BIG IDEA

THE

SCIENCE
BOOK
The incredible concepts
that show how science
works in the world

AMAZING
INTERACTIVE
learning tools
available
ONLINE
THE
BIG IDEA
SCIENCE
BOOK
The incredible concepts
that show how science
works in the world
 LONDON, NEW YORK,
MELBOURNE, MUNICH, AND DELHI

For The Book Makers Ltd:

Editorial and design Gill Denton,
Ali Scrivens, and Miranda Brown

For Dorling Kindersley:

Editor Matilda Gollon
Managing Editor Linda Esposito
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Category Publisher Laura Buller
Production Editor Andy Hilliard
Production Controller Angela Graef
Jacket Designer Laura Brim
Jacket Editor Matilda Gollon
Design Development Manager
Sophia M Tampakopoulos Turner

Consultant Lisa Burke

Adapted from
The Science Reference Library, 2010
For The Book Makers Ltd:
Design Ali Scrivens and Miranda Brown
For Dorling Kindersley:
Managing Editor Sophie Mitchell
Managing Art Editor Richard Czapnik
For Pearson US:
Editorial Sharon Inglis, Stephanie Rogers,
and Eleanor McCarthy

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THE BIG IDEA
SCIENCE
BOOK
The incredible concepts
that show how science
works in the world
 LIFE SCIENCE
CONTENTS
Web connections
How to use this book
Life Science
Earth Science
Physical Science
Glossary
Index
Picture credits
6
8
10
114
204
296
300
304
DNA connections
DNA evidence
Human Genome
Cell division
Mutations
Frankenfoods
Brain power
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Left brain versus right brain 26
Hypothalamus 28
ALS 30
Skeleton 32
Blood types 34
Heartbeat 36
Digestion 38
Kidney transplant 40
Pregnancy 42
Naming 44
Bacteria 46
Mold 48
Fungi 50
Allergies 52
Pandemic 54
Vaccines 56
Common cold 58
Malaria 60
Cancer treatment 62
Nuclear medicine 64
Biodiversity 66
Adaptations 68
Patterns in nature 70
Biomimetics 72
Ferns 74
Flowers 76
Plant tricks 78
Biofuels 80
Seed bank 82
Animal bodies 84
New body parts 86
Echolocation 88
Insects 90
Spiders 92
Exoskeleton 94
Supercooling frogs 96
Birds 98
Algae 102
Octopus 104
Sharks 106
Whales 108
Gorillas 110
Frozen zoo 112
EARTH SCIENCE

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Geologic time 116 Gravity 206
Fossils 118 Bridges 208
Dinosaurs 120 Gravitron 210
Extinction 122 Roller coaster 212
Giant mammals 124 Collision 214
Dating rocks 126 Catapults 216
Coal 128 Lifting electromagnets 218
Ice age 130 Color 220
Glaciers 132 Radio 222
Water 134 Guitar 224
Ocean currents 136 Sonic boom 226
Mid-ocean ridge 138 Formula 1 car 228
Deep sea vents 140 Fuel cell cars 230
Coral reefs 142 Creation of elements 232
Caves 144 Quarks and leptons 234
Geodes 146 Crystals 236
Marble quarries 148 Fluorescent minerals 238
Earthquakes 150 Melting point 240
Afar triangle 152 Glass 242
Landslides 154 Aerogels 244
Kilauea 156 Steel 246
Lava 158 Fireworks 248
Geysers 160 Lichtenberg figures 250
Islands 162 Microscopes 252
Tsunami 164 Universe 254
Floods 166 Earth 256
Atmosphere 168 Earth’s core 258
Aurora Boralis 170 Moon 260
Weather fronts 172 Solar eclipse 262
Thunderstorms 174 Mercury 264
Rainbows 176 Venus 266
Predicting hurricanes 178 Mars 268
Fog 180 Jupiter’s moons 270
Air pollution 182 Saturn 272
Acid rain 184 Uranus 274
Global warmings 186 Neptune 276
Equators 188 Pluto 278
Dunes 190 Asteroids 280
Mirages 192 Meteorites 282
Atacama desert 194 Milky way 284
Amazon river 196 Big Bang theory 286
Rainforest 198 Black holes 288
Mount Everest 202 Quasars 290
Astronauts 292
International space station 294
 INTERACT WITH YOUR WORLD!

Watch science come alive on screen with an amazing interactive website created
especially for the book. It is bursting with things to explore and do! Fantastic
video clips and interactive animations take you inside plants, around the human
body, deep below Earth’s surface, and into the depths of space—for an even
closer look at science in action!
This unique hands-on experience gives you the chance to apply everything that
you have learned and see even more! Click on incredible illustrations to animate
scientific processes, watch video clips of real-life science, or test your newly
acquired knowledge with fun quizzes.
By interacting with science, you can really understand how it works!
Seeing is learning and that’s just a click away… just log on to:

KWWSZZZFKLOGUHQGNRQOLQHFRP

6
 WEB CONNECTIONS
INTERACTIVE ILLUSTRATIONS
Log on and follow the simple instructions to make science spring into action!

ZOOM IN ON A PLANT CELL

Watch the cell spin for a 3D,
360-degree view of all its parts.
Chloroplasts in
Cell membrane the structure of a
Cytoplasm plant cell
Nucleus
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body
Ribosomes
A chloroplast in detail
Then select each component 3 Mitochondria
to see it close up and learn Chloroplasts
Vacuole
about its specific function.
Cell wall

WATCH THE WATER CYCLE WORK

See how a water molecule in the Rio Grande can end up as snow on
the Alps in an interactive demonstration of the water cycle.

4 Watch the stages 4 Test your memory and

of the water cycle fill in the blanks with
appear on screen. the correct definition for
each stage.

4 Zoom in with the magnifying

glass to learn how animals affect
the process of evaporation.

SEE CONTINENTAL DRIFT IN ACTION

Press play and recreate the process whereby Pangea broke
up and the continents moved to where they are today.

225 Million Years Ago 135 Million Years Ago Present

Now that’s active learning!

7
 THE 24 BIG IDEAS OF SCIENCE
Science is the study of everything around us. Yet there is so much around us, how
can we possibly learn everything, and where do we start? No wonder science can
seem overwhelming.
Thankfully, science is not made up of discrete pieces of unrelated information that
we have to learn one by one. In fact, it is built on a backbone of basic principles,
which connect and help explain everything you need to know. Based on a
revolutionary new approach to learning by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe, this
book presents these key concepts as the 24 Big Ideas of Science.
Once you are familiar with these basic ideas, you will find it easier to organize
information so that you don’t feel flooded by random facts.

GENETIC INFORMATION PASSES LIVING THINGS MAINTAIN ATOMS ARE THE BUILDING
FROM PARENTS TO OFFSPRING CONSTANT CONDITIONS INSIDE BLOCKS OF MATTER
THEIR BODIES
LIVING THINGS ARE MADE A NET FORCE CAUSES AN
OF CELLS SCIENTISTS USE SCIENTIFIC OBJECT’S MOTION TO CHANGE
INQUIRY TO EXPLAIN THE
STRUCTURES IN LIVING NATURAL WORLD.
THINGS ARE RELATED TO THEIR ENERGY CAN TAKE DIFFERENT
FUNCTIONS FORMS BUT IS ALWAYS
EARTH IS 4.6 BILLION YEARS CONSERVED
OLD AND THE ROCK RECORD
LIVING THINGS ARE ALIKE YET CONTAINS ITS HISTORY
DIFFERENT MASS AND ENERGY ARE
CONSERVED DURING PHYSICAL
EARTH IS THE WATER PLANET AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
LIVING THINGS GROW, CHANGE,
AND REPRODUCE DURING EARTH IS A CONTINUALLY WAVES TRANSMIT ENERGY
THEIR LIFETIMES CHANGING PLANET
THE UNIVERSE IS VERY OLD,
LIVING THINGS CHANGE OVER EARTH’S LAND, WATER, AIR, VERY LARGE, AND CONSTANTLY
TIME AND LIFE FORM A SYSTEM CHANGING

LIVING THINGS GET AND USE HUMAN ACTIVITIES CAN EARTH IS PART OF A SYSTEM OF
ENERGY CHANGE EARTH’S LAND, OBJECTS THAT ORBIT THE SUN
WATER, AIR, AND LIFE
LIVING THINGS INTERACT WITH SCIENTISTS USE MATHEMATICS
THEIR ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND IN MANY WAYS
SOCIETY AFFECT EACH OTHER

A DNA strand holds genetic

information that is passed from
parents to offspring: Big Idea 1
(see page 12)

8
The book is divided into the three key areas of science: Life, Earth, and

THE 24 BIG IDEAS OF SCIENCE

Physical. However, the Big Ideas show that there are no real boundaries in
knowledge, and that by understanding a big idea in one area of science you
can transfer that understanding to another seemingly unconnected subject.
So, learning about human digestion will help you when you read about how
a coral reef survives, because both subjects link back to Idea 3: Structures in
living things are related to their function.
Life Science

4 You will see that

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

2 DOWN THE TUBE
DIGESTION

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

The food travels down your throat into your esophagus. This
did you
muscular tube pushes the food into your stomach. Here,
muscle contractions churn the food with hydrochloric acid know?
You walk into the kitchen and smell
something delicious. Your mouth starts
and enzymes—substances that speed up chemical reactions.
The enzymes help break down the food. Luckily, a layer of
One of the salivary glands IF YOU STRETCHED OUT THE DIGESTIVE TRACT, IT WOULD
BE ALMOST 30 FEET (ABOUT 9 M) LONG.
each topic is clearly
watering. This fluid, called saliva, contains mucus protects your stomach lining from being digested by
the acid. The food becomes a thick liquid, which the stomach A salivary duct
linked back to the
the first of many chemicals that help your slowly empties into the small intestine.
body carry out the amazing process called Stomach lining Enzymes
Tongue
Big Ideas by the
digestion. When you eat food, your body Hydrochloric Throat (pharynx)
2 BREAKING IT DOWN
takes the nutrients it needs, and gets
Mucus acid
Esophagus Small only in diameter, the small intestine is
actually a twisty tube about 20 feet (about 6 m)
numbers running
rid of everything else. Digestion breaks
down food into smaller molecules that
long. Its first job is to break down food, using
bile—a fluid produced by the liver—and pancreatic
enzymes. Next, the nutrient molecules are
down the side of
can be absorbed into the bloodstream absorbed through the small intestine’s walls and
enter the bloodstream. Millions of tiny fingerlike
each page. So you
and distributed to cells throughout the structures called villi line these walls. By increasing

body. The organs that help digest food,

the surface area, they allow more absorption.
Whatever hasn’t been absorbed—water and
can easily refer back
absorb nutrients, and get rid of waste are
called the digestive system. The system
undigested food—moves into the large intestine.
and see how different
includes the digestive tract, a series of
Liver Villi
topics are connected.
hollow organs that connect to form a long,
twisting, muscular tube. This tube consists
Stomach
One subject often
of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and rectum. The
demonstrates a range
digestive system also relies on three other of scientific principles.
organs that help break down food—the
liver, pancreas, and gall bladder.
Gastric pits in the stomach

49.758 mm
wall secrete acid, enzymes,
The pancreatic duct carries and mucus.
enzymes from the pancreas
to the small intestine.
c
The bile duct carries bile
from the gall bladder to the
small intestine.

ALONG THE WAY 3

After food leaves the stomach, it
Nutrient molecules
travels to the first segment of the
small intestine, called the duodenum.
Here, other substances are added
to the liquid going into the small
g
intestine—bile produced in the liver Small intestine 4 COMING TO AN END
and stored in the gall bladder, plus The large intestine acts like a
enzymes produced in the pancreas. giant sponge, absorbing water
These substances help digest fats, into the bloodstream. Bacteria
Large intestine (colon)
proteins, and starches. digest any remaining food.
Everything else moves into a
short tube at the end of the
large intestine called the rectum.
Duodenum Here, waste is compressed and
Rectum stored until the body gets rid of
Appendix it in a bowel movement.

38 39

Earth Science Physical Science

HOW CORAL REEFS FORM 3 4 BIRTHPLACE OF STARS

CORAL REEFS
BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

CREATING ELEMENTS
Layers of lava and ash Living corals grow at Vegetation grows on
have built up from or near the surface. top of nonliving coral
Coral reefs are formed from the volcanic eruptions. skeletons.
A supernova is essentially the death of a star. It
skeletons of generation after generation blows the outer layers of a star far into space.
Coral reefs are often called “rain forests of the oceans” because of the huge of coral polyps. Most reefs are 5,000 to Its matter mixes with interstellar gases, mostly
10,000 years old. The sedimentary rock
Scientists describe the origin of the universe as a hydrogen, forming a huge cloud of dust and gas
number of sea creatures that live there. The most essential inhabitant in a known as limestone can form from sudden expansion of matter and energy— called a nebula, like the one shown here. Within
coral skeletons that are compacted the nebula, gravity pulls bits and pieces together,
coral reef, however, is the coral. Reefs are formed by corals that live in groups, Mount Otemanu to form rock. People use limestone to
the big bang. Particles formed, and forming new stars. Part of the material forms
rises in the center
called colonies. A coral’s body is a small, round, pouchlike sac called a polyp. of the island. make cement and to neutralize acids. then joined to create some of the planets, such as Earth, whose core is mostly iron.
The bottom of a polyp is attached to a surface, and the top consists of a elements. Three minutes after the
mouth and tentacles. Some polyps are the size of a pinhead, while others did you big bang, most of the hydrogen 1 2

are a foot (about 30 cm) wide. The coral polyp uses calcium from seawater to know ?
ALTHOUGH CORAL REEFS COVER ONLY
that exists today had formed. It H
Hydrogen
Along with hydrogen, elements shown
in green and blue, to the right of
the metalloids, are nonmetals. Their
He
Helium
make a hard limestone cup to live in. After the coral dies, other corals build 0.2 PERCENT OF THE OCEAN FLOOR, THEY took a while longer to make helium properties are very different from those
of the metals.
CONTAIN MORE THAN 25 PERCENT OF ALL
their homes on top of it. Millions of hard cups together form a coral reef. MARINE LIFE! and traces of lithium—maybe
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Corals grow in water Hydrogen is the
35 minutes or so. The rest of the
that is warm, salty,
shallow, and clear.
Li Be lightest and most
abundant element in
The metalloids (light green) B C N O F Ne
elements were formed in the stars. Lithium Beryllium
the universe. It is the
share properties with
metals and nonmetals.
Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
only element on the
Elements are made in the stars left side of the table
that is not a metal.
through nuclear fusion, which is the 11 12 Most of the elements are metals. 13 14 15 16 17 18

formation of heavier elements from Na Mg There are 24 nonmetals and

metalloids. All the other elements,
Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magne- from the left-most column (except Aluminum Silicon Phos- Sulfur Chlorine Argon
lighter ones. As a star burns its fuel, sium
hydrogen) to the elements shown
phorus
in light blue, are metals.
gravity pulls its material inward and
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

