, including nickel-metal-hydride
to the inherent cable voltage drop; (ni-Mh) batteries, lithium-iron phosphate (Li-
• operation of wind generators to power Ma- FePo4) batteries, and lead crystal batteries.
rine Aids to navigation needs to take into ac- these batteries offer lower weight and a grea-
count the impact it may have on any ter cycle life for a given capacity but come at a
environmental factors associated with the lo- premium cost.
cation, such as flora and fauna.
Lead acid
7.2.3 WaVe enerGy the basic form of this battery uses a lead
the wave activated generator (WAG) was de- dioxide positive plate and a pure lead negative
veloped in Japan and has been successfully plate immersed in an electrolyte of dilute sul-
used to power lighted buoys. the interaction phuric acid. these were originally wet or floo-
between the buoy and wave motions acts as a ded cells. however in recent years various
simple air pump that is used to drive an air tur- forms of “sealed” cell batteries have become
bine and electricity generator. the WAG is available and are quite common in Marine Aids
mounted on an extension of a hollow tail tube to navigation applications.
that passes through the buoy hull. With wave Lead acid batteries are available in two main
heights of 0.5 metres, the power output can be designs, flooded lead acid and valve regulated
as much as 100 watts. WAGs have limited life (VRLA). the VRLA comes in two types, absor-
and current systems suffer from excessive bed glass-mat (that use a micro glass separator
wear. system to absorb the electrolyte), and gel bat-
Site conditions will determine the rate at which teries, that use a jellified electrolyte and poly-
the tail tube of the buoy accumulates weed meric separators to prevent short circuits
and other forms of fouling. these aspects between the positive and negative plates.
need to be taken into consideration when de-
veloping the maintenance regime for the nickel alkaline battery
WAG. WAGs can also be very susceptible to these batteries use compounds of nickel and,
storm damage. generally, cadmium with a solution of potas-
sium hydroxide as the electrolyte.
7.3 reChArgeABLe BATTerIeS nickel-cadmium cells use perforated steel
plates that hold the active material, mainly a
7.3.1 principaL types nickel hydroxide in the positive plate and a
there are two main types of storage battery cadmium compound in the negative plate. the
technologies applied to Marine Aids to navi- construction is generally referred to as a
gation – lead acid and nickel cadmium. the “pocket plate” cell.
lead acid type is generally preferred because A range of valve regulated nickel-cadmium
of its lower cost and higher energy exchange batteries that use a recombination process
[ 128 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
now complements the traditional flooded cell Lithium-thionyl chloride cell

design. Under normal float charging condi- Another type of primary cell in use in buoy ap-
tions any gas produced is recombined within plications is the lithium-thionyl chloride cell.
the battery and water loss is negligible. howe- this has a higher energy density and a longer
ver if the battery is overcharged it will vent but shelf life than the zinc-air cell.
water can be added if necessary.
sealed alkaline battery
battery disposal this type is commonly used in some countries,
A number of countries now have standards and and has the benefits of good low temperature
regulations relating to the safe and environ- performance.
mentally acceptable methods of disposing or
recycling of batteries. this may be a key factor 7.3.3 internaL combustion
when selecting a suitable battery for an Aton enGine/Generators
application.
diesel Generators
7.3.2 primary battery ceLLs diesel engine driven generators are often
Primary battery cells provide electrical energy used as the primary source of electrical power
by a non-reversible chemical process. they where the location of a Marine Aid to naviga-
were used in large numbers up until the 1980s tion is too remote to be supplied from utility
to operate buoys and automatic beacon lights. generated electricity and the power demand
the usage of primary cells has declined sharply is high. diesel generators are also used to pro-
since commercial solar power (photovoltaic) vide emergency or backup power.
modules have become available. A related the generator capacity to support the opera-
issue that hastened the decline of primary cells tional and domestic loads of a standard ligh-
was the tightening environmental standards in thouse is in the region of 10kW. Smaller
a number of countries that required cells to be generators in the range of 2 to 5kW, combi-
recovered from site for disposal in an appro- ned with batteries and inverter-charger sys-
ved manner. disposal compliance costs, and tems are now available to meet this variable
occupational health and safety aspects of the load. this arrangement can be more suitable
frequent replacement of primary cells have and flexible if the load is likely to be light for
worked in favour of converting to renewable extended periods, with short periods of heavy
energy sources. loads.
the requirement for diesel generators in ligh-
Zinc-air cell thouses is decreasing as a result of:
the zinc-air primary cell was a common energy • reduction in electrical load;
source for operating buoy and beacon appli- • improved efficiency of renewable energy
cations. the cell uses a porous carbon block to sources.
supply oxygen from the air through an alkaline
electrolyte to oxidize a zinc anode. individual petrol engine Generators
primary cells have an open circuit voltage of Petrol engine generators are a useful source
about 1.2 volts and can supply 1000 to 2000 of power for maintenance work, but are less
Ah at a maximum rate of about 1 ampere. common in permanent installations due to:
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 129 ]
• fuel storage and transportation safety is- • monitoring and telemetry systems;
sues; • charge controllers.
• maintenance requirements on the spark-
ignition system; refer to iaLa publication:
• the petrol engine generally being regarded
as less durable than a diesel. • Guideline G1067-1 total Electrical Loads of
Aton.
Fuel cell
this is a solid-state device that uses a catalytic
process to oxidise fuel to generate an electri- 7.4.2 LiGhtninG protection
cal current. A common fuel is hydrogen, or hy- to ensure reliable operation of Marine Aids to
drogen rich fuels such as Methanol. it can be navigation during electrical storm events,
thought of as a continuously fed battery, both physical lightning protection and zoned
ideally preferring a constant load. surge protection should be considered. iALA
the fuel cell is now commercially available, al- has produced guidelines to describe practical
though the technology is still being further de- methods for the design, installation, inspec-
veloped. Fuel cells offer a reliable and tion and testing of lightning protection sys-
environmentally friendly energy source for tems. the information covers lightning
supplementing Aton power supplies. protection for Marine Aids to navigation struc-
tures, equipment and systems.
Fuel cells do present an environmentally sui-
table solution, as methanol can be manufac- refer to iaLa publication:
tured from sustainable sources and the
by-products of the generation of electrical • Guideline G1012 on the Protection of Ligh-
energy is heat and water. there is some inte- thouses and Aids to navigation against da-
rest in the use of fuel cells in hybrid power sys- mage from Lightning.
tems with wind energy or solar energy.
7.5 non-eLectric enerGy sources

7.4 eLeCTrICAL LOAdS historically, non-electric energy sources were
ANd LIghTNINg PrOTeCTION frequently used in Marine Aids to navigation,
however, the use of electric energy sources is
7.4.1 eLectricaL Loads currently the norm and is the recommended
iALA has prepared a standard methodology practice for new installations. there are va-
for calculating and defining the load profile of rious non-electric power supplies, the main
electric aids. Some of the loads that this me- types used in Marine Aids to navigation are
thodology covers are: acetylene and propane.
• lights;
• RACons; acetylene
• AiS Aton; Acetylene (C2h2) has been used to operate
• audible warning signals; lights on buoys and unattended Marine Aids
• visibility detectors; to navigation for many years. Acetylene can
[ 130 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
explode if compressed directly, but can be sa- some 6% of all its possible mixtures with air
fely contained under low pressure in special are explosive against a figure of 80% for ace-
cylinders when dissolved in acetone. the ma- tylene;
nufacture of acetylene, standards for the cylin- • burns cleanly without the risk of the sooting
ders and the filling process are usually that can occur with a poorly adjusted acety-
controlled by government regulations. lene burner.
Acetylene has been a convenient and reliable
energy source for Marine Aids to navigation. refer to:
however appropriate attention should be
given to: • Applicable national standards for the safe
• safe handling of cylinders; handling of gases.
• the broad range of explosive mixtures with
air (between 3 and 82% acetylene);
• the purity of the gas;
• minimising leaks in pipe work and fittings.
propane
Propane gas (C3h8) has been used as an al-
ternative fuel to acetylene, particularly in
buoys. Although propane has to be consu-
med in an incandescent mantle burner to pro-
vide a white light, it has several advantages
over acetylene:
• it is a by-product in oil refining processes;
• its abundance and low cost;
• propane liquefies at a pressure of 6 atmos-
pheres at 17ºC, and can be transported in low
weight and low cost gas bottles;
• propane will maintain a positive pressure
down to -40ºC and will not freeze in condi-
tions likely to be encountered at sea;
• placing the bottles in pockets in the buoy or
by filling it directly into the body of an buoy,
or pressure vessel;
• the comparable containers are the 20 kg
propane bottle with gross weight of 48 kg and
the 7,000 litre acetylene cylinder, weighing
105 kg;
• furthermore the cost of the propane bottle
is only about one third of that of a acetylene
cylinder;
• propane is a particularly safe gas, as only
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 131 ]
PROVISION,
DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT
8.1 INTerNATIONAL CrITerIA these Regulations define the primary roles of

the international Convention for the Safety of iALA national Members.
Life at Sea, 1974 (as amended), or SoLAS is
one of the oldest international conventions and in december 2000, the 73rd session of the
originates from a conference held in London in iMo Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) adop-
1914 to address aspects of safety at sea follo- ted a completely revised SoLAS Chapter V on
wing the sinking of the White Star liner titanic Safety of navigation that came into force on 1
in 1912. Since then, there have been four other July 2002.
SoLAS Conventions, the latest being the 1974
version that came into force in 1980. in october 2005, iMo adopted iMo Resolu-
the SoLAS Convention is administered by the tion A.973(24) and A.974(24), outlining the
United nations through the international Mari- iMo Member State Voluntary Audit Scheme
time organisation (iMo). the 1974 Convention which includes all aspects of SoLAS, including
(as amended) is divided into twelve chapters Chapter V, Regulations 12 and 13.
and within these are a series of regulations. the
contents [1] are outlined in table 35.
SoLAS Chapter V, Regulation 13 - Establish-
ment and operation of aids to navigation
Chapter Contents
states:
Chapter I General Provisions
1 Each Contracting Government undertakes
Chapter II-1 Construction - Structure, subdivision and stability, machinery and
electrical installations to provide, as it deems practical and neces-
Chapter II-2 Construction - Fire protection, fire detection and fire extinction sary either individually or in co-operation with
Chapter III Life-saving appliances and arrangements other Contracting Governments, such aids to
Chapter IV Radiocommunications navigation as the volume of traffic justifies and
Chapter V Safety of navigation the degree of risk requires.
Chapter VI Carriage of cargoes and oil fuels 2 in order to obtain the greatest possible uni-
Chapter VII Carriage of dangerous goods formity in aids to navigation, Contracting Go-
Chapter VIII Nuclear ships vernments undertake to take into account the
Chapter IX Management for the safe operation of ships international recommendations and guide-
Chapter X Safety measures for high-speed craft lines (Reference is made to iALA) when esta-
Chapter XI-1 Special measures to enhance maritime safety blishing such aids.
Chapter XI-2 Special measures to enhance maritime security 3 Contracting Governments undertake to ar-
Chapter XII Additional safety measures for bulk carriers range for information relating to aids to navi-
Appendix Certificates gation to be made available to all concerned.
table 35 - Contents of SoLAS Convention Changes in the transmissions of position-
fixing systems which could adversely affect
soLas chapter V the performance of receivers fitted in ships
SoLAS Chapter V, and Regulations 12[2] and shall be avoided as far as possible and only be
13 in particular, define the obligations on effected after timely and adequate notice has
Contracting Governments to provide vessel been promulgated.
traffic services and Marine Aids to navigation
and related information.
[ 134 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
to satisfy the obligations of Regulation 13, the extent