4 Each chapter
it gets hotter—hundreds of millions
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
of degrees hotter. Then, atoms Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manga-
nese
Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germa-
nium
Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton

collide and fuse to make the heavier

elements. It takes the intense heat 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

of supernovas to make elements Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

is colour coded
An edge of the reef
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molyb- Tech- Ruthe- Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
A SOUTH PACIFIC REEF 3 heavier than iron. A supernova is an denum netium nium

This coral reef near the island explosion of a huge star. The pieces
of Bora Bora formed when coral 55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
flung out in this explosion come
larvae attached themselves to Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
the submerged edges of an together to create new stars and Cesium Barium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
island volcano. Over time, the
reef grew outward and upward planets. That’s how elements that
and formed what is called an formed in the stars came to exist on 87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111
atoll, a ringed reef around the
island. Atolls, along with other Earth. Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg The metals beneath this line are two groups of
chemically similar elements. They are almost always
Francium Radium Lawren- Ruther- Dubnium Sea- Bohrium Hassium Meit- Darmstadt- Roent-
types of reefs, need warm water cium fordium borgium nerium ium genium set apart so that the table will fit across a page.
and sunlight to grow.
THE PERIODIC TABLE 3
The periodic table is a tool that people use to KEY TO ELEMENT COLORS
organize the elements. Each element has a unique 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
identity, determined by the number of protons Alkali metals
in its nucleus—called its atomic number. Atomic La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Alkaline earth metals
1 COLORFUL CORALS numbers increase from left to right in each row.
Lan-
thanum
Cerium Praseo-
dymium
Neo-
dymium
Prome-
thium
Samarium Europium Gado-
linium
Terbium Dyspro-
sium
Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium
Transition metals
Inside a coral polyp lives a The elements in the same column have similar Lanthanides
special kind of one-celled algae. chemical and physical properties. The table shows Actinides
The algae use photosynthesis to each element’s symbol, which is a one- or two-
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 Metals in mixed groups
make nutrients, which the coral
shares. The coral, in turn, provides a
letter abbreviation. Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Metalloids
Actinium Thorium Protac- Uranium Neptu- Plutonium Amer- Curium Berkelium Califor- Einstein- Fermium Mende- Nobelium Nonmetals
safe place for the algae to live. These tinium nium icium nium ium levium Noble gases
algae give corals their color. If the algae die, An atoll is a circular ring of
the corals turn white, a process called coral coral reef that surrounds a
volcanic island. did you
know?
bleaching. Disease, pollution, and increased MORE THAN 40 ELEMENTS ARE FOUND IN THE HUMAN BODY, BUT CARBON, OXYGEN,
water temperature can all cause coral bleaching. HYDROGEN, AND NITROGEN MAKE UP 96 PERCENT OF OUR CELLS.

142 143 232 233

Why do tigers have stripes? (see page 71)

What makes a rainbow arc-shaped? (see page 176)
How does sound travel? (see page 222)

You can explore the Big Ideas by asking questions. Questioning is

the beginning of scientific investigation. An inquisitive mind is a
scientific mind. The more you know, the more you will want to know,
and the more questions you will have. To keep questioning is the key
to understanding our world. With this book, you will see that from
a simple question, you can learn a lot, and that the 24 Big Ideas can
help you to link and bring meaning to what you have learned.

9
10
LIFE

LIFE SCIENCES
SCIENCES
Life science is the study of living
things, but how do we define “life”?
It’s not as simple as you might think.
But life scientists have devised a list
of characteristics that distinguish all
living things: they are made of cells;
maintain constant internal conditions;
respond and adapt to their environment;
take in and use energy; get rid of
waste; grow, develop, reproduce, and
pass on traits. Therefore, life science
encompasses a vast array of topics,
ranging from the simple cell, to
cutting-edge medicine, animal behavior,
GM crops, and the complexities of
the human brain. As different as they
might seem, all life forms, from microbes
to mammals, plants to parasites, start
out with a cell that holds hereditary
information (DNA).

11
 DNA CONNECTIONS
Did you realize that a fish is related to a banana tree? In fact, all living
things on Earth—people, zebras, yeast, and plants—are related and share a
fundamental structure of life: DNA. DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid,
is a large molecule that carries the information an organism needs to grow
and develop. Simple one-celled organisms have DNA, and multicelled
organisms, such as animals, plants, and fungi, have DNA. By
comparing the DNA of two different species, scientists can
estimate how closely they are related. In general,
closely related species have more DNA in
common than distantly related species.
Organisms of the same species hardly
differ in their DNA at all. For example,
your DNA is 99.9 percent identical to
the person next to you and to all
humans on Earth.

DNA COUSINS 3
Scientists can sometimes use
DNA to estimate how closely
related different species
are. Scientists can compare
the DNA sequence—the
arrangement of the DNA
components—of two
species. In general,
the more differences
there are between the
sequences, the more
time has passed
since these two species
shared a common ancestor.
For instance, chimpanzees
and orangutans share about
97 percent of their DNA
sequence. This means that they
are very closely related.

Ninety percent of DNA

sequences that cause disease
in humans are the same
in mice, explaining their
popularity in disease research.

12
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Cytosine

Phosphate/sugar Adenine
band

Chemical bridge

Guanine

Thymine

2 CLOSER THAN YOU THINK

This orangutan and his apple look as if they have nothing in
common. The apple is a plant, while the orangutan is an animal. The 1 STRUCTURE OF DNA
apple has a waxy covering, and the orangutan has skin covered in The shape of a DNA strand is like a spiraling ladder.
fur. But despite the differences in appearance, both the apple and Look at the model above. Along the sides, you can see
the orangutan were built from instructions coded in DNA. Their the chain of sugar and phosphate molecules that make
DNA, and the DNA of every other living thing, is composed of up the backbone of the ladder. The rungs of the ladder
the same four chemicals: A, G, C, and T. are formed by chemicals called bases. The four bases
Those four chemicals are all that is found in DNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine
needed to produce living things (C), and thymine (T). A single base sticks out from the
as different as an apple and backbone and forms a chemical bond with the base
an orangutan, bacteria directly across from it. These two bonded bases are called
and mushrooms, an a base pair. Adenine always pairs with thymine, and
oak tree and a cytosine always pairs with guanine.
bumblebee.

BLUE ZEBRA CICHLID 1

Over time, small changes to DNA,
called mutations, can occur. The more
time that passes, the more mutations
can happen. These mutations can
result in new species forming. This
blue zebra cichlid is one of 2,000
species of cichlids that has evolved in
the last 10,000 years. That amounts
to about one new species every five
years—one of the fastest evolutionary
waves on record.

did you
know?
HUMANS CARRY THE DNA SEQUENCE FOR
A TAIL! BUT DURING EARLY DEVELOPMENT,
ANOTHER SEQUENCE OVERRIDES IT.

13
 DNA EVIDENCE
How can scientists use genetic information to identify a criminal
suspect? The answer lies in our DNA. Every person’s DNA—short for
deoxyribonucleic acid—is 99.9 percent the same. It is the 0.1 percent
difference that can help solve crimes. Crime investigators look at
13 regions of human DNA. These areas have a great deal of variation.
When DNA from a crime scene and DNA from a suspect match all 13
regions, the probability that they are from the same person is almost
100 percent. It takes only one difference in one region to
prove they are not from the same person. People
imprisoned before DNA evidence WHOSE BLOOD? 3
was available have been proven An individual’s DNA is the same in
every cell, including blood cells. If
innocent and released because of scientists collect the DNA from blood
at a crime scene, they can use the
that difference. particular arrangement of molecules,
called DNA sequences, to identify a
criminal or a victim. Even if no one saw
Loose scales of skin the crime, the DNA might be able to
Human hair around the follicle tell police who was involved.
Human skin

1 EVEN HAIR HAS DNA

Criminal cases have been solved by DNA
analysis of saliva on cigarettes, stamps,
cups, or mouth openings on ski masks used
in a crime. Even a single hair, without the
follicle, can reveal information. The DNA in
hair, bones, and teeth comes from a cell’s
mitochondria rather than from its nucleus. The
DNA that is in the mitochondria, unlike the
DNA that is in the nucleus, does not contain
all of the information, because it is inherited
only from the mother. However, it lasts longer,
so it is often used in older unsolved “cold”
cases. It can be used to exclude a suspect, but
HAIR FOLLICLE 1 not to convict one.
DNA is found in the sac, called a hair follicle, where a hair attaches
to the body, as well as in skin, bone, teeth, saliva, sweat, earwax, and
even dandruff!

14
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Heat, moisture,
sunlight, bacteria,
and mold can affect
DNA enough to
make it unusable.

These bands show

the distinctive
pattern of an
individual’s DNA.

DNA PROFILING
U.S. laboratories
DNA identification is based on test hundreds of
probabilities. The probability that thousands of DNA
DNA from two individuals matches sequences each year.
Here is a magnified
in one region is about 1 in 10 view of a DNA
(1/10). The probability of a match sequence.
in two regions is 1/10 x 1/10, or 1
in 100 (1/100), and so on. So, for
example, the probability that your
DNA matches someone else’s in
all 13 regions is 1 in ten trillion
(1/10,000,000,000,000).

did you
know?
SCIENTISTS USUALLY NEED ONLY A FEW
CELLS TO COMPLETE A DNA PROFILE.

15
 HUMAN GENOME
Scientists have put together a puzzle that has more than 3 billion pieces. The
puzzle is called the human genome, a full set of all the genetic information in
human DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Scientists already knew certain things
about the puzzle when they began the Human Genome Project in 1989.
They knew where to find DNA—in the nucleus of each human cell, on the
structures called chromosomes. They knew what DNA looks like—a twisted
ladder, with rungs made of four different chemicals, called nitrogen bases.
They learned that DNA can be divided into 20,000 to 25,000 sections, each
of which is called a gene. One gene might be made up of anywhere from
thousands to millions of bases. To complete the puzzle, scientists had to learn
the order, or sequence, of every one of the 3 billion bases. Different groups of
scientists have worked on the puzzle, one finishing it in 2001 and another in
2003, and published the sequence of the basic human genome. The challenge
now is to find out which human traits, structures, and diseases are influenced
by which parts of our amazing genome.

READING FRAGMENTS OF DNA 3

DNA sequencing that used to take years
is now a much faster, automated process.
Multiple fragments of DNA can be
analyzed at one time. The process includes
many steps between extracting the DNA
from a cell and analyzing its sequence of
bases. Liquid containing DNA is inserted
into a thick gel, and in a process called
electrophoresis, electricity is used to sort
the fragments of DNA. The gel is then
viewed on a lightbox that uses ultraviolet
light (shown to the right). A computer
analyzes the DNA sequence, identifying
the order in which the four bases occur.

4 SPELL CAT, TAG, ACT

The four nitrogen bases in DNA are adenine,
thymine, guanine, and cytosine, which are
referred to as A, T, G, and C. This computer
printout shows the sequence in which
they occur in a fragment of DNA. Every
human gene has a particular sequence
of bases. Some sequences tell a cell
to make a particular type of protein.
Others do not code for protein, and
scientists are still analyzing their
purpose. Scientists are working
to understand how one DNA
sequence translates into a
protein found in a brain tumor,
while another translates into
a protein found in a healthy
brain cell.

16
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

did you
know?
THE LARGEST KNOWN HUMAN GENE HAS 2,400,000 BASES.
MISSING OR DUPLICATED BASES IN THIS GENE CAN CAUSE THE
MUSCLE-WEAKENING DISEASES CALLED MUSCULAR DYSTROPHIES.

17
 CELL DIVISION
A person, an elephant, and a snake look very different from one
another. Yet all three begin life as a single cell. So how does that
cell become an adult elephant, with trillions of cells? It all starts
with cell division. The first cell splits into two cells, two cells
split into four, four cells split into eight, and so on. After three
days, the cluster of cells, called the elephant embryo, consists of
approximately 30 cells—called embryonic stem cells. These stem
cells have the amazing ability to become any type of cell in the
body—blood cells, brain cells, heart muscle cells, bone cells,
or even hair cells in the inner ear! As the elephant’s stem cells
continue to divide, they become the different types of cells that
together make an elephant.

Red blood cell

Before a cell splits, it The nucleus of the cell

makes a copy of its splits, and the original and
genetic information, duplicate DNA move to
or DNA. opposite ends of the cell.

A cell membrane Each new cell now has

begins to form around one copy of the genetic
each nucleus as the cell information.
pulls apart.

1 SPLITTING UP
Cell division helps organisms grow
larger—from a single cell into a
12,000-pound (5,443-kg) adult
elephant, for example. Cells also
divide to repair and replace parts
of the body. The cells on the edge
of a cut divide to form new skin.
Dead skin cells are constantly being
replaced by newly divided cells. Some
other adult cells, such as nerve cells,
do not divide as often.

18
 4 WHAT KIND OF CELL

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

WILL I BE?
Once an elephant—or a person—
becomes an adult, it has fewer
stem cells. It does have some,
though, called adult stem cells. In
the bone marrow, for example,
stem cells keep dividing to
replace old cells. These stem cells
can become red or white blood
cells or platelets, each of which
has a different job. The organism’s
DNA and signals throughout the
body determine what type of cell
each stem cell should become.

A lymphocyte, a type of white blood

cell, targets infections and cancers.

did you
know?
STEM CELLS IN AN AVERAGE ADULT’S BONE MARROW
GENERATE ABOUT 610 BILLION BLOOD CELLS PER DAY!

Inner hair cells

transmit signals to
the brain.

Outer hair cells

receive vibrations.

Nerve fiber

This platelet will

clump with other
platelets to help
blood clot when we
cut ourselves.

White blood cells HAIR FOR HEARING 1

destroy harmful Inside a mammal’s inner ear is a chamber, called the
foreign organisms. cochlea, where sensory cells, called hair cells because
This neutrophil,
the most common of their tiny hairlike projections, help transmit sound.
type of white blood Damage to these hairs causes hearing loss. Researchers
cell, targets harmful are exploring ways to grow stem cells that may generate
bacteria.
new hair cells.

19
 MUTATIONS
Why do some people have brown hair and some people have red hair? The
simple answer is genes. Genes, regions of a person’s chromosomes, direct
cells to produce specific proteins. These proteins help determine the physical
traits of a person or any other living thing. But even though cells and cellular
processes are pretty amazing, they are not always perfect. Sometimes a change
in the DNA of a gene, called a mutation, can occur and cause a cell to make an
incorrect protein. Since proteins affect an organism’s physical traits, mutations
in the genes that make these proteins can alter an organism’s traits. Red hair,
with its accompanying freckles and light-colored skin, is a mutation. So is a
genetic disorder such as Type 1 diabetes. Mutations can be helpful, harmful, or
neither. Mutations contribute to the astonishing diversity of living things.

4 FIVE-LEGGED SHEEP
Although it seems rare, there have been
cases all over the world of animals born
with extra limbs. The mutation of a gene
involved in limb development can cause
extra limbs to form. Depending on the
situation, many of these animals can
live happily. This five-legged sheep was
born in 2002 in the Netherlands. Her
owner said she was able to live with her
extra limb without problems. A lamb in
New Zealand was born with seven legs.
It unfortunately was unable to survive
because of other health issues.

WHITE TIGER 3
White tigers can be born when both parents carry a
recessive gene for the white color. The majority of white
tigers are found in captivity. They are at a disadvantage in
the wild and, therefore, are very rare there. Orange and
black tigers can hide in the jungle. It’s more difficult than
you would think to spot a tiger among jungle plants. But a
white tiger is much more visible, making hunting without
being seen difficult.

White tigers have lighter

did you
know?
MANY ZOOLOGISTS BELIEVE THAT ALL WHITE TIGERS IN THE
colored fur. Their stripes are
brown or black.

UNITED STATES ARE THE DESCENDANTS OF A SINGLE WHITE TIGER.

20
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
White tigers usually have blue eyes,
while typical tigers have yellow eyes.

BLUE LOBSTER 1
If you could pick what color lobster
you’d like to be, you might want
to choose blue. A blue lobster’s
color is the result of a mutation
that causes excess production of a
certain protein. These lobsters are
rare, and when they’re caught, they
most often end up in zoos and
aquariums instead of a cooking
pot. In this case, the mutation is
definitely a good thing.

21
 FRANKENFOODS
The fictional character, Victor Frankenstein, was obsessed with creating life.
He used old body parts to build a creature. After he brought the creature to
life, he was horrified by what he had made—a monster. Should people create
new types of food crops, or is there a danger of creating “Frankenfoods”?
Opponents of altering the genetic material of food crops use this nickname for
genetically modified organisms, called GMOs or transgenic crops. They point
out that GMOs may have unanticipated, harmful characteristics and effects.
However, GMO supporters argue that transgenic crops can have positive
characteristics, such as resistance to insects or higher vitamin content. Farmers
long ago figured out how to selectively breed plants, called hybrids, that have
the best characteristics of the parent plants. GMOs, on the other hand, are
created by inserting the genetic material of one
individual into that of another. There is a great
deal of debate over the pros and cons of
GMOs. Many questions remain about their
safety for humans, their effect on unmodified
crops, and the rules that will govern their use.

RICE 2
Billions of people in Asia depend on rice as their main source of calories.
Some rice now on the market has been genetically modified to contain more
vitamin A (beta carotene), iron, and zinc. Vitamin A deficiency can cause
malnutrition and blindness. One type of rice was developed using genes
from daffodils and bacteria. Is it safe to eat this rice? In the short term, it
appears that GMOs are safe. However, people have not been eating GMOs
long enough for us to know whether there are any long-term effects.

22
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you
know?
ABOUT 80 PERCENT OF THE CORN PLANTED
IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2008 WAS FROM
GENETICALLY MODIFIED SEED.

CORN 2
Genes used to create GMOs may come from different
types of organisms. For example, some insect-resistant corn
has genetic material from a type of bacteria. Pollen from
this corn has blown over the U.S. border or been planted
by farmers in Mexico, where planting most GMO corn is
banned. GMO opponents do not want this altered corn to
breed with the native varieties of corn that grow in Mexico.

Although commercially
grown strawberries
The corn earworm are larger than these
is the most serious wild Alpine ones, they
sweet-corn pest, typically do not have
feeding directly on their intense flavor.
corn kernels.

STRAWBERRIES 1
Many opponents of GMO foods
point out that plants can be bred
to have certain traits over time,
using traditional selective breeding
techniques. Sometimes this happens
naturally. Commercial strawberries
that we eat today are a hybrid of two
different strawberry plants that bred
accidentally in Europe in the mid-
1700s. These strawberries, larger than
those of the parent plants, are now
raised all over the world.
TOMATOES 1
The first genetically modified tomatoes
came onto the market in 1994. They were When a cotton boll is
engineered so that they did not produce mature, it bursts open
to show the fluffy white
an enzyme that caused them to rot. This seed fibers.
modification helped them stay fresh longer.
However, they also contained genes that
made them resistant to antibiotics. After
doctors voiced concern that these genes
could be transferred to bacteria in the
human gut, these tomatoes were taken off
the market.

4 SOYBEANS
Nearly all soybeans produced in the United
States come from genetically modified
seeds. They are designed to be resistant
to herbicides that are used to kill weeds.
However, in 2009, more farmers began COTTON 1
planting non-genetically modified soybeans Cotton has been genetically modified to resist
again because the price of GMO seeds had pests. The bollworm is an insect that can do
become too high. extensive damage to cotton crops.

23
 BRAIN POWER Frontal lobe:
speech, thought,
For nearly everything you do, a part of your brain is in charge. emotion, and
skilled movements
The brainstem controls your most basic functions—heartbeat,
breathing, digestion. The brainstem also relays messages into and
out of other parts of your brain. When you feel the warmth of a
campfire, the sensation travels through nerves from your skin to
your spinal cord and into your brainstem. You move toward the
fire—the command to move went from your cerebellum through
your brainstem and out to your muscles. You reach out to the
fire—ouch! But by the time the pain signal gets to your thalamus
Language
and it tells the gray matter of your brain that your hand is getting comprehension
area
too warm, your hand is already pulling away. That’s because a few
messages are too urgent to wait. As soon as the news “Too hot to
handle!” reaches your spinal cord,“Get out, NOW!” starts back Optic nerve

toward your hand. Pulling back is what’s called a reflex action,

which travels from your hand to your spinal cord and back to
your hand, without going through your brain. And saying “ouch”?
Thank the speech area of your brain. Eyeball

RIGHT IS LEFT, LEFT IS RIGHT 2

The brain is divided into two halves, called hemispheres. Although
the two sides of the brain look symmetrical—the same on both
sides—they handle different tasks. While you read these words,
your left brain works more. Or at least that’s the case for almost
all right-handed people. About 40 percent of left-handed people
use either the right hemisphere or the whole brain for language.
The right brain appears to be more involved in visual recognition
of people and objects.

Left brain
Right brain

Gray matter,
or cerebral
cortex
Thalamus

Cerebellum

Brainstem

24
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Parietal lobe: touch,
temperature, and pain

Cerebral
cortex
Sensory area 4 A PEEK INSIDE
Scientists use technology
Motor
function called functional magnetic
area resonance imaging, or fMRI,
to watch brains at work as
people complete certain
tasks. Some surprises have
surfaced. For example,
when driving a car, both
the occipital lobe and
the parietal lobe work
hard to allow you to
Thalamus: Auditory see what’s coming and
translation of area react to it. But when
nerve signals
you talk on a cellphone
Speech
ability area (even a hands-free
cellphone), your brain
diverts energy to the
other areas of your
brain involved with
listening and speaking.
Less brain energy
is available for the
parietal and occipital
lobes, and your ability
to see and react to
road conditions is
diminished.
Cerebellum:
coordination
of movement, Occipital lobe:
balance sight and image
recognition
Brainstem:
where
spinal
cord
joins
the brain

Temporal lobe:
short term
memory and
equilibrium

did you
know?
WHEN YOU TRY TO REMEMBER AN EVENT, YOUR BRAIN ACTIVATES THE
SAME AREAS OF THE BRAIN THAT WERE ACTIVE DURING THE EVENT.

25
 LEFT VS. RIGHT BRAIN
Your cerebrum is made up of a left and a right hemisphere. The two hemispheres are
connected by a bundle of nerve fibers. The two sides work together to control just
about everything you do. Research about the particular capabilities of each side of
the brain constantly yields new information. We know that movement of one side of
the body is generally controlled by the opposite hemisphere. For example, the left
brain controls the right hand. For most people, the right hand is dominant, so their
left hemisphere is sometimes considered dominant. The dominant hemisphere
is also the usual location for processing language. Almost all right-handed
people process language in the left brain. But 60 percent of left-handed and
ambidextrous (can use both hands equally well) people also process language Right hemisphere
of cerebrum
in the left brain, with the rest processing in the right brain
or in both hemispheres. The right brain appears
to be more involved in processing spatial
information and recognizing faces.

STUDY SKILLS 1
Different study skills tend to use different
hemispheres of your brain. Making lists
and classifying are considered left brain
tasks. Stepping back to see “the big picture”
is considered a right brain function.

Vertebrae protect the

spinal cord. Cerebellum

1 EMOTION AND MEMORY

Some scientists say that the
left brain controls routine
tasks, while the right brain
responds to emergencies and
emotions. Emotions involve
many parts of the brain. Some
of these brain parts are in
both hemispheres of the
brain. The thalamus relays
sensory information. The
CALCULATIONS 1 Peripheral amygdala is involved in
Scientists think we use the left side of our brains nerves emotional reactions and,
more when we try to solve mathematical equations. extend along with the hippocampus,
through the
The left hemisphere seems to be dominant for whole body. the development and recall
math and logic. of memories.

26
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
4 HEARING MUSIC
Music activates both
sides of the brain. The
left brain seems to
process rapid changes
in frequency and
intensity. The right side
seems to perceive pitch
and melody.
DRAWING A FACE 1
The right hemisphere of this artist’s brain may help in both
visualizing the face to be drawn and focusing on developing the
many parts of the picture at once. Left hemisphere
of cerebrum

did you
know?
MUCH OF WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE BRAIN HEMISPHERES
HAS COME FROM PEOPLE WHOSE SEVERE SEIZURES WERE
STOPPED BY SURGICALLY REMOVING THE CONNECTION
BETWEEN THE TWO HALVES OF THEIR BRAINS.

Hypothalamus Thalamus

Hippocampus

Brainstem

Amygdala Cerebellum

CROSSING OVER 1
The anatomy of the two
sides of the central nervous
system mirror each other
in most aspects. Located in
the center of the vertebrae,
the spinal cord transmits
signals received from nerves
throughout the body to the
Spinal cord brainstem. The brainstem
transmits signals to the
brain. Some fibers on the
right side of the brainstem
cross over to the left side of
the brain and vice versa.

27
 HYPOTHALAMUS
Near the base of your brain lies a group of specialized cells did you
called the hypothalamus. It controls the autonomic nervous know?
IN SPITE OF ALL IT DOES, THE HYPOTHALAMUS IS
system, which regulates breathing, blood pressure, and heart ABOUT THE SIZE OF AN ALMOND!
rate. The hypothalamus also releases chemicals that travel
to the pituitary gland to stimulate or suppress the release of
hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate
and coordinate processes in the body. Pituitary hormones THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system works with
influence growth, sexual development, and metabolism. Parts the nervous system to keep the body
of the hypothalamus regulate blood sugar levels, sleep cycles, functioning properly. The body’s glands
and hormones form the foundation of the
thirst, hunger, 24-hour rhythms, energy levels, and emotions. endocrine system, which also includes
The hypothalamus also controls body temperature. When the the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pineal,
and adrenal glands, and the gonads. The
body temperature is too high or too low, the hypothalamus hypothalamus links the two systems.
sends out signals to adjust the temperature. If you are too Problems in the endocrine system can
lead to diseases and disorders such as
hot, for example, the hypothalamus sends signals that cause diabetes, osteoporosis (decreased bone
mass), and growth and development
the capillaries in your body to expand. Expanded capillaries problems.
help your blood cool itself faster and can make your face
look flushed.

THE PITUITARY GLAND 2

Just below the hypothalamus is the pituitary gland, a pea-size gland
that controls hormone production. The release of pituitary hormones
can be influenced by your emotions or by changes in the season. The
hypothalamus senses environmental temperature, daylight patterns, and
feelings. It sends this information to the pituitary, which may cause the
pituitary to release more or fewer hormones. The pituitary can produce
chemicals that elevate mood and reduce feelings of pain.

Thalamus

Cerebrum

Hypothalamus

Cerebellum Pituitary gland

Spinal cord

28
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Bao Xishun, one of the
tallest men on record, grew
normally until he was 16.
Large growth spurts brought
him to his present height of
7 feet 8.95 inches (2.36 m) by
age 23.

GROWTH SPURT 1
Puberty-related body development occurs in girls between ages 10 and 14 and boys
between ages 12 and 16. The boys above are all 13 or 14 years old. The hypothalamus
signals the pituitary gland to release growth hormones. These hormones control sexual
development, growth spurts, 24-hour rhythms, and the menstrual cycle.

He Pingping, the shortest

man on record at 2 feet 5.37
inches (74.59 cm), suffers from
osteogenesis imperfecta, a
genetic disorder that causes
brittle bones and short stature,
among other symptoms.

29
 ALS
Patients with ALS, or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,
may feel like prisoners in their own bodies. Yet,
with help, some survive for decades to live very full
lives. ALS is a disease that results from the gradual
weakening of the nerves, called motor neurons, that
control muscle movement. When the nerves stop
working, the muscles they control get weaker and
thinner. People with ALS slowly lose control of
their arms, legs, and even the muscles that allow LIFE WITH ALS 1
Stephen Hawking, a famous British theoretical
them to speak. They eventually become paralyzed. physicist, has lived with ALS for over 40 years. He was
Thankfully, they usually keep their ability to think, diagnosed when he was 21, after noticing that he had
become clumsy. Over time, he became dependent on a
sense, or understand the world around them. wheelchair and had to use a speech synthesizer to speak.
Scientists do not know what causes ALS. Some With help from his wife, children, nurses, assistants, and
technology, he has written important research papers
forms of the disease can be inherited. Viruses or and best-selling books, given many lectures, appeared in
environmental toxins may play a role as well. ALS is movies and television, and has even been in space.

also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease, after a famous

American baseball player who had the disease. did you
know?
MOTOR NEURONS CAN BE MORE THAN 3 FEET
LONG. THE LONGEST ONE RUNS FROM YOUR
LOWER SPINE TO YOUR BIG TOE.

Motor cortex

For many people with

ALS, the nerves that
control eye movement
are not affected.