Contracting Government has to make assess- Should describe where and why a service will
ments on: be provided by the Competent Authority.
• whether or not to provide particular types Most Competent Authorities are bound by the
of Marine Aids to navigation; international Convention on the Safety of Life
• the type, number and location of Marine at Sea, 1974 as amended (SoLAS) Chapter 5,
Aids to navigation; Regulation 13, which states that Each Contrac-
• what information services are necessary to ting Government undertakes to provide, as it
adequately inform all concerned - principally deems practical and necessary either indivi-
mariners. dually or in cooperation with other Contrac-
ting Governments, such aids to navigation as
8.2 LeVeL OF SerVICe the volume of traffic justifies [where] and the
Level of Service (LoS) is the commitment of degree of risk requires [why]. the extent of
service by the Competent Authority to mari- service provided may also vary by Competent
ners who are navigating or operating in an Authorities for specific areas, category of
area, as well as clients and/or governments users, or due to national obligations.
responsible for funding the provision of the
relevant service. quality
Level of service can be articulated through a Should address to what level the Competent
Level of Service Statement that should be Authority will provide a service. it is a mini-
clear, easy to understand and available to all mum standard at which clients can expect a
concerned. service to be performed, also known as a per-
formance standard. A performance standard
8.2.1 beneFits is a benchmark against which actual perfor-
An established level of service is integral to ef- mance of a service can be measured. it may
ficient planning and delivery and provides be expressed in the form of a target such as
users with a clear understanding of the expec- percentage of availability of a service or ser-
ted services. Moreover, it ensures that services vice response times.
are delivered in a nationally consistent, inte-
grated, predictable, measurable and fair man-
ner. 8.2.3 Layers oF serVice
A summary of available Marine Aids to navi-
8.2.2 components gation systems and obtainable accuracies is
A level of service statement should include, at provided in table 1.
minimum, the following components: the various type of Aton have advantages
and disadvantages for the user as well as for
type the provider as indicated in table 36.
Should describe what the Competent Autho-
rity will provide. it is a description of the ser-
vice provided, such as, visual Marine Aids to
navigation, radionavigation systems, or Vessel
traffic Services.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 135 ]
Users Providers
System
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Visual Can be used to position Range depends on site, height, colour, For hazard warning, Maintenance expensive
Convey immediate background traffic regulation, Planning for maintenance
information Limited by visibility guidance, etc. depends on weather
Can be used without a Position of floating aids not always Placement flexible Conditions
accurate
chart if user has a good Maintenance requires Logistic system required
local knowledge little training Training maintenance
Personnel
Radar Identification with racon Onboard equipment needed Can replace visual aids Radar reflectors needed
possible in reduced Racons may interfere if not placed in an Warnings of dangers Some vessels do not have
visibility conditions appropriate configuration, aids (New dangers) Radar
equipped with radar reflector
With a racon identification are difficult to identify Racon investment
of low coastline Expensive
Only one aid is required Training for maintenance
Rapid deployment of racons
Radionavigation Wide scale coverage On board equipment needed Reduced maintenance May not be under Aids to
All weather use Automatic monitioring Navigation Authority's
Automatic navigation Reduction of visual Control
Precision possible aids possible Monitoring requirement
Training maintenance
Personnel
Large investment
table 36 - Comparison of different types of Marine Aids to navigation
refer to iaLa publications: Unwanted events include deprival, loss or in-

jury to persons, property or the environment.
• Guideline G1004 - Level of Service;
• Guideline G1079 - Establishing and risk management is a term applied to a struc-
Conducting User Consultancy by Aids to na- tured (logical and systematic) process illustra-
vigation Authorities. ted further below.
the correct, efficient and useful result of ha-
zard identification, assessment of risk and es-
8.3 rISk MANAgeMeNT tablishment of risk control measures, can be
dealing with “risk” is an intrinsic aspect of affected by human Factors. the concept of
human existence. the establishment of the human Factors and references to relevant mo-
early lighthouses represented a tangible way dels is included in the iALA Guideline G1018
of addressing some of the problems that on Risk Management. it is recommended that
arose when humans decided to venture out to organisations and persons involved in a risk
sea, and then into global trade and the mass assessment process have suitable knowledge
transport of people by ships. in the application of human Factors disci-
the traditional definition of risk is the proba- plines.
bility of an unwanted event occurring, multi- With the advances of e-navigation, the mari-
plied by the impact or consequence of that ner will be provided with additional real time
event. information to assist with navigation. the po-
R=P*C sitive impact on ship control and navigation
[ 136 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
needs to be incorporated into the formal risk be acceptable. the risk control options availa-
assessment process. For risk control options, ble include improved co-ordination and plan-
the continuous development of e-navigation ning; training; rules and procedures including
and man-machine interfaces may provide new enforcement; navigational, meteorological and
possibilities. however, physical Aton risk hydrographical information; radio communica-
control measures will remain important to ad- tions; active traffic management and waterway
dress the needs of all user groups. changes; pilotage; and,
the risk management approach works equally • quantifying the effect on the risk level of an
well for identifying the risks at a detailed or existing port or waterway that may result from
broad level. it can also address the risks from a change or reduction of any of the risk control
different perspectives. options in use.
refer to iaLa publication: Risk management tools can also assist in asses-
sing the risk level of existing ports and water-
• Recommendation R1002 - Risk Manage- ways as well as determining the probable risk
ment for Marine Aids to navigation; level of proposed new ports and waterways or
• Guideline G1018 - Risk Management. if substantial changes to existing ports and wa-
terways are being planned. the iALA Risk Ma-
nagement toolbox includes three different
For example, if the issue is the automation and approaches:
destaffing of a lighthouse, there are likely to • PAWSA Mk ii (Port And Waterway Safety As-
be different sets of risk for: sessment) which is a Qualitative Risk Assess-
• service providers (Marine Aids to naviga- ment approach;
tion authority, lightkeepers, etc.); • iWRAP Mk ii (iALA Waterway Risk Assess-
• service users (mariners); ment Programme) which is a Quantitative Risk
• external groups (politicians, local commu- Assessment approach;
nity, conservation groups, etc.). • SiRA (Simplified Risk Assessment) which uti-
lizes a basic risk matrix approach.
8.3.1 iaLa risk manaGement tooLs the three approaches can be used individually,
iALA continously develops its Risk Manage- or in combination, sequentially or in parallel.
ment toolbox which includes tols that are ca- the iALA Risk Management toolbox is now
pable of: being used for risk assessments in conjuntion
• assessing the risk in ports or waterways, com- with submissions to the iMo. in addition to
pared with the risk level considered by Autho- these three basic iALA tools, various simulation
rities and stakeholders to be acceptable. the tools are nowadays also widely used for asses-
elements that can be taken into consideration sing risk in ports and waterways.
include those relating to vessel conditions, traf- the iALA World-Wide Academy provides trai-
fic conditions, navigational conditions, water- ning on the use of the Risk Management tool-
way conditions, immediate consequences and box through regular training courses.
subsequent consequences; Background information on the elements of
• identifying appropriate risk control options the toolbox is provided on a wiki accessible
to decrease the risk to the level considered to through the iALA website. if further guidance
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 137 ]
or assistance is required, please contact the

iALA World-Wide Academy.
Authorities are encouraged to provide copies
of risk assessments made with the iALA Risk
Management toolbox to the iALA Secretariat.
refer to iaLa publication:
• Guideline G1123 - the Use of iALA Waterway

Risk Assessment Programme (iWRAP Mk ii);
• Guideline G1124 - the Use of Ports and Wa-
terways Safety Assessment (PAWSA Mk ii) tool; Figure 35 - Risk Assessment and Risk Management Process
• Guideline G1138 - the Use of the Simplified
the central part of the Figure 35 illustrates the
iALA Risk Assessment Method (SiRA)
five steps in the risk management process. in
addition the figure suggests a consultation
and reporting element throughout the pro-
8.3.2 risk manaGement decision process
cess.
the Risk Management process described in the
Stakeholders including practitioners and
iALA Guideline G1018 comprises five steps that
users shall be consulted and receive feed
follow a standardised management or systems
back continuously to ensure the best possible
analysis approach:
input to the decision makers, to validate deci-
a) identify hazards;
sions and to ensure ownership of the results
b)Assess risks;
and actions taken. the monitoring and review
c) Specify risk control options;
part in the right side of the model is vital to en-
d)Make a decision;
sure a verification of the decisions, to check if
e) take action.
initial conditions have changed and to
the diagram in Figure 35 provides a guide to
constantly monitor if control measures are im-
the steps involved in the iALA Risk Assessment
plemented effectively.
and Risk Management process.
hazard – an unwanted event or occurrence, a
source of potential harm, or a situation with a
8.3.3 risk LeVeL and acceptabiLity
potential for causing harm, in terms of human
once the possible unwanted risk scenarios
injury; damage to health, property, the environ-
have been identified and described, they
ment, and other things of value; or some com-
must be ranked in terms of their probability
bination of these.
and associated consequences. this yields a
Risk – the Risk is a measure of the likelihood that
risk value, enabling prioritization by placing
an undesirable event will occur together with a
each risk scenario in a matrix similar to the one
measure of the resulting consequence within a
below. this allows resources to be assigned to
specified time i.e. the combination of the fre-
mitigate the more serious risks first.
quency and the severity of the consequence.
this can be either a quantitative or qualitative
measure.
[ 138 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
• failure response;
• logistics.
to obtain a true representation of Availability,

it is necessary to measure the long-term per-
formance of a Marine Aid to navigation. to
achieve this it is recommended that the calcu-
Figure 36 - Risk Value Matrix lations should use a time interval greater than
2 years.
the SiRA method provides suitable scoring
scales for probability (frequency of occur- 8.4.1 caLcuLation oF aVaiLabiLity
rence) and consequences/impact. it should the availability of a Marine Aid to navigation
be kept in mind that the consequences can in- may be calculated using one of the following
clude both short- and long-term impacts. equations, and is usually expressed as a per-
Risks with a low risk value (green) may be fully centage:
acceptable and require no action, while risks
with a high value (red) need urgent attention.
the intermediate risk values (yellow and MtBF = Mean time Between Failures
amber) will need to be addressed at some MttR = Mean time to Repair
stage, the essence being that all risk values
should be As Low As Reasonably Practicable 8.4.2 deFinition and comments
(ALARP) considering the cost and effective- on terms
ness of the identified risk control options. reliability
this is the probability that a Marine Aid to na-
8.4 AVAILABILITy OBjeCTIVeS vigation or any nominated system or compo-
the measurement of ‘Availability’ provides a nent, when it is available, performs a specified
quantitative measure of performance or ser- function without failure under given condi-
vice to the mariner. tions for a specified time.
‘Availability’ is a useful indicator of the level of availability
service provided by individual or defined this is the probability that a Marine Aid to na-
groups of Marine Aids to navigation because vigation or system is performing its specified
it is representative of all the considerations, function at any randomly chosen time. it is also
within the control of the Authority, that have defined within iMo resolution A.1046(27) for
gone into providing and maintaining the faci- WWRnS as “the system is considered to be
lity. available when it provides the required inte-
these include: grity for the given accuracy level”. iALA gene-
• quality assurance procedures; rally uses the term as a historical measure of
• design and systems engineering; the percentage of time that a Marine Aid to
• procurement; navigation was performing its specified func-
• installation and commissioning; tion. the non-availability can be caused by
• maintenance procedures; scheduled and/or unscheduled interruptions.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 139 ]
continuity ned from the number of failures that have oc-

this is the probability that a Marine Aid to na- curred within a given interval. For example; if
vigation or system will perform its specified four failures occur over a two year interval, the
function without interruption during a speci- MtBF would be 4380 hours (ie. =24*365*2/4).
fied time given that it was operational at the
beginning of the period. mean time to repair (mttr)
For example, if a dGnSS station is functioning this is a measure of an Authority’s administra-
correctly when a vessel is about to make its tive arrangements, resources and technical ca-
approach into a port, the continuity factor is pability to rectify a failure. For a small port, the
the probability that the dGnSS service will not MttR times might only be several hours.
be interrupted in the time it takes the vessel Meanwhile, an Authority with a more distribu-
to reach its berth. As for GnSS systems, iALA ted network of Marine Aids to navigation may
has proposed that the time interval for conti- have MttR times equivalent to several days
nuity calculations be based on a 15 minute because of the distances and transport mobi-
time frame in accordance with iMo lisation limitations.
A.1046(27) for WWRnS.
Failure response time
redundancy this is a sub-set of the MttR and relates to the
this is the existence of more than one means, time it takes to be notified of a failure, to
identical or otherwise for accomplishing a task confirm the details and mobilise personnel to
or mission. depart for the Marine Aid to navigation.
integrity refer to iaLa publications:

this is the ability to provide users with war-
nings within a specified time when the system • Recommendation o-130 - Categorisation
should not be used for navigation. iMo Reso- and Availability objectives for Short Range
lution A.1046(27) for WWRnS, stares that this Aids to navigation;
time to alarm should be within 10 seconds. • Guideline 1035 - Availability and Reliability
of Aids to navigation.
Failure
this is the unintentional termination of the abi-
lity of a system or part of a system to perform 8.4.3 iaLa cateGories For traditionaL
its required function. marine aids to naViGation
iALA provides a method to categorise and cal-
mean time between Failures (mtbF) culate Marine Aids to navigation availabilities
this is the average time between successive fai- for both individual Marine Aids to navigation
lures of a system or part of a system. it is a mea- and systems of Marine Aids to navigation as
sure of reliability. For components, such as shown in table 37. iALA Recommendation o-
lamps, it is usual to determine the MtBF (or life) 130 does not consider other Marine Aids to
statistically by testing a representative sample navigation considered in the mix of Marine
of components to destruction. As for a system Aids to navigation such as radionavigation
such as a dGnSS station, the MtBF is determi- systems or Vessel traffic Services (VtS). it does
[ 140 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
provide guidance on suitable and realistic le- formulation process that includes iMo Resolu-
vels of operational performance for compe- tion A.1046(27) on a World Wide Radionaviga-
tent authorities to adopt. tion System and iALA Recommendation R-121.
Category Objective (%) Calculation

1 99.8
Availability Objectives are calculated
2 99.0 over a three-year continuous period,
unless otherwise specified. • Recommendation R-121 - the Performance
3 97.0 and Monitoring of dGnSS Services in the Fre-
quency Band 283.5 – 325 khz
table 37 - Availability objectives by Category
category 1
A Marine Aid to navigation (Aton) or system of Recommendation R-121 retains the original de-
Aton that is considered by the Competent Au- finition of availability, but adds a statement
thority to be of vital navigational significance. about “non-availability”.
For example, lighted Marine Aids to navigation non-availability is equivalent to “down time” but
and RACons that are considered essential for as proposed includes both scheduled and/or
marking landfalls, primary routes, channels, wa- unscheduled interruptions (ie. preventative and
terways or new dangers or the protection of corrective maintenance). the revised equation
the marine environment. becomes:
category 2
An Aton or system of Aton that is considered
by the Competent Authority to be of important
navigational significance. For example, it may MtBo = Mean time between outages; based on
include any lighted Marine Aids to navigation a 2 year averaging period MtSR = Mean time to
and RACons that mark secondary routes and service restoration; based on a 2 year averaging
those used to supplement the marking of pri- period
mary routes. iMo uses a more elaborate definition of Conti-
category 3 nuity than that given in Section 8.4.2. it states
An Aton or system of Aton that is considered that: Continuity is the probability that, assuming
by the Competent Authority to be of necessary a fault free receiver, a user will be able to deter-
navigational significance. mine position with specified accuracy and is
the Recommendation also states that the ab- able to monitor the integrity of the determined
solute minimum level of availability of an indi- position over the (short) time interval applicable
vidual Marine Aid to navigation should be set for a particular operation within a limited part of
at 95%. the coverage area. this is the same definition of
as “mission reliability”.
8.4.4 aVaiLabiLity and continuity if the service is available at the beginning of the
oF radionaViGation serVices operation, then the probability "P" that it is still
the availability objectives for Radionavigation available at a time "t" later is:
services have been handled somewhat diffe-
rently from traditional Marine Aids to naviga-
tion. this reflects the broader policy
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 141 ]
this is the standard expression for reliability and systems. the interrelationship is complex, but
excludes scheduled outages. it uses MtBF and the objective is to find the minimum cost solu-
assumes that planned outages will be notified. tion as illustrated in Figure 37.
the Continuity, or probability that the service
will be available after a continuity time interval
(Cti), is then:
if MtBF is much greater than Cti, the equation

approximates to:
Where:
MtBF = Mean time between failures based on
a 2 year averaging period.
Figure 37 - the Cost of Reliability
Cti = Continuity time interval – in the case of Ra-
dionavigation calculations, this is equal to 15 mi- over-engineering vs. unreliability
nutes (from iMo Resolution A.1046(27). For a lighthouse in a remote location, the cost of
there is no need to include the availability at the time and transport to rectify equipment failures
beginning of the time period of the operation can be very high. From this perspective:
because if there is no service, then the opera- • the one-off cost of over-engineering is gene-
tion will not commence. rally not as expensive in the long term as the on-
example 1: Using the figures in the previous going cost of attending to un-reliable equipment
example for a system with a 2 year MtBF, the and/or poor system designs;
continuity over a 15 minute period is 1- • a conservative design approach has its merits.
(15/1,051,200), or 99.9986%. if the aid is not achieving its availability objective,
example 2: Using the figures in the previous the Authority should ascertain the reasons for this
example for a system with a 1000 hour MtBF, and implement actions that remedy the situation.
the continuity over a 15 minute period is 1- iALA has recommended that if a facility cannot
(15/60,000), or 99.9750%. achieve an availability of 95% (ie. 50 days out per
1000 days) after reasonable endeavours, consi-
8.4.5 oVer and under achieVement deration should be given to withdrawing the fa-
the actual availability achieved by an individual cility (as a Marine Aid to navigation).
Marine Aid to navigation is a reflection of the if a single aid within a group is performing above
quality of the logistical processes, the mainte- its availability objective, it could be due to either
nance regime and the skill of personnel invol- technical or environmental reasons. if the perfor-
ved. there is a cost associated with prescribing mance difference occurs between sites using si-
a higher level of availability for a system such as milar equipment, and this trend has been
a Marine Aid to navigation. this is irrespective established for some time, it may be of benefit to
of whether or not the increased availability is re- investigate the reasons for the difference.
quired by the mariner. there is also a cost asso- if a group of aids is found to be over performing
ciated with the maintenance of unreliable for a relatively long period of time, there is an op-
[ 142 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
portunity to review the maintenance practices • the role of the authority, for example:
with a view to determining the reasons, and pos- -- to promote a high standard of maritime safety;
sibly to consider extending the maintenance in- -- to provide infrastructure and information ser-
tervals or reducing the maintenance effort. this vices to support the safety of navigation in a par-
could lead to lower operating costs and issues ticular area.
relating to surplus maintenance capacity. • how the authority will go about discharging its
responsibilities, for example:
8.5 reVIeWS ANd PLANNINg -- outline of the corporate values of the authority;
-- corporate governance arrangements;
8.5.1 reVieWs -- funding arrangements;
in many countries, the network of Marine Aids -- reviews of industry trends;
to navigation has been built up over a conside- • an understanding of the users and navigation
rable time, in some cases, centuries. requirements.
it should be recognised that the nature of ship- Because of its importance and its effect on the
ping is continually changing and this means that mariners, any strategic plan should be develo-
the Marine Aids to navigation infrastructure ped as much as possible in full consultation with
should be reviewed periodically. the mariners and other stakeholders.
the rate of change varies from place to place,
but it would be reasonable to adopt a review 8.5.3 operationaL pLans
process using one of the change management the operational Plan might cover:
tools that provides: • the implementation of the strategic plan, and
• a Strategic Plan with a suggested minimum may include statements on current policy issues
10 year outlook; such as:
• an operational Plan with a suggested rolling -- maintenance;
5 year work program. -- current and new technology;
the increasing availability of AiS-derived ship -- the design life of new infrastructure
data (type, position, speed, cargo etc.) is pro- -- remote monitoring and control;
ving to be a very useful tool in reviewing the re- -- historic lighthouses;
levance of existing Marine Aids to navigation -- environmental culture and safety;
and identifying new requirements. -- the program for Marine Aids to navigation re-
Effective use of AiS data requires a data mana- views;
gement strategy and appropriate technology to -- contract services (core and non-core);
efficiently store and manipulate very large -- transport services;
amounts of data and be able to be integrated -- sources of revenue;
with other electronic data, for example electro- -- external relationships[3];
nic nautical charts to display shipping patterns. -- information, communication and consultation
management.
8.5.2 strateGic pLans • a list of changes to individual Marine Aids
A Strategic Plan is the result of an informed and to navigation, including any new facilities.
consultative process that sets the long term the list would reflect:
goals and objectives for an organization. -- decisions resulting from user and stakeholder
For a Competent Authority it would include: consultations;
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 143 ]
-- reviews, including those that use: risk analysis, mariners.

risk management procedures (see section 8.3), A GiS captures, displays, stores, analyses and ma-
or; a level of service process, (see section 3.2), or; nages spatially referenced data. A key feature of
the authority’s quality management procedures GiS is its analytical functionality, which allows a
(see section 8.7) or; the authority’s technical and user to interact with spatial data to determine re-
maintenance policies etc. lationships between different types of data and
• project schedules that reflect known priori- to produce qualitative (diagrammatic/graphical)
ties, such as: and quantitative (numeric/tabular) results.
-- government policies;
-- user requirements; refer to iaLa publications:
-- available resources;
-- budget (revenue) forecasts and constraints. • Recommendation o-138 - the Use of GiS
and Simulation by Aids to navigation Authori-
8.5.4 use oF GeoGraphic inFormation ties;
systems in aton pLanninG • Guideline G1057 - the Use of Geographic in-
the use of Geographic information Systems (GiS) formation Systems by Aids to navigation Autho-
may assist in effective Aton planning, including rities;
evaluation and validation; ensuring that money • Guideline G1058 - the Use of Simulation as
is invested wisely in new technology. a tool for Waterway design and Aton Planning.
Coastal waterways are becoming increasingly
congested with vessel traffic and developments
such as offshore wind farms, tidal turbines and 8.6 quALITy MANAgeMeNT
aquaculture sites, which may be required to be Quality Management Systems have been deve-
marked. loped and introduced by numerous businesses,
in addition, light pollution through coastal deve- but increasingly are being based on the
lopment, the advent of larger and faster ships iSo9000 series of standards. these standards
and the continued growth in small craft usage provide a broadly accepted framework for im-
means that designing suitable Aton systems be- plementing a quality management system. A
comes ever more complex. generic quality management system is process
Using GiS, accurate design and provision of Aton focused and defines procedures for how things
systems as well as suitable simulation can prove are to be done and what resources are neces-
very useful and may reduce the chance of costly sary.
mistakes being made. it addresses:
Atons are distinctly linked to physical locations • who does what?
and their use by mariners invariably involves the • what skills and qualifications are necessary?
use of more than one Aton at a time, that is, Aton • what processes have to be followed to get
networks or systems. consistent outcomes?
these single and interdependent linkages bet- • what resources are necessary to do the work
ween Atons and their physical locations mean efficiently? the equipment in Marine Aids to na-
that GiS technology can provide Aton authorities vigation systems can be divided into two as-
with enhancements in many areas of their busi- pects: the specific Aton aspect, and the more
ness, which may ultimately lead to benefits for generic aspect.
[ 144 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
Each aspect must comply with applicable stan- • increase or reduce maintenance effort;
dards and regulations. iALA Recommendations • adjust maintenance intervals.
and Guidelines provide a basis for the Aton
specific aspect, while international, national or
regional regulations apply to the more generic • Guideline G1037 - data Collection for Aids to
aspects. navigation Performance Calculation;
• Guideline G1035 - Availability and Reliability
refer to iaLa publications: of Aids to navigation - theory and Examples
• Recommendation o-132 - Quality Manage-