Spinal cord

4 THE BRAIN
Nerve signals that control movement
start in the brain. The part of the brain
that controls most of the body’s planned
movements is called the motor cortex. The
nerve cells in the motor cortex connect to
Bundles of motor neurons and
other nerve cells nerve cells in the spinal cord. Nerve cells
that carry signals to muscles are called
motor neurons.

30
 2 MOTOR NEURON

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

A motor neuron is made up of a cell
body, several short arms called dendrites,
and one long arm called an axon. The
cell body and dendrites receive incoming
signals. The axon sends out signals. A
signal is a moving electrical charge that
Direction travels from cell to cell.
of signal

AXON
An axon carries
a signal away from a
neuron. In this model,
the arms with knobby
ends—such as the one
numbered 1—are the tips
of axons from other neurons,
carrying incoming signals to this
4 motor neuron. The signal is traveling
in the direction of the arrows.

SYNAPSE
The place where the knobby end passes
a signal to this motor neuron is
called a synapse. The signal
2 has to cross the gap at the
synapse to get from one
neuron to another.

CELL BODY
3
The thickest part of the cell is
called the cell body, where the
5 nucleus is located. From there,
the signal travels out on this
neuron’s axon to move a muscle.

MYELIN
Flat cells wrap around axons the
way a bandage is wrapped around
a finger. They form a material called
myelin. Myelin acts as the insulation
in an electrical wire does, keeping
nerve signals strong over long
distances.

DENDRITE
The spokelike
dendrites deliver
incoming signals from
other nerve cells.

31
 SKELETONS
What words would you use to describe the word bone? Strong? Solid? Dead?
If you said strong, you are right. Bones contain a fibrous protein called
collagen that is combined with minerals such as calcium and phosphate. This
nonliving material makes bones very strong and flexible. Solid? No. Most
bones are made up of two types of bone: compact bone and spongy bone.
While compact bone is very dense and firm, spongy bone is filled
with small spaces that contain bone marrow. Dead? Definitely
not. Most adult animals’ bones contain a small percentage
of living cells. Osteogenic cells, or bone stem cells, produce
osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts make new bone
tissue and eventually become osteocytes, which keep bone
tissue healthy. Osteoclasts destroy damaged bone tissue, a
necessary part of the bone repair process. Together, these
cells allow bones to grow and to heal after injuries.

HUMAN SKELTON 3
The adult human skeleton is made up of 206 bones. The
longest is the femur, or thigh bone. It is about one quarter
of a person’s height. The smallest, which is the stapes in the
middle ear, is only a tenth of an inch (about 2.5 mm) long.
However, when you are born, you have almost 300 bones.
Some are made of cartilage, a strong, flexible tissue. Others
are partly made of cartilage. Over time, these grow together
and become the 206 bones in an adult.

Osteocyte Spongy bone

Compact bone

COMPACT BONE TISSUE 1

Compact bone is made up of densely
packed nonliving material that runs the
length of the bone. Osteocytes are the cells
that maintain the nonliving bone material
by recycling calcium salts and assisting in
repairs. They are located in small holes in
the compact bone. Femur

32
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
This fish’s fin is
supported by long
thin bones called
rays. Fins help a did you
fish move and stay
upright. know?
WEIGHT-BEARING EXERCISE—WALKING,
RUNNING, DANCING, JUMPING, LIFTING—
INCREASES BONE STRENGTH IN CHILDREN,
ADOLESCENTS, AND ADULTS, INCLUDING
THE ELDERLY.

Skull

Ribs
A monitor lizard’s
tail has many joints,
which allow it to be
lashed like a thick
whip.

Backbone or spine While humans have

a tibia and fibula
in their lower legs,
frogs have one bone,
called a tibiofibula.

VERTEBRATE SKELETONS 3
As you can see, each of these vertebrate skeletons has
a backbone, skull, and ribs. These bones, along with the
rest of each skeleton, perform several essential functions:
they provide support for the animal’s body and allow it
to move easily; they protect critical internal organs such
as the brain and heart; they have places for muscles to
attach; and blood cells form in some of them. Finally,
bones store most of the body’s supply of calcium and
phosphorus, which are released as needed.

Birds eat with bills,

extensions of the skull
bone that are covered with
keratin, the same material
found in fingernails.

The radius (the

thinner bone) and
The strong muscles for ulna are two of the
flight attach to a bird’s keel, bones a bird uses
which is an extension of the to fly. Like a bird’s
breastbone. other bones, they are
hollow and strong.

33
 BLOOD TYPES
Bags of blood? These bags may seem like
props for a horror movie, but they actually
save lives. Every two and a half seconds,
someone in the world donates a pint
(0.5 L) of blood. During donation, a nurse
sticks a needle into a vein in the donor’s
arm, sending blood through a tube
and into a bag. The blood is tested,
and if it is free of disease, it becomes
part of a blood bank. It may save a
premature baby or a car crash victim.
If someone needs blood, a bag of Donation:
People can
blood is connected through a tube Donation: Blood receive
into a patient’s vein. The donor blood donation is safe. The transfusions
average adult body only of
flows into the patient; this is called a contains about 10 pints human
transfusion. The donor and patient are (5 L) of blood. A healthy blood.
donor’s body will replace
strangers, but they have one thing in the blood cells lost from
common: their blood type. a donation within weeks.

Parts: Blood banks Parts: About 55%

separate donor whole of blood is plasma,
blood into its parts: a yellow liquid
red blood cells, white Parts: Less than 1% containing mostly
Parts: About 45% of water. Dissolved
blood cells, plasma, and of blood is made up
whole blood is made up in the plasma
platelets. Patients usually of white blood cells,
of red blood cells, which are vitamins,
need only a single blood which attack germs.
carry oxygen. If you do hormones, and
component instead of White blood cells float
not have enough healthy some minerals.
whole blood. in plasma and can race
red blood cells, you may
to wherever they are
feel tired due to a lack of
needed.
oxygen.

34
 did you
know?

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

A RED BLOOD CELL TRAVELS OVER 300 MILES (480 KM) THROUGH
BLOOD VESSELS BEFORE IT DIES.

Antigens: Type A blood

has A antigens on its red Antigens: The antigens
Antigens: Antigens blood cells; type B blood in blood will make
are chemical molecules has B antigens; type AB antibodies, which
that sit on the surface blood has both; and type attack a different
of red blood cells. Two O blood has neither. antigen. Type A
antigens, A and B, antibodies will attack
are the basis for the type B blood, and type
commonly used ABO B antibodies will attack
system of blood typing. type A blood.

Types: People have

different color eyes and
hair. These are traits Types: If one of your
you can see. People parents has type A or
Parts: Platelets also also have many genetic B and the other has
float around in your characteristics you type O, you could be
plasma. Platelets cannot see, such as blood either type A, B, or O.
are sticky and help type. You can have blood
clot blood. Without type A, B, AB, or O.
platelets, you could
bleed to death.

35
 HEARTBEAT
Did you ever wonder what makes your heart beat? Like
a pump in a machine, the heart squeezes and relaxes
based on the careful timing of electrical signals. As the
upper chambers of the heart—the atria—fill with blood,
a mass of tissue called the sinoatrial node (sometimes
called the “natural pacemaker ”) in the upper right part
of the heart sends electrical signals to the heart muscle
in the atria to tighten, or contract, and then relax. PACEMAKER 3
If the heart’s natural pacemaker, the sinoatrial
Once the atria contract, the electrical signal travels to a node, is not working properly, the heart may
second node called the atrioventricular node. This tissue beat too fast or too slow. This condition, called
arrhythmia, can be treated with an electronic
transmits the signal farther. The muscles of the heart’s pacemaker. This X-ray shows a pacemaker that
has been surgically implanted. The pacemaker
lower chambers—the ventricles—are then signaled to can sense when the heart is beating
contract and then relax. This timed series of contracting irregularly. If that happens, the pacemaker
generates an electrical signal that returns the
and relaxing of heart muscle pumps blood through the heart to a healthy rhythm.
circulatory system.
The aorta carries blood
to the body. The pulmonary
The left artery carries blood
Oxygen-poor Oxygen-rich atrium to the lungs.
blood enters blood enters contracts.
the right the left The pulmonary
atrium. atrium. valve opens.

Right atrium Left

atrium Tricuspid Tricuspid The
valve valve aortic
closes. valve
opens.
Right Left
ventricle Mitral
ventricle valve The
The right mitral
atrium opens.
valve
contracts, the closes.
tricuspid valve The right
opens, and the right ventricle
ventricle relaxes. contracts.
The left The left
ventricle ventricle
relaxes. contracts.
THE FLOW OF BLOOD 1
When the atria relax, they fill with blood from the body. As
they contract, the blood is pushed into the ventricles, which
dilate, or get bigger. The ventricles then contract, pushing
blood back to the body and lungs. Valves open and close to
keep blood flowing in one direction. The cycle repeats again
and again. The opening and closing of the valves also make
the familiar, rhythmic sound of the heartbeat: lub-dub, lub-
dub, lub-dub . . .

RECORDING THE HEARTBEAT 3

A test called an electrocardiogram, or ECG, can tell if the
heartbeat is normal. During an ECG, wires with sensors
called electrodes are taped to the chest, arms, and legs. They
sense the heart’s electrical signals. These signals are recorded
on graph paper. Doctors read the printout to see if the
heartbeat is strong and regular.

36
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you
know?
AN ADULT HUMAN HEART PUMPS ABOUT
100,000 TIMES PER DAY. HEALTHY
NEWBORNS CAN HAVE MORE THAN
TWICE AS MANY HEARTBEATS IN A DAY.

A pacemaker is connected
to the heart by one or
more wires, depending on
the type of arrhythmia a
person has.

Heart

Wire to the atrium

Wire to the ventricle

37
 2 DOWN THE TUBE
DIGESTION The food travels down your throat into your esophagus. This
muscular tube pushes the food into your stomach. Here,
You walk into the kitchen and smell muscle contractions churn the food with hydrochloric acid
and enzymes—substances that speed up chemical reactions.
something delicious. Your mouth starts The enzymes help break down the food. Luckily, a layer of
mucus protects your stomach lining from being digested by
watering. This fluid, called saliva, contains the acid. The food becomes a thick liquid, which the stomach
the first of many chemicals that help your slowly empties into the small intestine.
body carry out the amazing process called Stomach lining Enzymes
Hydrochloric
digestion. When you eat food, your body Mucus acid
takes the nutrients it needs, and gets
rid of everything else. Digestion breaks
down food into smaller molecules that
can be absorbed into the bloodstream
and distributed to cells throughout the
body. The organs that help digest food,
absorb nutrients, and get rid of waste are
called the digestive system. The system
includes the digestive tract, a series of
hollow organs that connect to form a long,
twisting, muscular tube. This tube consists
of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and rectum. The
digestive system also relies on three other
organs that help break down food—the
liver, pancreas, and gall bladder.
Gastric pits in the stomach
wall secrete acid, enzymes,
The pancreatic duct carries and mucus.
enzymes from the pancreas
to the small intestine.

The bile duct carries bile

from the gall bladder to the
small intestine.

ALONG THE WAY 3

After food leaves the stomach, it
travels to the first segment of the
small intestine, called the duodenum.
Here, other substances are added
to the liquid going into the small
intestine—bile produced in the liver
and stored in the gall bladder, plus
enzymes produced in the pancreas.
These substances help digest fats,
proteins, and starches.

Duodenum

38
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you

One of the salivary glands

know?
IF YOU STRETCHED OUT THE DIGESTIVE TRACT, IT WOULD
BE ALMOST 30 FEET (ABOUT 9 M) LONG.

A salivary duct
Tongue

Throat (pharynx)
2 BREAKING IT DOWN
Esophagus Small only in diameter, the small intestine is
actually a twisty tube about 20 feet (about 6 m)
long. Its first job is to break down food, using
bile—a fluid produced by the liver—and pancreatic
enzymes. Next, the nutrient molecules are
absorbed through the small intestine’s walls and
enter the bloodstream. Millions of tiny fingerlike
structures called villi line these walls. By increasing
the surface area, they allow more absorption.
Whatever hasn’t been absorbed—water and
undigested food—moves into the large intestine.

Liver Villi

Stomach

Nutrient molecules

Small intestine 4 COMING TO AN END

The large intestine acts like a
giant sponge, absorbing water
Large intestine (colon)
into the bloodstream. Bacteria
digest any remaining food.
Everything else moves into a
short tube at the end of the
large intestine called the rectum.
Here, waste is compressed and
Rectum stored until the body gets rid of
Appendix it in a bowel movement.

39
 KIDNEY TRANSPLANT
Kidneys remove wastes from the blood. Without properly functioning
kidneys, a body will be sickened by its own wastes. One alternative is a
treatment called dialysis. Dialysis keeps the body in balance and does
many of the tasks of the kidneys. Dialysis treatment can take up to four
hours a day, three times a week, and usually is needed for the rest of
a person’s life. For one method of dialysis, the person is connected to
an external machine that filters the wastes and excess water from the
blood. The other method filters the blood internally, using a special
fluid that is inserted into the abdomen and removed when it has done
its job. Another treatment for a failing kidney is a kidney transplant—
where a healthy kidney is donated and implanted into a sick person’s
body. Unfortunately, donated
kidneys are in short supply, and
Adrenal
gland
it can take years for a suitable
Renal vein kidney to become available
for a transplant.

Renal artery

Kidney

Ureter

Bladder

Urethra

Capsule
Artery
WORKING HARD 1 Vein Tubule
Close to 50 gallons (190 L) of blood pass through
the kidneys each day. That’s a lot of filtering for
these bean-shaped organs, which are only about TINY FILTERS 1
the size of a computer mouse. Wastes that have Each kidney is packed with around one million
been removed from the blood are disposed of as little filtration units called nephrons, like the one
urine, which exits the body through the ureters, shown here. In the nephron, blood flows through
bladder, and urethra. the capsule, where the waste is removed to the
tubules and eventually disposed of as urine.

40
 2 CHANGING A LIFE

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

did you
know?
ABOUT ONE OF EVERY 750 HUMANS IS BORN WITH
These surgeons are performing a kidney transplant operation.
The complex process takes around three hours. Most often,
ONLY ONE KIDNEY. PEOPLE WITH ONE KIDNEY CAN LEAD the patient’s own kidneys are left in place. The donated organ
NORMAL, HEALTHY LIVES AS LONG AS THEIR KIDNEY is inserted into the abdomen and connected into the excretory
KEEPS FUNCTIONING PROPERLY. system. Transplant organs can come either from a live donor,
often a relative, or from someone who has died. In either case,
it is important for the new kidney to match the blood and
tissue type of the recipient as closely as possible, to lessen
the chances that the body will reject the new kidney.
Rejection happens when the body considers the new
kidney to be an invader, and so the body defends
itself with its immune system. Special drugs help
suppress the body’s immune system. These
drugs must be taken for the rest of the
patient’s life.