ment for Aids to navigation Authorities; 8.6.2 internationaL standards
• Guideline G1052 - Quality Management in iso 9000 series
Aids to navigation Service delivery, the 1994 quality standard series of iSo 9001,
• Guideline G1054 - Preparing for a Voluntary 9002 and 9003 have been jointly revised and
iMo Audit on Aids to navigation Service de- amalgamated into iSo 9001-2000.
livery the new series of standards designated as iSo
9000 comprises:
• iSo 9000 Quality management systems - Fun-
8.6.1 perFormance measurement damentals and vocabulary.
Performance measurement is the process of col- • iSo 9001 Quality management systems - Re-
lecting, analysing and/or reporting information quirements.
regarding the performance of an individual, • iSo 9004 Quality management systems - Gui-
group, organization, system or component. it is dance for Performance improvement.
very important to establish an continuous perfor- iso 9001 - 2015
mance measurement as background for the qua- iSo 9001 specifies requirements for a quality ma-
lity management. nagement system that can be used for internal
the information obtained can be used to: application by organizations, or for certification,
• show accountability to government and stake or for contractual purposes. it focuses on the ef-
holders; fectiveness of the quality management system in
• demonstrate the efficiency and effectiveness meeting customer requirements. See Figure 38.
of the service being provided; iso 9004 - 2009
• monitor and improve occupational health and iSo 9004 gives guidance on a wider range of
safety performance; objectives of a quality management system
• compare the performance of: than does iSo 9001, particularly for the conti-
- similar systems or equipment in different loca- nual improvement of an organization’s overall
tions; performance and efficiency, as well as its effec-
- contract and internally provided services[4]; tiveness. iSo 9004 is recommended as a guide
• amend: for organizations whose top management
- system designs; wishes to move beyond the requirements of
- procurement decisions; iSo 9001, in pursuit of continual improvement
- equipment choices; of performance. however, it is not intended for
- maintenance procedures and practices; certification or for contractual purposes.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 145 ]
iso 14000 series ganization;

this is a collection of voluntary consensus stan- • manage and measure a program of continual
dards that have been developed to assist orga- improvement.
nizations to achieve environmental and iSo 14001 does not itself state specific environ-
economic gains through the implementation of mental performance criteria.
effective environmental management systems.
8.7 MAINTeNANCe
8.7.1 GuidinG principLes For

maintenance
Maintenance is required to ensure that Aton
equipment and systems continue to perform at
the levels required by mariners to safely navi-
gate the World’s waterways.
A maintenance system should be adopted to
ensure that Aton assets deliver the desired per-
formance while minimizing total Cost of ow-
nership. this performance is normally defined
as the level of availability required. depending
Figure 38 - iSo 9001 diagram on the Emphasis on Sa-
tisfying Customer Requirements
on the criticality or category of the Aton, the
same Aton type might require different main-
there are three standards that deal with Envi- tenance approaches to deliver the required
ronmental Management Systems (EMS). these availability outcome in a given location.
are iSo 14001, 14002 and 14004. iSo 14001 is the following guiding principles may assist Au-
the only standard intended for third party accre- thorities in developing their overall Aton main-
ditation. the other standards are for guidance. tenance strategy.
iso 14001 minimise the cost of ownership
iSo 14001 specifies the requirements for an en- Aton service providers are accountable to their
vironmental management system, to enable an stakeholders for the provision of a reliable Aton
organization to: network that meets international standards for
• formulate a policy and objectives taking into a reasonable cost. Maintenance strategies
account legislative requirements and informa- adopted by authorities should seek to reduce
tion about significant environmental impacts; the total cost of ownership of their Aton.
• apply the requirements to those environmen- design for maintenance
tal aspects that the organization can control and the majority of maintenance costs are determi-
over which it can be expected to have an in- ned by the design of the equipment itself.
fluence; Maintenance costs are usually the most signifi-
• demonstrate to itself, and to other interested cant component of the total ownership cost of
parties, conformance with its stated environ- the equipment or system; therefore, it is crucial
mental policy; to account for long-term maintenance and lo-
• seek certification/registration of its environ- gistics support early on in the design process.
mental management system by an external or- the goal should be to reduce the need for
[ 146 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
maintenance, extend the time interval between qualification when recruiting maintenance staff;
maintenance periods, enable maintenance • provide more opportunity to understand the
upon the evidence of need (condition-based inherent deficiencies in particular pieces of
maintenance), facilitate the maintenance task equipment and for remedial actions to be im-
by the servicing personnel, and reduce the “lo- plemented.
gistics footprint” required for maintenance and power
support. the conversion of Marine Aids to navigation
All of these factors will contribute to reducing that operate on oil, gas or primary battery to
the total ownership cost over the entire life solar power or self-powered LEd lanterns, may
cycle of the equipment or system. provide greater flexibility in scheduling mainte-
nance visits because of the renewable energy
8.7.2 improVinG eFFiciency source and opportunities for extending mainte-
Authorities have been able to achieve signifi- nance intervals.
cant cost savings by a number of means: Fixed vs Floating
automation depending on location, it may be possible to re-
Automation can reduce the work load of light- place floating aids with fixed structures in water-
keepers or allow for de-staffing altogether. this ways of moderate depth; particularly if it also
reduces: allows a dedicated buoy tender to be replaced
• staff costs; by some other means of transport such as smal-
• power consumption; ler vessel or launch.
• the frequency of stores replenishment; A whole-of-life cost benefit analysis should be
• commitments on infrastructure such as carried out to assist in any such decisions.
houses or accommodation facilities, water and materials
fuel storage and in some cases jetties and cargo By introducing low maintenance materials such
handling equipment; as high density polyethylene, Glass Reinforced
• the requirements for station vehicles and Plastic (GRP), stainless steel, etc., it may be pos-
equipment. sible to reduce maintenance requirements and
equipment time on site. this may also decrease the number
it may be possible to use more reliable equip- of ship-day requirements and reduce the need
ment, better system designs, with “fail safe” or for construction (or structural maintenance)
“fail by stages” features coupled with: skills.
• longer intervals between maintenance visits; remote monitoring
• a review of maintenance management proce- Remote monitoring (and control) of distant or
dures. isolated Marine Aids to navigation can save on
in addition, it may be possible to use standardi- the cost of responding to what is later found to
sed equipment to simplify spare part manage- be a false outage report. it can also allow for
ment. this could also: analysis of Marine Aids to navigation systems
• benefit the purchasing power of the organi- using risk analysis / risk management tech-
sation; niques that may produce cost savings from a
• reduce the range of skills required by mainte- rearrangement and or reduction of the Marine
nance staff (and thus the training burden); Aids to navigation within a nominated area.
• give more flexibility in the choice of basic
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 147 ]
8.7.3 trends monthly basis;

iALA Conference papers, iALA Bulletin articles • automated lights are being inspected less fre-
and feedback from iALA Members demonstrate quently (quarterly, annually or bi-annually).
an increasing trend in the extension of mainte- Advances in self-contained beacons, lamps, self-
nance intervals for Marine Aids to navigation powered LEd lanterns, solar power supplies
sites. the ongoing striving for greater efficiency and remote monitoring make it relatively easy
in the delivery of Marine Aids to navigation re- for a well-designed system on a fixed structure
flected in measures such as the automation and to achieve annual or biannual servicing inter-
de-staffing of major lighthouses has seen alte- vals. Systems that can be maintained in multi-
ration of the maintenance intervals from a daily ples of a year can be set up to take advantage
activity to significantly less frequent regimes. of the times of the year that minimise the wea-
the optimal maintenance interval for Marine ther risk on work schedules and disturbance to
Aids to navigation is determined from a consi- flora and fauna.
deration of national priorities and the Authority’s however, a balance has to be found since lon-
administrative, technical and environmental ger maintenance intervals affect the authority’s
constraints. knowledge of storm damage, general deterio-
Where cost efficiency and effectiveness is the ration to Marine Aids to navigation, and control
driving issue, Authorities are: over vegetation growth that could increase the
• using automation, alternative structural mate- risk of obscuration and fire damage etc. there
rials, more durable coatings and renewable may also be a detrimental effect on the detailed
power supplies to contain or reduce costs; level of knowledge held by maintenance per-
• addressing the potential for new technology sonnel.
to:
• reduce acquisition and operating costs; refer to iaLa publications:
• extend maintenance intervals;
• reviewing transport service options. • Guideline G1007 - Lighthouse Mainte-
Extension of maintenance intervals at sites expo- nance;
sed to more extreme weather conditions may re- • Guideline G1077 - Maintenance of Aids to
sult in more extensive maintenance works at each navigation;
visit which may offset some of the cost savings • Guideline G1076 - Building Conditioning of
achieved through extension of service intervals. Lighthouses.
8.7.4 maintenance interVaLs 8.8 SerVICe deLIVery

the maintenance intervals for Marine Aids to Authorities responsible for the provision of
navigation vary from daily in the case of a man- Marine Aids to navigation are generally at a
ned lighthouse to perhaps five years for a ligh- state or national level.
ted buoy. they are usually the sole national regulator of
it is difficult to establish a clear view of typical Marine Aids to navigation infrastructure and
maintenance intervals other than what is stated services, but are not necessarily the sole pro-
in conference and workshop papers. Some vider of these services.
examples include: in some countries there is a division of respon-
• major facilities are being inspected on a sibility between the authority representing the
[ 148 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
national government and other organisations deline if they are considering the contracting
that include: out their Aton servicing responsibilities.
• state and territorial authorities;
• local government organisations; refer to iaLa publication:
• port, harbour or waterway authorities;
• local private organisations. • Guideline G1005 - Contracting out Aids to
navigation Services.
8.9 eNVIrONMeNT
iALA encourages all members to deliver Aton
services in environmentally responsible manner
in line with its motto "Successful Voyages, Sustainable
Planet"
Marine Aids to navigation play a critical role in
protecting the environment by preventing ma-
Photo Courtesy of CEREMA
ritime disasters that could have potentially ca-
tastrophic ecological consequences at sea and
8.8.1 serVice deLiVery requirements on shore. however, the Marine Aids to naviga-
Where more than one local authority provides tion equipment and activities themselves can
Marine Aids to navigation services, the create significant environmental damage
Contracting Government has the ultimate res- through pollution, waste generation, and the
ponsibility to comply with the obligations under disruption of ecosystems. it is essential to mini-
the SoLAS Convention as listed in Section 8.1. mise these negative impacts so that the benefits
of Marine Aids to navigation are not outwei-
8.8.2 contractinG out ghed by unintended harm to the environment,
For a number of decades, national authorities and to eliminate the potential for pollution and
have utilized service providers for the delivery waste of the Earth’s limited resources.
and maintenance of Marine Aids to naviga- international standard iSo 14001 provides a fra-
tion (Aton) services. mework for environmentally responsible service
Every organisation considering contracting delivery.
Aton services should have a clear understan-
ding of what is to be achieved by delivering refer to iaLa publication:
the service through alternative contracted
means as opposed to delivering the service • Recommendation R1004 – Environmental
directly by the national Authority. the best Management in the Provision of Marine Aids
practices, advantages, disadvantages, and to navigation;
keys to successfully managing a contracted • Guideline G1036 - Environmental Manage-
Aton servicing program are covered in detail ment in Aids to navigation;
in iALA Guideline G1005, Contracting out • Guideline G1137 – Aton Management in
Aids to navigation Services. it is recommen- Protected Areas
ded that national Authorities review this Gui-
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 149 ]
8.9.1 haZardous materiaLs cury relates to:

mercury Vapour inhalation: Some vaporization from a
A number of historic lighthouses still utilise ro- free mercury surface will occur at normal room
tating glass lenses and mercury float pedestals. temperature and this is the most likely first
this was a clever method for providing a heavy contact that lighthouse personnel will have with
lens with an almost frictionless bearing so that mercury. Unless the mercury vapour levels have
it could be turned by a clockwork mechanism. been measured, personnel are unlikely to be
however, given the toxic and corrosive proper- aware of the hazard. if the work-space around
ties of mercury, the following information may lighthouse equipment containing mercury is
assist Competent Authorities to implement ap- not well ventilated, the concentration levels can
propriate safety procedures. rise above recommended limits and there is
the mercury float pedestal for a first-order ro- potential for mercury poisoning. Mercury va-
tating lens [5] contains about 13 litres of mer- pour is heavier than air and in still air will tend
cury. Quantities of mercury may also be found to concentrate in low parts of the work-space.
in the electrical slip-ring units in rotating lamp Well-designed ventilation will allow such
array lighting equipment, some tilt-action concentrations to disperse.
switches, high current contact breakers, mano- ingestion: this can lead to acute mercurial poi-
meters and thermometers. soning.
physical properties Skin Absorption: Mercury is not easily absorbed
Mercury is a heavy metal that has the unusual through the skin.
property of remaining liquid at normal tempe- Precautions it is essential for the Authority to
ratures (above – 38 degrees celcius). have detailed and strictly managed working
spill risk procedures for all personnel working with, or in
the mercury in a lighthouse optic system does close proximity to mercury.
not present a significant hazard, unless person- Staff must be trained in these work procedures
nel come into contact with “uncontained” mer- and regularly medically monitored to ensure
cury as a result of accidental spills. Such events that they do not become contaminated with
are usually the result of a mishap during main- mercury.
tenance work, or as a result of a natural disaster the working procedures must follow national
such as an earth tremor that displaces mercury health and safety regulations and should be
from its containment bath. written by an expert in this field.
if spilt, the mercury can enter cracks in floors, For work on optics the procedure will cover
and is readily absorbed into porous surfaces emptying, cleaning and re-filling the optic bath.
such as concrete, masonry and timber. When Clean-up procedures will detail methods to re-
broken into small globules or droplets, the sur- cover all visible particles of mercury and the use
face area and vaporisation rate rises rapidly. Mi- of chemicals to neutralise smaller spills.
nute droplets will adhere readily to dust and Personal protective equipment must be sup-
can form particles that can be inhaled. plied that is specifically designed for use with
Mercury is a corrosive substance if it comes into mercury. this will include overalls, gloves, over-
contact with metals such as zinc and aluminium. shoes, respirator and eye protection. Procedures
occupational hazard for the safe storage and disposal of this equip-
the occupational hazard associated with mer- ment must be in place.
[ 150 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
A mercury vapour meter must be available to rine growth is not particularly detrimental. in
monitor the working environment and proce- view of the concentration of these types of Ma-
dures in place for regular testing and calibration. rine Aids to navigation in port approaches and
consignment internal waterways, less toxic paint systems may
Mercury is a hazardous substance and the rele- be preferred to minimise environmental pollu-
vant national and international regulations must tion.
be followed with regard to the type of container A particular group of antifouling paints using
to be used, the packaging of this container for tributyltin (tBt) has been banned from use. For
transport and the marking of this packaging. further information, consult the international
paints Convention on the Control of harmful Antifou-
Both iMo and the international Air transport ling Systems on Ships, published by the inter-
Association (iAtA) have regulations covering national Maritime organization (iMo).
the transportation of mercury.
Marine Aids to navigation authorities use a si- 8.10 PreSerVATION OF hISTOrIC
gnificant quantity and variety of paints and re- MArINe AIdS TO NAVIgATION
lated surfacing materials. there is potential for the iALA Advisory Panel on the Preservation of
hazardous situations to arise and for environ- Lighthouses, Aids to navigation, and Related
mental pollution. For example: Equipment of historic interest (PhL) was esta-
• storage of inflammable paints and solvents; blished by the iALA Council in 1996 in response
• during surface preparation and removal of to membership interest in the heritage value of
paint prior to repainting; lighthouses. in 2002, this Panel became part of
• contact with vapours and solvents during ap- the iALA Committee on Engineering, Environ-
plication; ment, and Preservation (EEP) now Aton Engi-
• clean-up and waste disposal. neering and Sustainability (EnG) Committee. its
Lead objectives were to:
Lead based paints have been widely used in • promote a greater commitment by members
the past, but are now restricted or prohibited in to preserve the historic aspects of their service;
some countries. Authorities maintaining older • encourage member countries to see the pre-
lighthouses are likely to be faced, at some servation of their own lighthouses in an interna-
stage, with having to remove lead based paint tional context;
and disposing of the waste. • share information on the subject between
Members are encouraged to assess the risks both members and non-members, with particu-
and to adopt appropriate measures to safe- lar attention being given to the complementary
guard maintenance personnel and the environ- use of lighthouses;
ment. • research and document strategies on the
antifouling coatings conservation of historic lighthouses, particularly
Antifouling paints contain biocides and are ap- in relation to changes in technology and wor-
plied to vessels and floating Marine Aids to na- king practices;
vigation to reduce the accumulation of marine • foster member interaction with related indus-
organisms. For service vessels the antifouling tries in an effort to bring forward common pro-
paint assists to minimise fuel consumption. jects in the interest of protecting historic
on buoys and lightvessels the build-up of ma- lighthouses.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 151 ]
Examples of work accomplished: high level professionals from different areas re-
• the creation of the format for an iALA data- lated to the Cultural heritage.
base for recording details of historic ligh- one of the eighteen recommendations from
thouses; the 17th iALA Conference held in Cape town,
• a book, titled “Lighthouses of the World” was South Africa in March 2010, stated that “iALA
published in 1998 with English, French, German should continue to provide guidance on the
and Spanish versions, featuring over 180 histo- preservation and maintenance of historic
ric lighthouses from around the world; equipment and artefacts” confirms that the
• a Workshop in Kristiansand, norway on “the work of iALA on guidelines and the exchange
Alternative Use of historic Lighthouses in 2000; of information relating to the conservation of
• a Seminar on the “Practical Aspects of Ligh- historic lighthouses is still considered important
thouse Preservation” in 2005 in Gothenburg, by its members.
Sweden;
• the iALA Conservation Manual was published From 2014, matters related to heritage were
in 2006 to provide guidance to members on vested in a “heritage Forum” which is convened
many aspects of historic Lighthouses Conser- when necessary, and which comes under the
vation; management of the Chair of the EnG Commit-
• a Seminar on the “heritage issues of introdu- tee.
cing new technologies in Aids to navigation”
in Santander, Spain in 2009. Some key conclu-
sions and recommendations of the seminar
were:
• change is inevitable. ideally, changes made
during the development of a historical Marine
Aid to navigation site should be reversible and
in all cases properly documented;
• the preservation and documentation of Ma-
rine Aids to navigation should focus on whole
sites and include historical developments and Restoring a heritage Lighthouse - Photo courtesy of
achievements in technical equipment and rela- instituto hidrografico (Portugal) Lighthouse interpre-
ted human experiences. documentation should tative display - Photo Courtesy of iALA
include the experiences and recollections of
those involved in operating Marine Aids to na-
vigation, as well as those involved in their
conservation.
• iALA Complementary Lighthouse Use Ma-
• radionavigation aids were an important part
nual;
of Marine Aids to navigation technology in the
• Recommendation R1005 – Conserving the
20th century and there is a need to document
Built heritage of Lighthouses and other Aids
and disseminate this aspect of Marine Aids to
to navigation;
navigation heritage.
Guideline G1049 - the Use of Modern Light
• a Seminar on the “Preservation of Lighthouse
Sources in traditional Lighthouse optics;
heritage” in Athens, Greece in 2013 gathered
[ 152 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
• Guideline G1063 - Agreements for Comple- 8.10.2 third party access to marine aids to
mentary Use of Lighthouse Property; naViGation sites
• Guideline G1074 - Branding and Marketing iALA acknowledges that Authorities face an in-
of historic Lighthouses; creased demand to share Marine Aids to navi-
• Guideline G1075 - A Business Plan for Com- gation sites with “third parties”. While it is
plementary Use of a historic Lighthouse; important to ensure that the integrity and secu-
• Guideline G1076 - Building Conditioning of rity of Marine Aids to navigation are maintained,
Lighthouses; the presence of a third party may be beneficial:
• Guideline G1080 - the Selection and display • in reducing the risk of vandalism;
of heritage Artefacts; • as a source of revenue or sharing of operatio-
• Report from the iALA Seminar on heritage is- nal costs (e.g. power, road maintenance, etc);
sues of introducing new technologies in Aids • as a means of monitoring the operation of the
to navigation, Santander, Spain in June 2009; aid.
• Report from the iALA Seminar on the Preser- if an Authority receives a request for a third
vation of Lighthouse heritage, Athens, Greece party installation, it should first establish whe-
in June 2013. ther such involvement is permitted in the Autho-
rity’s legislation. if there are no impediments, the
Authority may consider negotiating an agree-
8.10.1 Lens siZe and terminoLoGy ment with the potential third party to clearly es-
information on terminology for historical glass tablish the responsibilities and liabilities of each
lens systems and the typical amount of mer- party. the agreement may also address:
cury held in mercury float pedestals (for rota- • conditions to apply to the third party instal-
ting lens systems) is provided in table 38. lation and operation to ensure that the equip-
ment does not compromise the integrity and
Typical Quantity of Mercury
Description Focal distance security of the Marine Aids to navigation and
for Mercury Float Pedestals
mm kilograms
other property owned by the Authority;
litres
• access to electrical power. At sites with main
Hyper-radial 1330 power, it may be advisable for the Authority to
Meso-radial 1125 require separate metering of the third party
First Order 920 175 12.9 supply so that electricity costs can be recove-
red;
Second Order 700 126 9.3
• if no main power is available, it is reasona-
Third Order 500 105 7.7
ble to require that the third party provide its
Small Third Order 375 96 7.0 own power supply;
Fourth Order 250 • where practical, the installation of the third
Fifth Order 187.5 party equipment should take into considera-
tion and preserve the heritage value of the
Sixth Order 150
Marine Aid to navigation.
table 38 - terminology for historical Glass Lens Sys- Authorities should reserve the right to cancel
tems and Associated Quantities of Mercury any third party agreement if continued use
jeopardizes the performance or functionality
of the Marine Aid to navigation.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 153 ]
8.11 huMAN reSOurCeS ChALLeNgeS training to perform their duties effectively, and
one of the aims of iALA is to foster the safe, with safety. the term ‘employees’ includes
economic and efficient movement of vessels newly hired, part time and temporary em-
through improvement and harmonization of ployees.
Marine Aids to navigation worldwide. the iSo 9001 Quality Management standard
SoLAS (2004 edition) Chapter V, Regulation places considerable emphasis on compe-
13, states that, in order to obtain the greatest tence, awareness and training. (See Section
possible uniformity in aids to navigation, 8.7.1).
Contracting Governments undertake to take
into account the international recommenda- refer to iaLa publication:
tions and guidelines when establishing aids to
navigation. • Recommendation R0141(E-141) - training
Recommendations and Guidelines produced and Certification of Marine Aids to navigation
by iALA clearly identify the role that iALA has Personnel.
to play in ensuring harmonized delivery of
Aton services.
in addition, Resolution 10 of the Standards of
training & Certification for Watchkeepers
(StCW) code states that the contribution of
vessel traffic service personnel contributes to NOTeS
the safety of life and property at sea and the [1] Reference SoLAS Consolidated edition
protection of the marine environment. iALA 2014.
addresses this aim in several ways, one of [2] For VtS issues, please refer to Chapter 5
which is to recommend that Marine Aids to of the nAVGUidE and the iALA VtS Manual.
navigation and VtS Authorities ensure their [3] For example with national, state, territory,
staff receive a high standard of training. to as- and local governmental bodies and interna-
sist with this approach, iALA Recommenda- tional organisations.
tion V-103 and E-141, together with [4] only where the opportunity arises and
associated model courses and supporting where both are engaged in substantially simi-
Guidelines, were developed. this approach lar work.
provides a means to ensure VtS Personnel are [5] the quantity of mercury used in higher
trained to an agreed, minimum, level. order optics is shown in section 8.1
in addition, both the ARM and EnG Commit-
tees are currently developing the training re-
quirements for Aton Management and
Engineering Personnel through the World
Wide Academy (WWA).
8.11.1 source oF skiLLs

Competent Authorities should ensure that all
employees have the knowledge, skills and
[ 154 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
ANNEX A
GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS
Navguide: Glossary of Acronyms
ais itu
Automatic Identification System International Telecommunications Union
aism itu-r
Association Internationale de Signalisation International Telecommunications Union –
Maritime (Title of IALA in French) Radiocommunications Bureau
aton Lrit
Marine Aid(s) to Navigation Long Range Identification and Tracking
coLreGs mrcp
International Regulations for Preventing IALA Maritime Radio Communications Plan
Collisions at Sea mtbF
dGnss Mean time between failures (in hours)
Differential Global Navigation Satellite System mttr
dGps Mean time to repair (in hours)
Differential Global Positioning System pianc
ecdis The World Association for Waterborne Transport
Electronic Chart Display and Information System Infrastructure
ecs pssa
Electronic Chart System Particularly Sensitive Sea Area
enc racon
Radar transponder beacon
Electronic Navigation Chart
rcds
eeZ
Raster chart display system
Exclusive Economic Zone (Defined in UNCLOS)
rnc
GaLiLeo
Raster navigation chart
Global Navigation Satellite System (EU)
sar
GLonass
Search and Rescue
Global Navigation Satellite System (Russia)
sbas
GLoss
Satellite Based Augmentation System
Global Sea Level Observing System
soLas
Gnss Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea 1974
Global Navigation Satellite System srs
Gps Ship Reporting System
Global Positioning System (USA) uncLos
iaLa United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
International Association of Marine Aids to utc
Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities Universal Time Co-ordinated
iho Vdes
International Hydrographic Organization VHF Data Exchange System
imo VhF
International Maritime Organization Very High Frequency (radio in the 30-300 MHz band)
impa Vtm
International Maritime Pilots’ Association Vessel Traffic Management
imso Vts
International Mobile Satellite Organization Vessel Traffic Service
inmarsat Vtso
International Maritime Satellite Organisation Vessel Traffic Service Operator
iso WWa
International Standards Organization World Wide Academy
[ 156 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
ANNEX B
LIST OF TABLES
Navguide: List of tables
tabLe description
1 Minimum Maritime User Requirements

2 Fixing Processes and Systems
3 Levels Relevant to Marine Aids to navigation in Coastal and Restricted Waters
4 Zones of Confidence (iho)
5 Chart Scales, Applications and Related Accuracy Considerations
6 Graphical Range table in nautical Miles
7 Photometric Units of Measurement
8 Classification of the Rhythmic Characters of Lights
9 Rhythmic Characters of the Lights in the iALA Maritime Buoyage System
10 Maximum Period for Rhythmic Characters of Marine Aids to navigation Lights
11 timing of Astronomical Events
12 Conversion table for Luminous intensity and nominal Range for night observations
13 Conversion table for Luminous intensity and nominal daytime Range
14 Required illuminance in Varying Meteorological Conditions
15 typical operational Range of daymarks
16 night and day with Background
17 Light Source Performance and other characteristics
18 Availability targets
19 initial Maritime Service Portfolios (MSPs)
20 VdES Channel allocation
21 dSC characteristics
22 digital VhF/UhF system characteristics
23 Wi-Fi system characteristics
24 4G –LtE Advanced system characteristics
25 5G system characteristics
26 inmarsat C technical characteristics
27 inmarsat Global Express system characteristics
28 iridium (Pilot) system characteristics
29 Summary of communication technologies
30 Preferred terminology for the description of Racon operating Frequencies
31 terms that are relevant to the condition of Marine Aids to navigation
32 Suggested Expanded List of Standard terms for Use in navigation Warnings
33 Power Sources for operating Lighted Marine Aids to navigation
34 Silicon Solar Cell technology
35 Contents of SoLAS Convention
36 Comparison of different types of Marine Aids to navigation
37 Availability objectives by Category
38 terminology for historical Glass Lens Systems and Associated Quantities of Mercury
[ 158 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
ANNEX C
LIST OF FIGURES
Navguide: List of figures
FiGure description
1 iALA national Members

2 Logo of iALA Conference and VtS Symposium
3 nautical Chart
4 Levelling or Vertical Control datum (iho)
5 Examples of GnSS notes on Charts
6 illustration of the Colour Zones on the 1931 CiE Chromaticity diagram
7 iALA Allowed Chromaticity Areas of ordinary Surface Colours
8 Effect of Exceeding Geographical Range
9 Spectral Sensitivity distributions or V(λ) and V’ (λ) Curves for the human observer
10 Chromaticity Regions of the Recommended iALA Colours for Lights
11 CiE 1931 x,y Chromaticity Chart
12 illustration of the inverse Square Law Concept
13 daytime Luminous Range diagram
14 Angle of Uncertainty
15 Sector Light Application
16 Various Applications for Sector Lights
17 Examples of Floating Aids
18 Contextualisation of e-navigation in the maritime domain
19 the structure of the Maritime Architecture Framework
20 the multidimensional model of the MAF
21 e-navigation users' perspective at a given moment and place
22 the e-navigation services concept
23 iMo e-navigation architecture
24 the Common Shore-based System Architecture concept
25 the harmonised Common Maritime data Structure
26 Simplified View of the iho Gi Registry
27 the Maritime Connectivity Platform concept
28 VdES functions and frequency use – a view of the entire system
29 A Racon (left) and a Radar display (right) with and without the Racon character
30 overview of types of VtS Services and Functions
31 Vessel Manoeuvring Phases
32 Sample for Marking Wave Energy devices
33 World-Wide navigational Warning Service: Limits of nAVAREAS
34 Vessel Under Keel Clearance (UKC)
35 Risk Assessment and Risk Management Process
36 Risk Matrix
37 the Cost of Reliability
38 iSo 9001 diagram on the Emphasis on Satisfying Customer Requirements
[ 160 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
ANNEX D
MARITIME BUOYAGE SYSTEM

AND
OTHER AIDS TO NAVIGATION
Maritime Buoyage System and other Aids to Navigation
1. hISTOrICAL BACkgrOuNd At the end of World War ii many countries

found their Marine Aids to navigation des-
troyed and the process of restoration had to be
prior to 1976
undertaken urgently. in the absence of anything
there was once more than thirty different
better, the Geneva rules were adopted with or
buoyage systems in use world-wide, many of
without variation to suit local conditions and the
these systems having rules in complete conflict
equipment available. this led to wide and so-
with one another.
metimes conflicting differences particularly in
there has long been disagreement over the
the crowded waters of north Western Europe.
way in which buoy lights should be used since in 1957 the, then, international Association of
they first appeared towards the end of the 19th Lighthouse Authorities (iALA) was formed in
century. in particular, some countries favoured order to support the goals of the technical ligh-
using red lights to mark the port hand side of thouse conferences which had been convening
channels and others favoured them for marking since 1929.
the starboard hand. Attempts to bring complete unity had little suc-
Another major difference of opinion revolved cess. Fresh impetus was given to the task of the
around the principles to be applied when iALA technical Committee, by a series of disas-
laying out marks to assist the mariner. Most trous wrecks in the dover Strait area in 1971.
countries adopted the principle of the Lateral these wrecks, situated in one lane of a traffic se-
system whereby marks indicate the port and paration scheme, defied all attempts to mark
starboard sides of the route to be followed ac- them in a way that could be readily understood
cording to some agreed direction. however, se- by mariners.
veral countries also favoured using the there were three basic issues to address:
principle of Cardinal marks whereby dangers 1. the need to retain existing equipment as far as
are marked by one or more buoys or beacons possible to avoid undue expense
laid out in the quadrants of the compass to in- 2. the need to define how the colours green and
red were to be used when marking channels
dicate where the danger lies in relation to the
3. the need to combine Lateral and Cardinal rules.
mark, this system being particularly useful in the
to meet the conflicting requirements, it was
open sea where the Lateral buoyage direction
thought necessary as a first step to formulate
may not be apparent.
two systems, one using the colour red to mark
the nearest approach to international agree-
the port hand side of the channels and the
ment on a unified system of buoyage was rea-
other using the colour red to mark the star-
ched at Geneva in 1936. this Agreement, board hand side of channels. these were called
drawn up under the auspices of the League of System A and System B, respectively.
nations, was never ratified due to the outbreak the rules for System A, which included both
of World War ii. the Agreement proposed the cardinal and lateral marks, were completed in
use of either Cardinal marks or Lateral marks 1976 and agreed by the international Maritime
but separated them into two different systems. organization (iMo). the System was introduced
it provided for the use of the colour red on port in 1977 and its use has gradually spread throu-
hand marks and largely reserved the colour ghout Europe, Australia, new Zealand, Africa,
green for wreck marking. the Gulf and some Asian Countries.
[ 162 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
From 1980 and technological developments, some en-