41
 PREGNANCY
Human babies begin life inside the mother. This period of A HUMAN FETUS AT 31 WEEKS 3
At 4 weeks, the brain, spinal cord, and
gestation is called pregnancy. It lasts about 40 weeks, or 9 heart have begun to form. By 8 weeks,
months. For the first 8 weeks of pregnancy, the developing the heart is beating steadily, and at 12
weeks, the fetus can make a fist. By 20
baby is called an embryo. After 8 weeks, it is called a fetus. The weeks, the fetus can hear, swallow, and
developing baby grows within an amniotic sac in the mother’s even scratch itself with tiny fingernails.
By 31 weeks, it kicks and jabs. Its bones
uterus. This sac is filled with fluid that protects and cushions are soft, but fully formed, and it weighs
the baby. An umbilical cord connects the baby to the placenta, around 3.5 pounds (1.6 kg).

a thick cushion of tissue that provides a constant supply of

nutrients and oxygen from the mother. The placenta allows a
developing baby to stay within the safety of the mother’s body did you
for 9 months. This gives the heart, lungs, and other organs know?
THE HEAVIEST NEWBORN RECORDED WEIGHED
time to develop fully so they can function on their own at the MORE THAN 22 POUNDS (10 KG). THE LIGHTEST
TO SURVIVE WEIGHED 8.6 OUNCES (244 G).
time of birth.

LABOR AND DELIVERY 3

When a baby is ready to be born, the muscles
in the mother’s uterus begin to contract at
intervals, a process called labor. Because the
baby is being squeezed, its heart rate has to be
monitored to make sure it is getting enough
oxygen during the delivery. A fetal monitor
records the baby’s heart rate.

Printed record of the baby’s

heartbeat

4 CAN A FETUS HEAR MUSIC?

Sounds pass through the amniotic fluid and
stimulate the fetus’s hearing by being conducted
through the bones of the skull. Studies show that
the fetus can detect low-frequency sounds, but
no one knows if the fetus can hear music. PET
scans and other images of brain activity may help
scientists answer this question.

42
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
The lanugo, a fine, downy By 32 weeks, the
covering of hair, covers the fetus can open
fetus at around 20 weeks and close its
old. It begins to fall off at eyes and sense
around 32 weeks. changes in light.

Blood vessels in the

umbilical cord transport
oxygen and nutrients from
the placenta to the fetus
and carry away waste.

43
 2 MEMBERS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM
NAMING
Pseudacris
triseriata
Organisms in the Plantae kingdom produce
their own food through the process of
photosynthesis. They range from tiny
What’s in a name? A lot of information! rootless mosses to giant redwoods. The
Scientists name organisms by the largest and most diverse phylum in the
kingdom is Magnoliophyta, also known as
characteristics they share, using a system called binomial angiosperms or flowering plants.
nomenclature. Each organism gets two names—its genus and The flowering plants are divided into
monocots and dicots according to the
its species, usually in Latin or Greek. Members of a genus type of seed the plant produces.
share most characteristics. Each species can reproduce only
with another member of its species. These two-part names
are an organism’s ID. Take this frog, Pseudacris triseriata, for
example. The genus name, Pseudacris, means “false locust,”
probably because it makes an insectlike sound. Its species
name, triseriata, means “three-striped.” In addition to genus
and species, organisms are also grouped into larger levels of
classification. For example, Pseudacris triseriata and all of the
living things shown here are organisms whose cells have a
nucleus, so their first level of classification, called domain, is
Eukarya. This frog’s next level, called kingdom, is Animalia,
followed by its phylum, which is Chordata. The next levels The classification
of seaweeds,
are class (amphibian), order (a frog), and family (a tree frog). which are a type of
multicellular algae, is in
Finally, we get down to the levels of genus and species, a flux. Some systems place
the phylum Rhodophyta,
false locust or red algae, in the plant
kingdom; others place it in the
with three protist kingdom; and some even
say Rhodophyta should form its
stripes on its own kingdom. There are
thousands of species of red algae,
back, commonly many of which are edible.
called a striped did you
chorus frog. know?
A SPECIES OF DINOSAUR DISCOVERED IN 2006 WAS NAMED
The genus name DRACOREX HOGWARTSIA, MEANING DRAGON KING OF HOGWARTS,
Euglena comes from BECAUSE IT LOOKED LIKE SOMETHING HARRY POTTER MIGHT
two Greek roots that HAVE MET UP WITH AT HIS SCHOOL FOR WIZARDS.
mean “good eye.”
Euglena have an eye
spot that helps them
sense light.

THE PROTIST AND THE FUNGI

You may have seen a member of the genus Euglena
when you looked at a drop of pond water through
a microscope. The one above is a model of one of
more than 200 species in the genus. Euglena are in the
kingdom Protista, the protists, which are organisms
that are neither animal nor plant. Euglena are pulled
through the water by their tail-like flagella, yet have
plantlike structures that enable them to make their
own food. Fungi, such as mushrooms, bread mold,
and ring worm, have their own kingdom too, because Amanita (fungus) muscaria
unlike plants, they cannot make their own food. (housefly) may have gotten
this name because it used
to be sprinkled on milk to
attract flies, which would die
from its toxins.

44
 2 WELCOME TO THE ANIMALIA KINGDOM

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Classifying organisms gets more interesting
every day, as scientists discover similarities in the
genetic material of various organisms. The cells
Dolomedes (crafty)
fimbriatus (fringed) is a of two similar-looking organisms may also show
fishing spider, also called a unexpected differences. The kingdom Animalia
raft spider. Its hairy legs can has a huge range of organisms with different
sense and chase prey on
the water surface.
shapes and parts. Animals in the largest phylum,
Arthropoda, have an exoskeleton, or hard
outer shell. The spider shown here is from the
Arachnida class within that phylum. The
Members of the Raja three organisms below the spider
(ray) genus have angular are in the phylum Chordata, which
bodies and sharp tails. includes all the vertebrates—
Raja montagui, or
spotted ray, is named animals with backbones—plus
for a nineteenth-century animals such as the spotted ray,
British naturalist, George which has a vertical supporting
Montagu.
structure made of cartilage, a softer
tissue than bone.

Loxia curvirostra, the common

crossbill, is in the finch family. Its
two-part name means “slanted
curved beak,” a feature that
enables it to get seeds out of
pine cones.

Equus grevyi, Grevy’s

zebra, is named after
Jules Grévy, president of
France in the 1880s. One
of these animals was sent
to him as a gift.

Peas are dicots, with two seed

leaves, which is why the pea can
be split to make soup. Edible peas
are called Pisum sativa, meaning
sown or useful peas.

Wheat, like most grasses, is a

monocot, with one seed leaf. Its
name, Triticum aestivum, translates
roughly as “ripening in summer.”

45
 BACTERIA
When people say bacteria are everywhere, they really mean everywhere! Many
bacteria are what’s called extremophiles. An extremophile is a living thing that
can survive under severe conditions. The Greek root -phil- means
love, and these organisms love extreme places. Some bacteria
are acidophiles, which means they live in acids. Other
bacteria are halophiles and need to live in very salty
water—so salty that it would kill most other living
things. Xerophiles include bacteria that can live
in rocks and soils that have very little water.
Some bacteria—called psychrophiles—can
even endure freezing temperatures.
They live in polar ice caps. Because
of the many different ways that they
can survive, bacteria live in practically
every environment on Earth. Scientists 2
study extremophiles to see how life
might form on other planets, where
conditions are extreme.

HOT STUFF 3
Some like it hot—some bacteria that is. Water heated
by melted rock deep underground reaches skin-burning
temperatures in the Grand Prismatic Spring in Yellowstone
National Park in Wyoming. Most organisms cannot survive such
heat, but thermophiles—heat-loving bacteria—make this natural
hot spring their home. The colorful bacteria that live there can
survive in water as hot as 167ºF (75ºC).
5
HEATED GROUNDWATER
The mineral water at the deepest center of the hot
spring is 188ºF (87ºC). No life can survive here.

COOLING OFF
Water in the shallower parts of the hot spring has been
cooled slightly by the surrounding air. Bacteria that are
green in color can survive the cooler temperatures.

COOL AND COLORFUL

The bacteria that form the green, brown, and yellow slime are called
cyanobacteria. They are yellow-green in warmer temperatures.

NOT SO HOT DRYING OUT

As waters cool near the edge of The soil surrounding the hot spring
the hot spring, the cyanobacteria is dry and cool—a less comfortable
become orange and yellow. The color home for thermophiles.
pigments produced by the bacteria
act as a sunscreen.

46
VIRUS ATTACK 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Viruses that attack bacteria
are called bacteriophages.
All living things can catch a virus, even bacteria. When
viruses attack bacteria cells, they don’t actually enter the Virus attacks often
cell. Instead, they inject only their DNA. The cell treats the result in the death
viral DNA as if it were its own, using it to create viral parts of the cell.
instead of bacteria parts and forcing it to become a tiny
factory for making more viruses. A cell that is
attacked by a virus
is called a host.

4 BACTERIA CELL
Bacteria are the
smallest living things
on Earth. They live as
3
single cells, so each cell
must carry out all the
functions of life.

Bacteria whip their thread-like

flagella to move through their
liquid surroundings.

The tough cell wall

offers protection.

The flexible cell membrane

did you
know?
THE NUMBER OF BACTERIA ON YOUR BODY
allows nutrients in and
wastes out.

The cell’s cytoplasm holds its

RIGHT NOW IS GREATER THAN THE NUMBER DNA and other molecules
OF PEOPLE IN THE UNITED STATES. important for life.

47
 MOLD
Have you ever opened the refrigerator for a snack only to find nasty green
fur, gray splotches, orange fuzz, or white dusty stuff on something you were
hoping to eat? This is mold, a type of fungus. Mold doesn’t just grow on food;
it can also grow on plants, paper, and even walls. Like the vast body of an
iceberg sitting below the surface of the water, most of a mold is hidden under
the surface on which it grows. The part of the mold that you can see contains
microscopic spores that will be released into the air by the millions. Mold
spores are all around you—in the air that you breathe, and on virtually every
surface. Some molds can cause allergic reactions and respiratory infections.
They thrive in damp, warm areas, but spores can survive almost anywhere
until the conditions are just right for them to grow!

BATTLE OF THE MOLD! 2 did you

The thousands of homes and businesses flooded by Hurricanes
Katrina and Rita in 2005 provided the perfect conditions for mold
know?
A STUFFY NOSE AND ITCHY EYES MIGHT BE AN
to grow. Because buildings stayed wet for so long, mold took over, ALLERGIC REACTION TO MOLD. MOLDS CAN
covering any surfaces it could. Efforts to remove the mold were not ALSO CAUSE ASTHMA ATTACKS.
always successful.

Mold spores in high

concentrations can cause health
problems. Face masks and
gloves were necessary to protect
workers during the massive
cleanup operation.

Carpets, cupboards, tables, walls, NOT QUITE SO PEACHY! 3

and floors—all were attacked by
molds after the flooding. It’s bad enough when mold invades your fruit
bowl, but on a large scale it can be a farmer’s
worst enemy. Crops can be wiped out by mold if
storage conditions are not right or if the weather
turns damp too early. However, some molds are
useful in food production. Blue-veined cheeses
like Stilton get their coloring and taste from
mold. Mold is also used when making
soy sauce and tempeh.

A mold changes in both color and

Stilton cheese texture as the spores ripen.

48
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
At the tips of the
hyphae are what’s
called sporangia,
which release
millions of tiny spores
into the air.

Different types of
mold can colonize
foods at the same
time.

4 LIFE-SAVING MOLD
One of the molds commonly
found on bread has saved
many millions of lives. Amazingly,
The threadlike “roots”
the drug penicillin comes from a
(hyphae) of molds can simple mold of the Penicillium genus. Its
be hard to see. They antibiotic property was discovered quite
can be deep inside by accident in 1928. Once it was possible to
contaminated foods,
wood, or fabric. isolate the mold in large quantities, penicillin
was widely used in the fight against infection.
Mold can change color as it
grows. Gray-green mold is
often from Penicillium.

49
 FUNGI
Fungi are such unique organisms that they form their own scientific
kingdom, whose members range from unicellular organisms such as yeast to
multicellular organisms that can look similar to plants. But unlike plants, fungi
don’t have the chlorophyll needed to absorb sunlight and make nutrients.
Instead, fungi secrete enzymes onto the surfaces where they grow, such as
on wood, plants, fruit, or even dung. The enzymes cause the surface to
decompose, and the fungi absorb the nutrients through a system of
tiny threadlike cells, called the mycelium. When we see fungi, like
the head and stem of a mushroom, or mold growing on bread,
what we see is usually what’s called the fruiting body. Often more
than 90 percent of the fungus is composed of the underground
mycelium. Fungi can live almost anywhere, including on plants
and animals. Many plants have a symbiotic relationship with
fungi. The plant gives the fungus some energy through
photosynthesis. In return, the fungus helps the plant take
up water and minerals.
TURKEY TAILS 3
These leathery bracket fungi—
FLY AGARIC—BEWARE! 2 shelflike growths—do resemble
Fly agaric is definitely not for eating! their name. They grow by
This fungus has been used to kill breaking down dead wood.
flies by attracting them to milk that The result of this process is that
has small pieces of the poisonous nutrients from the tree return to
fungus soaking in it. The individual the soil. Gills, where millions of
threadlike cells of fly agaric’s reproductive structures
called spores
mycelium, called hyphae, tap into are produced
tree roots to obtain nutrients.

The scarlet wax cap

mushroom is brightly
colored and feels waxy.

The mushroom’s
stem is called a stape.

POWDER-FILLED PUFFBALLS 3
The fruiting body of a puffball can be as tiny as a large
pea or bigger than a watermelon. Calculations have
shown that a soccer-ball sized giant puffball contains
about 7 trillion spores. The largest giant puffball on
record weighed in at a mighty 48 pounds (almost 22 kg)
and was more than 8 feet (more than 2.6 m) in diameter!

50
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you
know?
FOX FIRE—A LUMINESCENCE In large quantities, puffball
THAT COMES FROM ROTTING spores appear as a fine
powder. Individual spores
WOOD—IS CAUSED BY FUNGI are microscopic.
THAT GLOW IN THE DARK!

Poof! Clouds of microscopic

spores escape from a split
in the top of the puffball
when conditions are right
for dispersal.

The round or pear-shaped

fruiting body of a mature
puffball contains its spore
dust, for reproduction.

Some puffballs have

stems, but other
varieties sit on top
of rotting wood or
directly on the ground.

The spore-filled puffball

is the only visible part of
the fungus. The hidden
underground mycelium
network is much larger.

51
 ALLERGIES
After Jamie took a sip of Liza’s drink, his throat swelled and he was
rushed to the hospital. Six-month-old Kate was there because she had
started wheezing. What was the culprit? Allergies. Liza had been eating
peanuts, and Jamie, who is allergic to nuts, had experienced a severe
allergic reaction to Liza’s saliva on the cup. Kate’s asthma was caused
by her allergies to the pollens in the air. An allergy is a reaction by your
immune system to something that does not bother most people.
Allergens, the substances that cause allergies, are everywhere—
pollens, foods, mold, dust mites, pets, even medicines—and
about one in five people in the United States suffers from
allergies. Some allergic reactions can be irritating, such
as sneezing, hives, or watery eyes, but some can be
deadly if they are not treated immediately.

DUST MITES 3
Unlike this model, real dust mites
can’t be seen without magnification.
Yet they can cause big allergy
problems—sneezing, itching,
watery eyes, stuffy ears, skin
rashes, and even asthma.
Dust mite feces and tiny
pieces of their bodies
get mixed in with
dust. When the dust is
disturbed, the particles can
be inhaled. Achoo!

Dust mites are eight-

legged creatures Some mites’
that are related to hairs may
spiders. sense electrical
signals.

Dust mites feed

on dead skin
cells that
people shed.

52
 ASTHMA 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Unmagnified, this
flower pollen grain
would look like a speck This grass plant may look innocent
of dust. Allergies to enough, but to someone with asthma,
pollen are sometimes it may say “danger.” Asthma is
called hay fever.
a disease of the lungs that
affects more than 17 million
Americans. For most asthma
sufferers, allergies play a part
in causing the asthma or
Pollen grains are in making it worse. Pollens
transported by
wind, water, or from this grass plant may
insects to fertilize cause airways
other plants of the to tighten, inducing
same species.
coughing, wheezing,
and shortness of breath.

If this pollen grain from the

European field elm touches
the lining of a hay fever
sufferer’s nose, the mucous
membranes swell.

THE BATTLE 1
Suppose you eat, touch, or breathe an
allergen. If you have allergies, your white
blood cells, which fight disease, make an
antibody called immunoglobulin E (IgE).
IgE attaches to immune cells called mast
cells, many of which are in your nose,
eyes, lungs, and intestines. These cells
become sensitized against another attack.
If that happens, the mast cells release
chemicals called mediators, which get
more white blood cells to join the fight.
Tissues swell, causing allergy misery. A
sudden or large mediator release can
cause a severe reaction. One well-known
mediator is histamine, whose effects
can be blocked by medicines called
antihistamines.

did you
know?
ONLY EIGHT FOODS CAUSE 90 PERCENT OF
FOOD ALLERGIES IN THE UNITED STATES.

53
 PANDEMIC
Pathogens—bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists—cause infectious diseases.
These diseases are spread in different ways: through water, food, or soil; via
animals; or by human contact. An epidemic occurs when an infectious disease
spreads quickly to many people throughout a country or region. An epidemic
that spreads rapidly to even more people in different parts of the world is called
a pandemic. Some diseases that have historically become pandemics are influenza
(flu), cholera, and plague. These and other infectious diseases can spread
throughout the world more quickly than ever before, due to great increases
in international travel. The World Health Organization (WHO) keeps track of
infectious diseases around the world and decides when they reach epidemic and
pandemic levels. WHO has devised a pandemic preparedness plan that outlines
steps that should be taken in the event of an influenza pandemic.

4 CHOLERA
The pathogen that causes cholera in humans is a type of
bacteria. The bacteria enter the intestine when a person
drinks contaminated water or eats contaminated food.
In severe cases, cholera causes vomiting and diarrhea
and, left untreated, can lead to death. In the United
States, cholera is not a concern because of the advanced
water treatment systems.

Cholera is often associated with watery

diarrhea. The bacteria actually produce a
cholera toxin that causes this symptom.

4 IS THE WATER CLEAN?

Some pathogens, such as the bacteria that
cause cholera, can live in water. When a
healthy person drinks contaminated water,
he or she ingests these pathogens and
can become ill. Microorganisms can be
introduced into groundwater in various ways.
For example, fecal contamination from sick
animals can seep into groundwater. A leak
in a wastewater system can also contaminate
water with pathogens. Areas of the world
with poor water treatment systems often
spur the growth of pandemics because the
pathogens may infect great numbers of
people in a short time.

In Afghanistan, conflict and

drought have affected the
cleanliness of the water supply.

54
NOVEL H1N1 VIRUS 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Inside the H1N1 virus
particle is ribonucleic
Novel, meaning new, is the best acid, or RNA, which
description for this virus that was first carries the genetic
seen in humans in the spring of 2009. material of the virus.
On June 11, 2009, the World Health
Organization officially declared it a
pandemic. H1N1 spreads quickly between
humans in the same way other flu viruses
The outside of the
do—through coughing and sneezing. As virus is surrounded
opposed to typical flu viruses, H1N1 is by a lipid, or fat,
harder on people younger than 25 years envelope.
old than it is on the elderly. Vaccines
against H1N1 have been developed.
The spikes are
proteins, which
scientists use to identify
the type of virus.

THE BIRD FLU 2

Viruses affect different animal populations differently. Avian influenza,
commonly known as bird flu, naturally exists in wild bird populations but does
not usually make them sick. But bird flu is very contagious between birds. It
can be passed to domesticated birds such as chickens and turkeys through
saliva, nasal secretions, and feces. In these birds, the virus has caused millions
of deaths. Bird flu has crossed over to humans mostly in cases where people
have had contact with bodily fluids of infected birds. As with all new viruses,
did you
scientists work to develop vaccines. Bird flu
vaccines are now being given to domestic
bird populations to try to stop the spread
know?
THERE HAVE BEEN AT LEAST SEVEN CHOLERA
of the disease. PANDEMICS SINCE THE EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY.

55
 VACCINES
Suppose a virus enters your body. This disease-causing pathogen has certain
molecules, called antigens, all around its outside surface. White blood cells called
lymphocytes recognize the virus by its antigens. Soon, lymphocytes called B cells
begin producing Y-shaped particles, called antibodies. Antibodies are like puzzle
pieces designed to lock onto specific antigens. Once the antibodies lock on,
the viruses can’t attack your body’s cells. If the same type of virus enters your
body again, your immune system “remembers” how to defeat it. This process
gives your body what’s called active immunity against that pathogen. Vaccines
cause your body to develop active immunity to a disease without causing you
to have the disease. A vaccine includes virus antigens that have been killed
or weakened. They cannot cause the disease. The immune system, however,
produces antibodies just as it would if the antigens were dangerous. As a result,
a vaccinated person exposed to the disease is very unlikely to get sick.

TESTING A VACCINE 2
Before a vaccine can be used widely, it must be
tested for safety and effectiveness. This woman
is receiving a shot of a vaccine against the H1N1
virus, sometimes called “swine flu.” About 8 to
10 days later, researchers tested her blood to
see if antibodies against the H1N1 virus had
developed. Antibodies had developed, showing
the vaccine to be effective.

MASS IMMUNIZATION 1
An epidemic—a widespread, sudden outbreak of
a disease—often leads a country’s government to
Influenza, or flu, shots
set up a mass immunization program, in which need to be given yearly.
everyone living in an area receives a vaccine. The Flu vaccines typically are
vaccinations are usually given first to the people changed from year to year
most likely to get sick and to those most likely to be to include the viruses that
scientists predict will be
exposed to the disease, such as health care workers. circulating each year.
Vaccination programs have eliminated diseases, such
as polio and smallpox, from many countries.

56
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Both smallpox and cowpox viruses did you
are members of the Orthopoxvirus
genus. Vaccines are made using
another member of the genus.
know?
VACCINE COMES FROM A GREEK WORD FOR COW,
BECAUSE OF JENNER’S WORK WITH COWPOX.

The smallpox virus’s protein

coat, shown in green, protects
its genetic material and enables
the virus to penetrate a person’s
body cells.

Viruses infect body cells and

use the cell to reproduce their
genetic material (red) and to
produce more viruses.

The smallpox virus exists

now only in a few research
laboratories.

1 SMALLPOX VIRUS
English physician Edward Jenner noticed that people who had
suffered from the mild disease cowpox didn’t contract the deadly
disease smallpox. In 1796, Jenner rubbed infectious material from
a woman’s cowpox sores into scratches on a boy’s arm. The boy
became ill with cowpox. Later, Jenner exposed him to smallpox,
and the boy did not get sick. He had developed immunity to this
group of related viruses. Jenner’s discovery has since led to the
wiping out of smallpox, a killer of millions of people.

57
 COMMON COLD
“Ah…ah….ah…Achoo! Oh, do. I tink I hab a code!” You know
DAY 3: SORE THROAT
it when you feel it: a headache, sore throat, stuffed up nose, AND MILD FEVER
sneezing, coughing, and the seemingly endless river of snot. The sore throat that you feel
is not from the death of cells
You have a cold! More than 200 different viruses can cause the destroyed by the viruses. Instead,
common cold. Because so many different germs are responsible the discomfort comes from the
immune system signals produced
for this familiar illness, scientists and doctors have little hope of by your own body. They cause
finding an effective cure anytime soon. The easiest way to take swelling of the tissues and trigger
pain-sensing nerve cells. Other
care of a cold is to never catch it in the first place. Keep clear immune system signals cause
of uncovered sneezes, and wash your hands regularly. fever and aching pain in your head
and muscles.
Soap and water will kill a cold virus, which can
otherwise survive for hours on surfaces such as
doorknobs, railings, drinking cups, money,
and skin.

THE STAGES OF A COLD 3

A cold can last one to two weeks
and may make you feel downright
miserable. But while a virus is to blame
for the infection, it is your body’s
immune response that causes the
symptoms you have come to dread.

DAYS 1 & 2: INFECTION

You catch a cold when viruses enter your
nose or throat and start to multiply using
your own cells as tiny viral factories. But,
who gave you those viruses? It’s not always
easy to tell. It takes two or three days for any
cold symptoms to appear. You can spread
viruses to others within a day of infection
and for as many as three days after you no
longer feel sick.

did you
know? A SNEEZE CAN HAVE THE WIND SPEED
OF A CATEGORY 2 HURRICANE.

58
DAYS 4 & 5: RUNNY NOSE AND DAYS 6 & 7: STUFFINESS DAY 20: PROBABLY NOT A COLD

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

SNEEZING AND COUGHING If you are sneezing for more than two
Mucous glands in your nose start making The stuffed up feeling that makes it weeks, see a doctor. A cold might not
mucus, or snot, a slippery liquid that hard to breathe is not from all the be your problem. An allergen like pollen
contains water and proteins. Snot may snot. It is due to the dilation of blood is more likely to blame. Some sneezers
start out clear and colorless but soon vessels in the nose tissues, also caused mistake allergies for colds. Many of the
becomes green due to the presence of a by immune system signals. When symptoms are the same, but colds do
green coloring in white blood cells that are the infection gets far down into your not usually cause itchiness in the eyes
fighting your infection. Snot helps wash the throat, the irritated nerves cause and nose as allergies often do. Also,
viruses out of your body, and sneezing helps coughing. Coughing can help move allergy symptoms do not usually include
blast them out at a faster pace. infected mucus that has built up in the the achy fever and colorful snot that are
lungs out of your body. signs of a cold.

Pollen grain
(magnified
about 300×)

Mucus protein
chain (magnified
about 750,000×) White blood
cell (magnified
about 3,000×)

Cold virus
(magnified
about 200,000×)

59
 MALARIA
It may feel like the flu—a high fever, head and muscle aches, tiredness, and
chills. But if left untreated, malaria can be a deadly disease. Malaria is caused
by a tiny parasite. The parasite infects a particular kind of mosquito. The
mosquito carrying the parasite bites humans, transmitting the disease. One
way to prevent malaria is by protecting against mosquito bites in areas where
the disease occurs. A person who becomes sick with malaria can be treated
with prescription medication. The earlier the treatment begins, the more likely
the person will recover. With the right medication, people who have malaria
can be cured. But, the best way to combat malaria is to prevent it.

4 SPREADING MALARIA
You cannot get malaria by being near or
touching someone who has it. You usually
have to be bitten by a mosquito, and not
just any mosquito—a female Anopheles
mosquito. When a mosquito bites a person
who has malaria, the mosquito takes in that
person’s blood and becomes infected. When
that same mosquito bites a second person,
the mosquito injects a mix of its infected
blood and its saliva into that person.

Mosquito eyes have did you

excellent night vision.
know?
BETWEEN 350 AND 500 MILLION CASES OF MALARIA
OCCUR IN THE WORLD EACH YEAR, CAUSING OVER ONE
MILLION DEATHS.
Blood is sucked
through the proboscis.

MALARIA AROUND THE WORLD 3

Equator
Malaria is most common in tropical and subtropical
areas of the world. Scientists have been working on
a malaria vaccine for more than 50 years. The first
Phase 3 clinical trial of a malaria vaccine began in
May 2009 in seven African countries, with a target Malaria occurs Limited malaria risk
date of 2012 for limited public use.

60
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

PREVENTING MALARIA 1
Prevention is the key to stopping
the spread of malaria. One of the
most important tools in this fight is the
mosquito net. People living in or visiting areas
where malaria exists should sleep under mosquito
nets, preferably ones that have been treated with an
insecticide. They should also use insect repellent and wear
long-sleeved clothing when outside at night.

61
 CANCER TREATMENT
You may know of someone who died from
cancer, but you may also know of someone
whose cancer was cured. Cancer is a group of
diseases in which abnormal cells grow and divide
in an uncontrolled way. These cells can invade
surrounding tissue or spread to other parts of the
body. The form of cancer treatment depends on
the type of cancer and whether it has spread. Some
abnormal growths, or tumors, can be completely
removed by surgery. If the cancer has spread,
however, doctors may treat it with drugs, a process
called chemotherapy or chemo. They may also treat
the cancer with radiation, called radiation therapy or
radiotherapy. Sometimes doctors use both treatments
together to destroy cancer cells.

This image of the patient’s

skull is used to design a
treatment plan for a sinus
tumor.
Radiation therapy uses
high doses of various types
of targeted energy to
destroy or shrink tumors.
Four beams will be aimed
from different angles at the
tumor.

The radiation dose

the patient receives is
color-coded from red
(high) to blue (low).