the rules for System B were completed in early hancements to the MBS were needed.
1980. these were considered to be suitable ideally, a unified marking arrangement would,
for application in north, Central and South in principle, be desirable for Regions A and B.
America, Japan, Republic of Korea and Philip- All iALA Members view this change as imprac-
pines. tical, detrimental to safety, and probably una-
the rules for the two Systems were so similar chievable. however, with the aim of improving
that the iALA Executive Committee was able to navigational safety, advances towards a global
combine the two sets of rules into one, known unified system can be achieved through adop-
as “the iALA Maritime Buoyage System”. this tion of common characteristics, such as consis-
single set of rules allows Lighthouse Authori- tent lighting rhythms, on port and starboard
ties the choice of using red to port or red to hand marks regardless of region.
starboard, on a regional basis; the two regions the most significant changes in the 2010 revi-
being known as Region A and Region B. sion are the inclusion of Marine Aids to navi-
At a Conference convened by iALA in novem- gation used for marking recommended by
ber 1980 with the assistance of iMo and the iALA that are additional to the floating
international hydrographic organization buoyage system previously included. this is
(iho), Lighthouse Authorities from 50 coun- aimed at providing a more complete descrip-
tries and the representatives of nine interna- tion of Marine Aids to navigation that may be
tional organisations concerned with Marine used. it includes the Emergency Wreck Mar-
Aids to navigation met and agreed to adopt king Buoy, descriptions of other Marine Aids
the rules of the new combined System. the to navigation specifically excluded from the
boundaries of the buoyage regions were also original MBS, and the integration of electronic
decided and illustrated on a map annexed to marks via radio transmission. With regards to
the rules. the Conference underlined the need Marine Aids to navigation, the changes provi-
for cooperation between neighbouring coun- ded by this revision will allow the emerging e-
tries and with hydrographic Services in the in- navigation concept to be based upon the
troduction of the new System. marks provided by this booklet.
thus, the iALA Maritime Buoyage System will
From 2010 continue to help all Mariners, navigating anyw-
Although the maritime buoyage system (MBS) here in the world, to fix their position and
has served the maritime community well since avoid dangers without fear of ambiguity, now
its inception in the 1970s, after the 2006 iALA and for the years to come.
Conference in Shanghai, China, it was decided Continuity and harmonization of Marine Aids
to review the system in light of changes in the to navigation Marking is to be encouraged by
navigation environment and the further deve- all competent maritime authorities.
lopment of electronic Marine Aids to naviga-
tion. 2. PrINCIPLeS OF The SySTeM
Worldwide consultation revealed that the fun- the responsibility for safe navigation resides
damental principles of the MBS should be re- with the mariner, through the appropriate use
tained. however, due to changes in navigation of Marine Aids to navigation in conjunction
practices and patterns, as well as innovations with official nautical documents and prudent
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 163 ]
seamanship, including voyage planning as navigable water not only to the north but also
defined in iMo Resolutions. this booklet East and West of it. the mariner will know it is
provides guidance on the Maritime Buoyage safe to the north, but shall consult the chart
System and other Aids to navigation for all for further guidance.
users.
the iALA Marine Aids to navigation system Cardinal marks do not have a distinctive
has two components: the Maritime Buoyage shape but are normally pillar or spar. they are
System and other aids to navigation always painted in yellow and black horizontal
comprised of fixed and floating devices. this bands and their distinctive double cone top-
is primarily a physical system, however all of marks are always black.
the marks may be complemented by An aide-memoire to their colouring is
electronic means. provided by regarding the top-marks as
Within the Maritime Buoyage System there pointers to the positions of the black band(s):
are six types of marks, which may be used • north:
alone or in combination. the mariner can top-marks pointing upward: black band
distinguish between these marks by
above yellow band;
identifiable characteristics. Lateral marks differ
• South:
between Buoyage Regions A and B, as
top-marks pointing downward:
described below, whereas the other five types
black band below yellow band;
of marks are common to both regions.
• east:
these marks are described below:
top-marks pointing away from each other:
black bands above and below a yellow
LateraL marks
band;
Following the sense of a ‘conventional
• West:
direction of buoyage’, lateral marks in Region
top-marks pointing towards each other:
A utilize red and green colours (refer to
black band with yellow bands above and
section 2.4) by day and night to denote the
port and starboard sides of channels below.
respectively. however, in Region B (refer to
section 2.5) these colours are reversed with Cardinal marks also have a special system of
red to starboard and green to port. flashing white lights. the rhythms are basically
A modified lateral mark may be used at the all “very quick” (VQ) or “quick” (Q) flashing but
point where a channel divides to distinguish broken into varying lengths of the flashing
the preferred channel, that is to say the phase. “Very quick flashing” is defined as a
primary route or channel that is so designated light flashing at a rate of either 120 or 100
by the competent authority. flashes per minute, “quick flashing” is a light
flashing at either 60 or 50 flashes per minute.
cardinaL marks the characters used for Cardinal marks will be
Cardinal marks indicate that the deepest seen to be as follows:
water in the area lies to the named side of the • north:
mark. this convention is necessary even Continuous very quick flashing or quick
though for example, a north mark may have flashing;
[ 164 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
fairway, mid-channel or landfall marks.

• east: Safe Water marks have an appearance
three “very quick” or “quick” flashes different from danger marking buoys. they
followed by darkness; are spherical, or alternatively pillar or spar with
• south: red and white vertical stripes and a single red
Six “very quick” or “quick” flashes followed spherical top-mark. their lights, if any, are
immediately by a long flash, then darkness; white using isophase, occulting, one long
• West: flash or Morse “A” (● -) rhythms.
nine “very quick” or “quick” flashes
followed by darkness. special marks
Special marks are used to indicate a special
the concept of three, six, nine is easily area or feature whose nature may be apparent
remembered when one associates it with a from reference to a chart or other nautical
clock face. the long flash, defined as a light publication. they are not generally intended
appearance of not less than 2 seconds, is to mark channels or obstructions where the
merely a device to ensure that three or nine MBS provides suitable alternatives.
“very quick” or “quick” flashes cannot be Special marks are yellow. they may carry a
mistaken for six. yellow “X” top-mark, and any light used is also
it will be observed that two other marks use yellow. to avoid the possibility of confusion
white lights; isolated danger marks and Safe between yellow and white in poor visibility,
Water marks. Each has a distinctive light the yellow lights of Special marks do not have
rhythm that cannot be confused with the very any of the rhythms used for white lights.
quick or quick flashing light of the Cardinal their shape will not conflict with that of
marks. navigational marks. this means, for example,
that a special buoy located on the port hand
isolated danger marks side of a channel may be cylindrical but will
the isolated danger mark is placed on, or not be conical. Special marks may be lettered
near to a danger that has navigable water all or numbered, and may also include the use
around it. Because the extent of the danger of a pictogram to indicate their purpose using
and the safe passing distance cannot be the iho symbology where appropriate.
specified for all circumstances in which this
mark may be used, the mariner shall consult marking new dangers
the chart and nautical publications for “new dangers” are newly discovered hazards,
guidance. distinctive double black spherical natural or man-made, that may not yet be
top-marks and Group flashing (2) white lights, shown in nautical documents and publica-
serve to distinguish isolated danger marks tions, and until the information is sufficiently
from Cardinal marks. promulgated, should be indicated by:
• marking a new danger using appropriate
safe Water marks marks such as; Lateral, Cardinal, isolated
the Safe Water mark has navigable water all danger marks, or equally
around it, but does not mark a danger. Safe • using the Emergency Wreck Marking Buoy
Water marks can be used, for example, as (EWMB)
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 165 ]
if the competent authority considers the risk to • Auxiliary Marks are those other marks used to
navigation to be especially high at least one of assist navigation or provide information. these
the marks should be duplicated. include aids of non-lateral significance that are
the Emergency Wreck Marking Buoy has blue usually of defined channels and otherwise do
and yellow vertical stripes in equal number, with not indicate the port and starboard sides of the
a vertical/perpendicular yellow cross top-mark, route to be followed as well as those used to
and displays a blue and yellow alternating light. convey information for navigational safety.
Marking of a new danger may include use of a • Port or harbour Marks such as breakwater,
Racon coded Morse “d” (- ●●) or other radio quay/jetty lights, traffic signals, bridge marking
transmitting device such as automatic identifi- and inland waterways Marine Aids to navigation
cation systems as a Marine Aid to navigation (further described in section 8.7).
(AiS as an Aton).
Marking of a new danger may be discontinued soLas chapter V,
when the appropriate competent Authority is regulation 13 - consolidated edition 2009
satisfied that information concerning the “new establishment and operation of aids to
danger” has been sufficiently promulgated or navigation
the danger has been resolved 1. Each Contracting Government undertakes
to provide, as it deems practical and necessary,
other marks either individually or in co-operation with other
other Marks include lighthouses, beacons, sec- Contracting Governments, such aids to naviga-
tor lights, leading lines, major floating aids, and tion as the volume of traffic justifies and the de-
auxiliary marks. these visual marks are intended gree of risk requires.
to aid navigation as information to mariners, not
necessarily regarding channel limits or obstruc- 2. in order to obtain the greatest possible uni-
tions. formity in aids to navigation, Contracting Go-
• Lighthouses, beacons and other aids of lesser vernments undertake to take into account the
ranges are fixed Marine Aids to navigation that international recommendations and guide-
may display different colours and/or rhythms lines* when establishing such aids.
over designated arcs. Beacons may also be un-
lighted. 3. Contracting Governments undertake to ar-
• Sector lights display different colours and/or range for information relating to aids to naviga-
rhythms over designated arcs. the colour of the tion to be made available to all concerned.
light provides directional information to the ma- Changes in the transmissions of position-fixing
riner. systems which could adversely affect the per-
• Leading lines / Ranges allow ships to be gui- formance of receivers fitted in ships shall be
ded with precision along a portion of a straight avoided as far as possible and only be effected
route using the alignment of fixed lights (lea- after timely and adequate notice has been pro-
ding lights) or marks (leading marks), in some mulgated.
cases a single directional light may used.
• Major floating aids include lightvessels, light * Refer to the appropriate Recommendations
floats and large navigational buoys intended to and guidelines of iALA and to Sn/Circ.107, Ma-
mark approaches from off shore. ritime Buoyage System.
[ 166 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
3. geNerAL • 3.2.6 other marks used to provide informa-

tion to assist navigation.
3.1 scope
the Maritime Buoyage System and other Aids 3.3 method oF characterisinG marks
to navigation provide rules that apply to all the significance of the mark depends upon
fixed, floating and electronic marks serving to one or more of the following features:
indicate: • 3.3.1 By night, colour and rhythm of light
• 3.1.1 the lateral limits of navigable channels. and/or illumination enhancement.
• 3.1.2 natural dangers and other obstructions • 3.3.2 By day, colour, shape, top-mark, and/or
such as wrecks. light (including colour and rhythm).
• 3.1.3 Landfall, course to steer, and other • 3.3.3 By electronic (digital) symbology, e.g.
areas or features of importance to the mariner. as a complement to physical marks.
• 3.3.4 By electronic (digital) symbology solely.
• 3.1.4 new dangers.
3.2 types oF marks

4. LATerAL MArkS
A Mark is defined as a signal available to the
4.1 deFinition oF ‘conVentionaL
Mariner to convey guidance in safe navigation.
direction oF buoyaGe’
the Maritime Buoyage System and other Aids
the ‘conventional direction of buoyage’,
to navigation provide the following types of
which must be indicated in appropriate
marks that may be used in combination:
nautical charts and documents, may be either:
• 3.2.1 Lateral marks, used in conjunction with
• 4.1.1 the general direction taken by the
a “conventional direction of buoyage”, gene-
mariner when approaching a harbour, river,
rally employed for well-defined channels. these
estuary or other waterway from seaward, or
marks indicate the port and starboard sides of • 4.1.2 the direction determined by the
the route to be followed. Where a channel di- proper authority in consultation, where
vides, a modified lateral mark may be used to appropriate, with neighbouring countries. in
indicate the preferred route. Lateral marks differ principle, it should follow a clockwise
between Buoyage Regions A and B as descri- direction around land masses.
bed in MBS Sections 2 and 8.
• 3.2.2 Cardinal marks, used in conjunction 4.2 buoyaGe reGions
with the mariner's compass, to indicate where • 4.2.1 there are two international Buoyage
the mariner may find navigable water. Regions A and B, where lateral marks differ.
• 3.2.3 isolated danger marks to indicate iso- the current geographical divisions of these
lated dangers of limited size that have naviga- two Regions are shown on the world map,
ble water all around them. below.
• 3.2.4 Safe Water marks to indicate that there
is navigable water all around their position, e.g. 4.3 GeneraL ruLes For LateraL marks
mid-channel marks. • 4.3.1 Colour
• 3.2.5 Special marks to indicate an area or fea- the colour of lateral marks must comply with
ture referred to in nautical documents, not gene- the iALA MBS Regions as specified in Sections
rally intended to mark channels or obstructions. 2.4 and 2.5.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 167 ]
• 4.3.2 Shapes
Lateral marks should be of cylindrical and
conical shape. however, where they do not
rely on a distinctive shape for identification,
they should, where practicable, carry the
appropriate topmark.
• 4.3.3 numbering or lettering
if marks at the sides of a channel are
numbered or lettered, the numbering or
lettering shall follow the ‘conventional
direction of buoyage’ i.e. numbered from 4.5 description oF LateraL marks
seaward. the protocol for numbering lateral used in reGion b
marks, especially in confined waterways, • 4.5.3 At the point where a channel divides,
should be ‘even numbers on red ~ odd when proceeding in the “conventional
numbers on green’. direction of buoyage,” a preferred channel
• 4.3.4 Synchronisation may be indicated by a modified Port or
if appropriate, synchronised lights (all flash at Starboard lateral mark as follows:
the same time) or sequential lights (flash one
after another) or a combination of both may
be utilized.
4.4 description oF LateraL marks

used in reGion a
• 4.4.3 At the point where a channel divides,

when proceeding in the “conventional
direction of buoyage,” a preferred channel
may be indicated by a modified Port or
Starboard lateral mark as follows:
[ 168 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
5. IALA /AISM MArITIMe BuOyAge SySTeM regIONS
6. CArdINAL MArkS 6.2 use oF cardinaL marks

A Cardinal mark may be used, for example:
6.1 deFinition oF cardinaL • 6.2.1 to indicate that the deepest water in
quadrants and marks that area is on the named side of the mark.
the four quadrants (north, East, South and • 6.2.2 to indicate the safe side on which to
West) are bounded by the true bearings nW-
pass a danger.
nE, nE-SE, SE-SW, and SW-nW, taken from
• 6.2.3 to draw attention to a feature in a
the point of interest.
channel such as a bend, a junction, a bifurca-
• 6.1.1 A Cardinal mark is named after the
tion or the end of a shoal.
quadrant in which it is placed
• 6.1.2 the name of a Cardinal mark indicates • 6.2.4 Competent authorities should consi-
that it should be passed to the named side of der carefully before establishing too many
the mark. cardinal marks in a waterway or area as this
• 6.1.3 the Cardinal marks in Region A and can lead to confusion, given their white lights
Region B, and their use, are the same. of similar characteristics.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 169 ]
6.3 deSCrIPTION OF CArdINAL MArkS 7. ISOLATed dANger MArkS
7.1 deFinition oF isoLated danGer marks

An isolated danger mark is a
mark erected on, or moored
on or above, an isolated dan-
ger which has navigable water
all around it.
7.2 description oF isoLated danGer

marks
note (b): the dou-

ble sphere top-
note (a): the double cone top-mark is a very mark is a very
important feature of every Cardinal mark by important feature
day, and should be used wherever practicable of every isolated
and be as large as possible with a clear danger mark by
separation between the cones. day, and should be
used wherever practicable and be as large as
possible with a clear separation between the
spheres.
8. SAFe WATer MArkS
8.1 deFinition oF saFe Water marks

Safe Water marks serve to indicate that there is
navigable water all round the mark. these in-
clude centre line marks and mid-channel marks.
Such a mark may also be used to indicate chan-
nel entrance, port or estuary approach, or land-
fall. the light rhythm may also be used to
indicate best point of passage under bridges.
[ 170 ] n AVG U i d E – 2 0 1 8
8.2 description oF saFe Water marks 10. MArkINg NeW dANgerS
10.1deFinition oF neW danGers

the term “new danger” is used to describe newly
discovered hazards not yet shown in nautical do-
cuments. ‘new dangers’ in-
clude naturally occurring
obstructions such as sand-
banks or rocks or man-made
9. SPeCIAL MArkS dangers such as wrecks.
9.1deFinition oF speciaL marks 10.2 markinG oF neW danGers

Marks used to indicate a special area or feature • 10.2.1 ‘new dangers’ should be appropriately mar-
whose nature may be apparent from reference to ked using Lateral, Cardinal, isolated danger marks or by
a chart or other nautical publi- using the Emergency Wreck Marking Buoy. if the Autho-
cation. they are not generally rity considers the risk to navigation to be especially high,
intended to mark channels or at least one of the marks should be duplicated.
obstructions where other • 10.2.2 if using a Lateral lighted mark for this purpose
marks are more suitable. a VQ or Q light character shall be used.
Some examples of uses of Special Marks: • 10.2.3 Any duplicate mark shall be identical to its part-
• 9.1.1 ocean data Acquisition Systems (odAS) ner in all respects.
marks. • 10.2.4 in addition it may be marked by a Racon,
• 9.1.2 traffic separation marks where use of coded Morse “d”(- ● ●)
conventional channel marking may cause confusion. • 10.2.5 in addition it may be marked by other electro-
• 9.1.3 Spoil Ground marks. nic means, such as automatic identification system (AiS
• 9.1.4 Military exercise zone marks. as an Aton).
• 9.1.5 Cable or pipeline marks. • 10.2.6 Virtual Aids to navigation may be deployed so-
• 9.1.6 Recreation zone marks. lely or in addition to physical Aids to navigation.
• 9.1.7 Boundaries of anchorage areas • 10.2.7 the marking of the new danger may be remo-
• 9.1.8 Structures such as offshore renewable ved when the competent Authority is satisfied that infor-
energy installations mation concerning the “new danger” has been suffi-
• 9.1.9 Aquaculture ciently promulgated or the danger otherwise resolved.
9.2 description oF speciaL marks 10.3 description oF neW danGers marks
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 171 ]
11. OTher MArkS • to indicate a turning point, a junction with

other channels, a hazard or other items of
11.1 LeadinG Lines/ranGes navigational importance;
• to provide information on hazard areas that
11.1.1 deFinition oF should be avoided;
LeadinG Lines/ranGes • in some cases a single directional light may
A group of two or more marks be used.
or lights, in the same verti-
cal plane such that the na-
vigator can follow the leading
line on the same bearing.
11.1.2 description oF LeadinG Lines LeadinG

Line structures can be any colour or shape
that provides a distinctive mark that cannot be
confused with adjacent structures. 11.3 LiGhthouses
11.3.1 deFinition oF a LiGhthouse

A lighthouse is a tower, or
substantial building or
structure, erected at a
designated geographical
location to carry a signal light
and provides a significant
daymark. it provides a long
or medium range light for
identification by night.
11.2 sector LiGhts
11.3.2 description oF a LiGhthouse
11.2.1 deFinition oF sector LiGhts it may provide a platform for other Aton such
A sector light is a fixed aid to navigation that disas dGnSS, racon or AiS as an Aids to naviga-
plays a light of different co- tion to assist marine navigation. A lighthouse
lours and/or rhythms over is a structure that may provide a daymark for
designated arcs. the co- identification by day. A sector light may also
lour of the light provides be incorporated into the structure.
directional information to
the mariner.
11.2.2 description oF sector LiGhts

A sector light may be used:
• to provide directional information in a
fairway;
[ 172 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
11.4 beacons
11.4.1 deFinition oF a beacon

A fixed man-made navigation
mark that can be recognised by
its shape, colour, pattern,
topmark, or light character, or a
11.6 auxiLiary marks
combination of these.
11.6.1 deFinition oF auxiLiary marks
11.4.2 description oF a beacon
Minor aids that have not been
• Can carry a signal light and in this case is
previously described.
termed a light beacon or lighted beacon;
• if not fitted with a light it is termed an
11.6.2 description oF auxiLiary marks
unlighted or unlit beacon and provides only a
these marks are usually outside of defined
day mark;
channels and generally do not indicate the
• As a leading line/range or conspicuous
port and starboard sides of the route to be fol-
radar mark;
lowed or obstructions to be avoided. they
• it may also carry a topmark.
also include those marks used to convey infor-
mation related to navigation safety. these
marks shall not conflict with other navigational
marks and shall be promulgated in appro-
priate nautical charts and documents. Should
not generally be used if a more appropriate
mark is available within the MBS.
11.7 port or harbour marks

11.5 major FLoatinG aids
Mariners should be careful to take account
of any local marking measures that may be in
11.5.1 deFinition oF major FLoatinG aids
place and will often be covered by Local Re-
Major floating aids include
gulations or by-laws. Before transiting an area
lightvessels, light floats
for the first time, mariners should make them-
and large navigational
selves aware of local marking arrangements.
buoys.
Local Aids to navigation may include, but not
be restricted to, marking of:
11.5.2 description oF major FLoatinG aids
• breakwaters, quays and jetties;
Major floating aids are generally deployed at
• bridges and traffic signals;
critical locations, intended to mark
• leisure areas.
approaches from offshore areas, where
and other river, channel, canal, lock and
shipping traffic concentrations are high. it may
waterways marked within the responsibilities
provide a platform for other Aids to navigation
of competent authorities.
such as, racon or AiS as an Aids to navigation to
assist marine navigation.
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 173 ]
12. IALA reCOMMeNdATIONS ANd guIdeLINeS

iALA Recommendations and Guidelines provide information on planning, operating, managing,
and implementing the marks authorized by the MBS and can be found via the iALA website at:
www.iala-aism.org.
region a by day & night
[ 174 ] nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8
region b by day & night
nAVGU i d E – 2 0 1 8 [ 175 ]
10, rue des Gaudines - 78100 Saint Germain en Laye, France
Tél. +33 (0)1 34 51 70 01- Fax +33 (0)1 34 51 82 05 - contact@iala-aism.org
www.iala-aism.org
International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities
Association Internationale de Signalisation Maritime

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What is IALA and what are its main roles and responsibilities?

What is IALA and what are its main roles and responsibilities?

What topics are covered in the document?

What topics are covered in the document?

NAVGUIDE 2018

Chapter 1 - Introduction to IALA-AISM

Chapter 2 - Concepts and accuracy of navigation

Chapter 3 – Marine Aids to Navigation

Chapter 5 - Vessel Trafﬁc Services

Chapter 6 - Other services and facilities

Chapter 7 - Power supplies

Chapter 8 - Provision, design and management

10 RUE dES GAUdinES

1.1 PurPOSe ANd SCOPe 1.3 MeMBerShIP

Figure 1 - iALA national Members

1.4 geNerAL ASSeMBLy be elected to the Council and there is a

• determines the rate of contributions; its scope shall include:

1.11 CONFereNCeS, SyMPOSIA in conjunction with the Conference.

1.12 WOrkShOPS ANd SeMINArS

1.13 IALA PuBLICATIONS iALA publications are governed by a set of

To be credible is about being recognized, To be connecting means to reach out

To be dynamic is about actively To be result oriented means to focus

2.1 NAVIgATION MeThOdS 2.2 ACCurACy STANdArdS OF

2.3 PhASeS OF NAVIgATION 2.3.2 coastaL naViGation

alone, but as with harbour Approach 2.4.2 accuracy

8-10 m differential Loran ac- nautical charts provide a graphical represen-

2.5.2 datum Levelling datum or Vertical control datum

Level description abbreviation

Figure 4 - Levelling or Vertical Control datum (iho)

Figure 5 – Examples of GnSS notes on Charts

table 4 – Zones of Conﬁdence (iho)

the settings that have been applied to the 1:50.000 50 25 Approach

1:5.000 5 2,5 harbour plans

NOTeS gime, historical accuracy etc.

3.1OPerATIONAL requIreMeNTS a searchlight. this approach would generally

such as: 3.2.1 VisuaL perception

Visual perception requires some understan-

3.2.1.1 siGnaL coLours

Recommended surface colours for visual

refer to iaLa publications:

• Recommendation R0106(E-106) - the Use of

the CiE standard on the measurement of colours

Photo Courtesy of Australian Maritime Safety Authority.

3.2.1.3 atmospheric transmissiVity

refer to iaLa publications: eye evaluates a light source, as shown in table 7.

3.2.2.2 ranGe oF a VisuaL mark

Figure 9 - Spectral Sensitivity distributions or V(λ)

Figure 8 - Effect of Exceeding Geographical Range

3.2.3.1 photometry oF marine aids to

are represented by dashed lines. cameras. ‘imaging photometers’, as they are

This is the part of the luminous flux in a particular direction. Also

table 7 – Photometric Units of Measurement

Luminous intensity Allard’s law applies only when the luminance

refer to iaLa publication:

• Recommendation E-110 - Rhythmic Charac-

allard’s Law the Rhythmic Characters of Lights are

have different Oc(2+1)

Q(9) A group quick White light

Q(6)+ d' 3 l’ A group quick White light