DESTROYING CANCER CELLS 1

During the radiation therapy shown here, a special machine moves around did you
the patient’s body, aiming high-energy rays at the tumor. Although this
treatment targets the cancer cells, some nearby healthy cells may also be
know?
IN THE UNITED STATES, LUNG CANCER IS
damaged. In contrast, chemotherapy drugs are swallowed or injected, so THE LEADING CAUSE OF CANCER-RELATED
the patient’s whole body is exposed to them. That’s why chemo usually DEATHS FOR BOTH MEN AND WOMEN.
has more side effects, such as hair loss and nausea.

62
2 ROBODOC

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Scientists are developing many promising new cancer treatments.
Some researchers are creating drugs that block the formation of
the blood vessels that nourish cancer cells. Other researchers are
developing microscopic devices, called nanorobots, that are injected
into a patient’s body to find, diagnose, and treat cancer cells.

Powered with
chemical “engines,”
nanorobots will not
only locate cancer
cells but also show
whether a cancer
has spread.

Scientists intend to use

nanorobots to inject
chemotherapy drugs directly Cancer cell
into cancer cells, without
damaging healthy cells. They
could also be used to deliver
radiation therapy and even to
perform surgery.

63
 NUCLEAR MEDICINE
Radioactivity may signal “Danger!” in your mind. However, a branch of medicine,
called nuclear medicine, uses radioactivity to help diagnose and treat diseases.
Nuclear medicine takes advantage of the fact that radioactive substances are
unstable. This means that the isotopes of certain chemical elements emit particles
with high-energy values, such as gamma rays. Isotopes are atoms of the same
element with different numbers of neutrons. When radioactive drugs are injected
into the human body, their particles give off energy that is detected to create
images of the areas where they were absorbed. This helps locate problems in the
body. The drugs used in this imaging process do not harm the body. However, the
gamma rays these drugs emit can be used to destroy cells. For example, harmful
cancer cells are often targeted with gamma radiation. Another example is the use
of radioactive drugs to treat the thyroid gland—an important gland in your body
that helps regulate your metabolism. These red lights help the
The patient lies still on the table and is scan specialist align the
moved through a small tunnel that contains patient’s head correctly
gamma ray detectors. during the procedure.
Crystals in the machine
convert gamma rays into
light, which
is then converted
into electrical
signals. These go
to a computer,
which produces
the images.

Scanner digital
displays

64
RADIO

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

PHARMACOLOGY 3
This chemist is
blending radioactive
chemicals to make
radiopharmaceuticals.
These are drugs that
emit radioactivity.
They are also called
radiotracers, because
their emissions can be
traced. The glassed-
in safety chamber
shown here, along with
the chemist’s special
clothing, will protect
him from radioactivity as
he mixes the chemicals.

did you
Different chemicals are
absorbed by different parts
of the body. Radioactive
nitrogen, for example, is used
know?
UP TO 12 MILLION NUCLEAR MEDICINE IMAGING AND OTHER
to trace blood circulation in PROCEDURES ARE CARRIED OUT EVERY YEAR IN THE UNITED STATES.
the heart and lungs.

4 PATIENT IN PET SCANNER

This PET doesn’t live in a house!
PET stands for Positron Emission
Tomography. Positrons are positively
charged particles that are emitted
from some radioactive substances.
In a PET scan, a patient receives,
usually through an injection, a
radioactive drug that is absorbed by
certain tissues of the body. As the
drug passes through the body, the
machine measures the gamma rays
that are produced when positrons
collide with electrons in the body.
The patient is moved through the
machine, and a series of images
of the body are formed. Doctors
analyze the images to look for signs
of disease, such as tumors. PET scans
are also used to see how organs and
tissues, such as your heart and lungs,
are functioning.

PET SCAN 1
Patients undergoing a PET scan swallow, inhale, or
are injected with a radiotracer material. The scanner
detects the radioactive emissions from the injected
material that enhances the image for doctors.
This PET scan image shows abnormal growths
in a patient’s abdomen and chest caused by non-
Hodgkin’s lymphoma, a type of cancer that affects
white blood cells. In this case, the PET scan images
show doctors how far the cancer cells have developed.

65
 BIODIVERSITY
What do you get when you combine the words biological and diversity?
Biodiversity! The word was first coined in 1985, and since then, biodiversity
has become a hot topic. Biodiversity means the variety of forms of life.
Think about how many kinds of living things there are on Earth. They
are all connected—through food chains, carbon cycles, and ties
we haven’t discovered yet. Each ecosystem, all living and
nonliving things in an area, depends on its members
to maintain balance. When a species becomes
extinct, that balance is lost. Biodiversity refers
to three kinds of diversity in living things.
First, there is diversity in the types of
ecosystems around the world, such
as coral reefs and savannas.
Second, there is a variety of
species in an area, such as the
coral and plants living with
the glassfish on this reef.
Third, there is variation
within species. The
glassfish shown here all
look like bubbles, but
some individuals are
faster or longer than
others. Protecting
all three types of
biodiversity is the
key to keeping
Earth alive.

66
 PICK AN ECOSYSTEM 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Hot, cold, wet, dry—you name it! There are all
kinds of places where plants and animals live. Each
place has a range of temperatures and a range of
precipitation that is just the right combination to
support the living things in that ecosystem. Take a
look at these four ecosystems in West Africa. Desert: Very few plants and animals can survive
the hot, dry Sahara Desert.

Arid Grasslands: The land that borders the

desert—called sahel, which means “shore”—is
home to a few trees, low growing grasses, camels,
oxen, and cattle.

Savanna: A bit more rain here means the

BIODIVERSITY WITHIN SPECIES 1 savanna ecosystem has more trees and grasses
This lioness stalking through the savanna is different in size, along with the animals, such as giraffes, that
strength, and temperament, from other lions of her species. eat them.
Within each species, there is diversity. This variation in traits is
important because passing on helpful traits to offspring will
help each species prosper.

did you
know?
ABOUT 1.75 MILLION SPECIES OF LIVING THINGS
The sea anemone
provides protection
for the clownfish. Tropical Forest: Thousands of plants and
ON EARTH HAVE BEEN DESCRIBED AND NAMED, animals live in the moist tropical forest. It is one
The clownfish eats
AND MILLIONS MORE ARE WAITING. parasites off the of Earth’s most complex ecosystems.
sea anemone and
helps circulate water
around the anemone.
4 BIODIVERSITY BETWEEN SPECIES
Coral reefs teem with millions of species of
sponges, coral, algae, and fish. It is the most diverse
kind of marine ecosystem, and each species in the
coral reef ecosystem interacts with the others. The
health of an ecosystem is often measured through
its biodiversity. The existence of many species in an
ecosystem, with good variation within each species,
probably means that each species has plenty of
food and shelter.

This clownfish can live

among the stinging tentacles
of the sea anemone. It is
covered with a slimy mucus
that protects it from the
anemone’s poison.

67
 ADAPTATIONS
Fish that puff up like balloons, spiders that pose as ants, plants that
eat meat: sometimes the adaptations that allow an organism to
survive can be quite bizarre. But adaptations help plants and animals
obtain food and water, keep safe, establish territory, withstand
weather, and reproduce. We do not usually think of plants as meat- There is enough toxin
in one of these fish
eaters, but some feed on insects, invertebrates, and even to kill 30 adults—and
there is no known
small mammals. These plants live in poor soils with few antidote!
nutrients. They have special adaptations to attract,
trap, kill, and digest their prey. These include sticky
surfaces, and hinged leaves that snap shut when
trigger hairs are touched. Anglerfish live in
the deep ocean where it is totally dark.
The females have a special spine on their
dorsal fin, which hangs over their mouth
and acts as a “fishing rod.” The fleshy tip
of this lure is often luminous to attract
other fishes. Munch!

PUFFED AND POISONOUS 3

Puffer fish and porcupine fish are
slow swimmers, so they’ve had to
develop other ways to stay safe from
fast swimming predators. How? These
impressive fish inflate themselves when
they’re threatened. They have incredibly
elastic skin and can balloon up to
about three times their normal size. Try
swallowing this fish now, predator!

Porcupine fish are also

armed with sharp spines
Distinctive white spots from head to tail, making
help identify and them even more difficult
camouflage the highly to attack.
poisonous death
puffer on the reef.

Special muscles rapidly pump

water into the stomach to inflate
the fish. The stomach can swell to
100 times its normal size.

68
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Adaptations develop over
generations, not during an
individual’s life.

The Venus’ flytrap stays

closed for about 10 days
while it digests an insect.

Huge 18-inch (46-cm)

tongues and extra thick
saliva allow giraffes to eat
their favorite leaves from
thorny acacia trees.
Giraffes have special one-way valves in
their long necks to regulate blood flow
and stop them from fainting.

REACHING FOR THE SKY 1

Giraffes are the tallest animals of all, with long legs
and necks that allow them to reach leaves up to 20 feet
(6 m) high. To keep them from tipping over, giraffes
have an unusual gait. They move the two legs on one
side of the body forward, and then follow with the two
legs on the other side. The giraffe’s unusual shape also
makes it awkward for them to lower their heads to
drink, so they are more vulnerable to predators while
they’re drinking. Therefore, giraffes drink only about
once a day, up to 10 gallons (40 L) each time.

did you
know? SOME DESERT GECKOS HAVE FRINGED TOES
THAT KEEP THEM FROM SINKING INTO SAND.

69
 PATTERNS IN NATURE
Patterns are one of nature’s adaptations for survival. Take stripes, for example.
A tiger’s stripes camouflage it in tall grass. A skunk’s stripes may warn off
predators. A harmless snake’s red, black, and yellow stripes may mimic those
of the poisonous coral snake. Symmetry is another type of pattern. Sea stars
and jellyfish have radial symmetry, as a pie does. This shape lets organisms
whose food floats around them sense it from any direction. Organisms that
need to move around to find their food are typically bilaterally symmetrical—
two halves that are mirror images—and have most of their sensory organs in
their head. They can sense danger with their heads and coordinate balanced
and fast movement. Certain patterns in nature can even be described
mathematically by a sequence of numbers called Fibonacci numbers. The
number of petals on some flowers, the number of spirals on a pine cone,
and some say even the proportions of the human body can be found in this
pattern of numbers.
4 SPREADING FUNGI
The pine cone’s scales
open to release the seeds
Many mushrooms have amazing
tucked between them. patterns and colors. The underside of this
mushroom shows an exploding pattern of
structures called gills. Gills house millions
of microscopic spores—the reproductive
elements of fungi. The gills open to
release the spores, which are then carried
and dispersed by wind and animals to
grow into new mushrooms. The gills
distribute the mushroom’s spores in all
directions from the stem.

Spiral pattern

PINE CONES 1
The pattern of Fibonacci numbers starts with 0 and 1. Then
each number that follows is the sum of the previous two
numbers: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and so on. Pine cone scales Eyespots can confuse
are arranged in a spiral pattern that packs a large number and scare predators.
of seeds into a compact space. If you count the number of
spirals that go out from the bottom of the cone in either
direction, they will typically be Fibonacci numbers.

EYES ALL OVER 3

Both caterpillars and the moths they develop into
have patterns that help them survive. Indian luna
moths like this one are named for the moonlike spots
on their wings. Spots that look like the eyes of a
bigger animal may keep away predators. A series of The vein patterns on the
spots may look like more than one animal. Eyespots luna moth’s wings act as
camouflage when they
can act as false coloring, too, keeping a predator from rest on leaves.
attacking an animal’s real eyes.

70
 4 FIERCE FACE

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

The puss moth is a soft, fuzzy creature like the
cat it is named after. But the caterpillar that the
moth grows from is not! The caterpillar’s green
and brown segmented body pattern blends with
the leaves. When it is disturbed, the caterpillar
withdraws its head into the first segment of its
body and lifts the round red edge of the segment
to face the threat. Two black spots on the red ring
look like eyes. This adaptation mimics an animal
with a big, fierce face.

Holes the caterpillar

breathes through,
called spiracles, create a
pattern, too.

did you
know?
GEESE FLY IN A “V” PATTERN TO SAVE ENERGY, BY REDUCING WIND
If the mean face RESISTANCE, AND TO KEEP TRACK OF THE OTHER GEESE IN THE FLOCK.
doesn’t work, the
double tail can squirt
nasty acid.
A cross-section cut reveals
the beautiful pattern of
chambers hidden inside a
nautilus shell.

NAUTILUS SHELL 3
The pearly nautilus is a cephalopod,
an ancient group that includes
octopuses. Nautiluses build their
shells as they grow, making each
chamber slightly larger than the
one before it. Nautiluses use these
chambers to regulate the amount of
gases and water needed to keep them
afloat and upright. The animal lives in
the outermost chamber of a spiral.

As it grows, the nautilus seals

off the cramped rear part of
its living quarters and extends
the front edge.

71
 BIOMIMETICS
A gecko runs across the ceiling. Tiny hairs on its feet help it stick tight without
falling. Robots cling to the inside of a volcano, climbing and peeling their feet
just like geckos. Are these similarities a coincidence? Not at all. Nature has
fantastic designs, and engineers often copy them to make their own inventions
better. The mimicry of ideas from nature is called biomimetics. Many Olympic
swimmers wear suits with bumps like those on a shark to help them move
quickly through the water. A swarm of ants seems to wander in all directions,
yet there aren’t many collisions, so traffic engineers have tracked the ups,
downs, ins, and outs of an ant colony to improve the flow of car and airplane
traffic. Organisms have had many generations to develop great designs and
adaptations—and people are realizing that we can learn from them.

did you ONE COMPANY IMPROVED THE FUEL EFFICIENCY OF A

know? CAR BY MODELING ITS DESIGN ON THE SHAPE OF A FISH.

HITCHING A RIDE 2 The nylon hooks on one

side of a fastener grab loops
In 1948, Swiss engineer George de Mestral walked through of fabric on the other side
the woods with his dog. Afterward, he pulled hundreds and cling tightly until they
of burs from his pants and from his dog’s fur. These sticky are straightened by an
upward force.
burs contained the seeds for the burdock plant. On each
bur, he noticed a star of spines with a tiny hook at the end.
The hooks grabbed onto a passing animal and the seeds
inside hitched a ride to spread the plant
through the woods and fields.

The hooks on the bur from

the burdock plant helped it
spread its seeds worldwide.

KEEPING THINGS TOGETHER 3

Mestral used his observations to create a
new fastener, which he named Velcro®
(from the French words for “velvet”
and “hook” ). You know the familiar
ripping sound of this fastener on your
sneakers, jacket, and backpack, but it has
more exotic uses, too. Astronauts use
Velcro in their helmets and to keep tools
in place in zero gravity. Velcro even held
a human heart together during the first
artificial heart surgery.

72
ON THE WINGS OF A WHALE? 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Think of a jet flying
A humpback whale is as heavy as a loaded tractor-trailer truck, through the air as
but it swoops through the water gracefully, propelled by its a model of a whale
gliding through
broad fins. An airliner must move through the atmosphere in the water.
the same way. Marine scientists study the shape of the whale’s
fins, and aeronautical engineers are designing new airplane
wings to mimic them. The next time you have a
smooth flight, you can thank a whale.

Bumps on the front

edges of a whale’s fin
make the fin more
efficient. This shape
is also mimicked by
wind turbines and
helicopter blades.

73
 FERNS
In the world of plants, ferns may appear to be fragile and
delicate, but their looks are deceiving. Although most ferns
are found in warm, tropical areas, ferns are hardy, widespread,
and adaptable plants. They are found all over the world and
can grow in forests, on the surface of ponds, and even in
rocks. Ferns are the largest group of seedless, vascular (veined)
plants on Earth. There are at least 11,000 known fern species and
probably hundreds more that have yet to be discovered. Unlike
flowering plants, ferns do not use seeds to reproduce. Instead, they
release tiny structures called spores that are scattered by the wind.
These spores develop into heart-shaped plants called prothallia, which
are so small they are hard to notice in the wild. Sperm and eggs are
From fern fossils we know
produced on the prothallia. They combine to form embryos that grow that ferns belong to an
ancient group of plants
out of the prothallia into new ferns. that evolved between 385
and 359 million years ago.

TREE FERNS 3
Super-sized ferns are common in the world’s tropical
forests. They are called tree ferns and, even though they
are not true trees, they can grow to be 80 feet (about
24 m) tall. Tree ferns don’t have bark. Instead, their
trunks are made of vertically growing rhizomes, or
stems, covered by a sheath of durable roots.

FIDDLEHEADS 2
Fern buds and leaves develop in a tightly coiled
structure that looks like, and is called, a fiddlehead.
As the young fern leaves mature, the fiddleheads
begin to slowly unfurl. Fiddleheads are one of
the most recognizable of a fern’s features,
although not all ferns have them.
Some people consider fiddleheads
a delicacy and collect, cook,
and eat them each spring.

1 THE COMMON WOODLAND FERN

One unpopular but common fern species is
a woodland fern called bracken. It is found in
temperate and tropical climates worldwide.
Bracken is one of the first plants to colonize
open ground, invading fields and pastureland.

A structure called an indusium protects

clusters of the spore-producing structures
called sporangia. Sporangia are found on
the undersides of fern fronds.

74
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
The leaves of tree ferns
can be up to 13 feet
(almost 4 m) long.

did you
know?
NATIVE AMERICANS USED TO
SNACK ON THE SWEET TASTING
LICORICE FERN. THEY USED THE
LADY FERN TO MAKE TEA.

75
 FLOWERS Fruit
containing
seed
is carried
into the air.
Flowers are loved all over the world for their sweet smells and beautiful colors,
but sometimes they are deadly. Certain flowers are so poisonous that children
have died from eating them or from drinking vase water. Other flowers are
edible and nutritious. With over 400,000 species, flowers have a variety of
sizes, shapes, colors, and smells. Some, such as the dandelion, are familiar
because they grow in so many places. Others, such as the giant Rafflesia,
are rare and have unusual characteristics. You might think of a flower
as a plant with colorful blossoms, but to a scientist, a flower is
only the reproductive part of a plant: the part that makes seeds.
Strong smells and bright petals attract insects. The reward for
visiting is a sugary liquid food called nectar. Pollen sticks to
insects when they eat, and they transport the pollen
between flowers. Parts of the pollen then fertilize
eggs, which develop into seeds.

FLYING FRUIT 3 The parachute

remains attached
Dandelion seeds have feathery parachutes to to the seed head
help them fly far from their parent plant. A until a gust of
dandelion is made up of many small flowers, wind picks it up.
called florets. Each floret develops a single fruit.
The fruits form inside the closed-up seed
head, after the yellow petals have withered
away. When the weather is dry, the seed
head opens, revealing a ball of
parachutes. The slightest breeze
lifts the parachutes into the air.

The open seed head

The flowerhead reveals fully formed
opens daily. Insects fruits, each attached
get nectar from to a tiny parachute.
the flower but do
not pollinate it.

Seeds develop
inside the closed
flowerhead.

did you
know? HONEY BEES VISIT ABOUT TWO MILLION FLOWERS
TO MAKE ONE POUND (0.5 KG) OF HONEY.

76
RAFFLESIA 2

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Not all flowers have the sweet smell you might
expect. The world’s largest flower is a species of
Rafflesia. This enormous flower smells like rotting
meat. The smell is repulsive to most people (although
it doesn’t seem to be bothering these kids!), but it
attracts insects that pollinate the flower. It has no PROTECTIVE SPIKES
stem, leaves, or roots. Instead, it lives as a parasite. Hard spikes extend from the
It obtains nutrients from thin strands of tissue that center region of the Rafflesia.
extend into nearby vines. Rafflesia grows only in the In a female flower, these spikes
rain forests of Southeast Asia. protect thousands of eggs.

GIANT PETALS
A fully grown Rafflesia is about 3 feet (1 meter)
wide. The bud takes almost a year to mature. It
then opens into five thick, fleshy petals which RIM OF THE CUP
last only about a week before decomposing. This The rim of tissue
short time available for pollination is one reason around the central cup
the plant is rare. of a Rafflesia tends to
keep the putrid smell
close to the flower. The
strong smell attracts
more insects and
increases the chance
of pollination.

77
 PLANT TRICKS
You might think all plants rely only on photosynthesis or
absorb all their nutrients from the soil. Think again! Plants live
in a wide variety of biomes and habitats such as forest, desert, VENUS’ FLYTRAP 2
The Venus’ flytrap lives in certain boggy
and marsh. They have evolved adaptations, characteristics areas of North and South Carolina.
that help them survive in stressful environments. Some plant Because the soil cannot provide all its
nutrients, the Venus’ flytrap evolved as a
adaptations are especially unique. Places like rain forests and carnivorous plant. Carnivorous plants are
many swamps, for example, have very little fertile soil. Plants adapted to attract, capture, digest, and
absorb insects and other tiny animals.
that inhabit these places cannot depend on the soil to fulfill all The flytrap’s jawlike leaves secrete sweet-
their nutritional needs. They must find other ways to survive. smelling nectar. When an unsuspecting
insect tickles the trigger hairs, the leaves
Some live on nutrients left in the dead matter of other plants. snap shut. Digestive fluids break down
Others actually trap, kill, and digest insects. Because some the insect’s soft parts, and the leaves
absorb the nutrients. The plant releases
plants like Indian pipe (white waxy plants) lack chlorophyll, the exoskeleton days later.
they cannot make their own food to live. Instead, they
have a parasitic relationship with fungi, where
The prey must touch
the plant’s roots tap into the fungi and take the 2 trigger hairs or the
same hair twice within
nutrients they need. about 20 seconds for
the trap to close.

The inside surface

of each leaf
typically has
6 trigger hairs.

78
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
When the pitcher is fully
grown, the lid opens and
the trap is set. 4 PITCHER PLANT
The various species of carnivorous pitcher plants evolved to
have a leaf shaped like a tall pitcher or cup. The leaf partially
Certain fly and mosquito fills with a fragrant liquid that attracts prey. Once inside
larvae are known to inhabit
some pitcher plant species. the pitcher, the prey slides down the slippery lower walls of
the leaf. Downward pointing hairs above the slippery sides
prevent the prey from escaping. After the prey drowns in
the liquid, acid from digested prey or enzymes produced by
bacteria digest the prey and the leaf absorbs the nutrients.
Some pitchers
did you
grow at the end
of a tendril that
hangs from a
flat leaf.
know?
BROMELIADS ARE LIKE SMALL ECOSYSTEMS. BIRDS, TREE
FROGS, TINY CRABS, AND OTHER CREATURES MIGHT SPEND
THEIR ENTIRE LIVES INSIDE THEM.

In some species, bacteria

living in the pitcher excrete
the enzymes that digest prey
for the plant.

The trap does not close entirely

at first, enabling very small
insects that would not provide
enough nutrients to escape.

After 3 to 5 meals, the

leaves stop trapping
prey and simply
photosynthesize for
several months before
dropping off the plant.

AIR PLANTS 1
Bromeliads, also called air plants, do not need soil.
Instead they use their roots to cling to a host plant.
Bromeliads get all the moisture and nutrients they need
from the air and from leaves and debris that fall into
them. Their leaves form a tight spiral, capturing water
from dew or a rainstorm. They also are home to insects
that excrete wastes full of nutrients.

79
 BIOFUELS
Fields of flax, sunflowers, and corn—do they make you think of cars? These plants
all play a part in making liquid fuels, called biofuels, that can power cars, tractors,
buses, and more. Biofuels are made from biomass, which is matter from living
things, especially plants. One advantage of using more biofuel is that we use less
fossil fuel, such as gasoline. Another benefit is that not only are plants renewable,
but the carbon dioxide (CO2) they release when they burn is balanced by the CO2
they take in when they grow. Some negatives are that gases are given off during the
production and transport of biofuels. The process of clearing land in order to turn it
into cropland also generates greenhouse gases. Scientists are hoping that on balance
the total output of CO2 is less, but this is still being debated.

CORN IN YOUR GAS TANK? 3

One biofuel is ethanol, an alcohol often made
from high-starch grains such as corn. Ethanol
can be used on its own as a fuel or blended with
gasoline. Henry Ford designed the Model T to
run on ethanol. Scientists are
working on ways to make ethanol
from parts of plants that are not food,
such as husks, stems, and leaves.

The use of corn

is controversial—
should the land be
used for food or fuel?

did you
know?
THE DIESEL ENGINE DEMONSTRATED AT THE
1900 WORLD’S FAIR RAN ON PEANUT OIL.

PLANT POWER 3
These lavender flax and yellow canola
plants yield oil that may soon help make
biodiesel, another biofuel. Biodiesel is
made by mixing alcohol with vegetable
oils. Even recycled cooking grease or
animal fat can be used. Biodiesel can be
added to gasoline or used on its own in
diesel engines.

80
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
NOT JUST A FAST CAR 2
This British car, the Vauxhall Astra, runs on 100 percent
ethanol. In fact, many racing cars use ethanol because it
combusts, or burns, more completely in the engine, giving
great performance and reducing emissions and smog. In 2007,
the Indy Racing League®, home of the Indianapolis 500®,
began using 100 percent ethanol as its official race fuel.

MORE THAN JUST A PRETTY FACE 1

Though it can be a bit costly, sunflower oil is being looked at
as a source for both ethanol and biodiesel fuel. Some farmers
make biodiesel fuel from oil extracted from the sunflowers they
grow. They mix the oil with lye and alcohol to create biodiesel
to fuel their trucks and tractors.
Yellow canola plants Flax

81
 SEED BANK
In a vault on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen near the North Pole sits
a valuable treasure. It’s not gold or diamonds, but seeds! The future of the
world’s food supply (and all other products we get from plants) rests with
the seeds stored here in the Svalbard Global Seed Vault and in the more than
1,400 seed banks around the world. Each plant species may contain many
varieties. For example, there are more than 100,000 different varieties of rice!
Genetic differences within a species may mean differences in resistance to
disease or in the ability to grow in different climates. At the same time, of the
thousands of plant species that have historically appeared in peoples’ diets,
fewer than 150 are grown today. Plant species threatened with extinction due
to natural disaster, disease, war, and climate change are helped by seed banks
that maintain the diverse gene pools needed to feed the world.

DOOMSDAY VAULT 3
This unusual-looking structure is the
entrance to the Svalbard Global Seed
Vault. Nicknamed the “Doomsday
Vault” and “Noah’s Ark,” it was built
by the Norwegian government to
provide a secure location for seed
banks around the world to store
duplicate collections. Its 3 storage
chambers can hold a total of
4.5 million seed samples, each
sample containing an average of
500 seeds.

INTERNATIONAL CENTER OF 1
TROPICAL AGRICULTURE
The International Center of Tropical
Agriculture (CIAT) in Colombia holds
the world’s largest and most varied
collection of beans, cassava, and tropical
grasses from Latin America, Asia, Africa,
and the Middle East. For more than
40 years, scientists and farmers have
used these materials for research and
agricultural purposes. The CIAT has
already sent duplicates to the Svalbard
vault for safekeeping.

82
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
1 DEEP IN A FROZEN MOUNTAIN
The remote island location of the Svalbard Vault was
selected in part because of its climate and geology.
The deep underground location of the storage
chambers in frozen ground will keep the vault’s
temperature cool enough to protect the seeds
in case of a power failure. The facility’s
elevation—about 427 feet (130 meters)
above sea level— will protect the seeds
from any rise in sea level resulting
from global warming.

did you
know?
IN 2005, A 2,000-YEAR-OLD SEED FROM A NOW-EXTINCT
SPECIES OF DATE PALM WAS SUCCESSFULLY SPROUTED,
THE OLDEST KNOWN SUCH SPROUTING!

83
 ANIMAL BODIES
A porcupine’s spines are
made out of the same
protein that makes up hair
and fingernails.
Porcupine spines, elephant trunks, and delicate butterfly wings.
You can recognize many animals by the special structures,
or parts, of their bodies. But these structures do more than
just show who’s who. They also help the animal survive.
For example, an elephant’s trunk is long, strong,
and flexible, making it useful for grabbing food,
collecting water, and interacting with other
elephants. Animals’ bodies are loaded
with parts that help them stay alive.
Take eyes, for example. Beavers have
an inner eyelid that they can
see through under water. A
similar eyelid keeps sand out
of camels’ eyes. Frogs’ eyeballs
can sink back into their skulls
to help push large prey down
their throats.

LITTLE ARMORED ONE 2

Armadillos are the only mammals alive
Mammals, such as
with such a hard, leathery shell. Armadillo, porcupines and
in fact, means “little armored one” in armadillos, have
Spanish. This nine-banded armadillo is an hair. This important
structure helps them
insect-eating mammal about the size of a stay warm.
small cat. It lives in the southeastern United
States. The armadillo’s shell offers good
protection from its enemies. The bands on a nine-
banded armadillo
When not hunting for food, the
are joints that let the
armadillo spends most of animal bend its body.
its time sleeping in an Otherwise, its armor
underground burrow. is not very flexible!

84
2 WATCH OUT! PORCUPINE SPINES!

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

The African porcupine is a large rodent whose back The claws help the
spider hold its prey
and tail are covered with long, sharp spines. When and its ground
the porcupine is in danger, it raises its spines so during a fight.
it seems much bigger than it is. If a predator
attacks anyhow—ouch! The spines pull off
easily, leaving the predator with a painful
reminder of how risky it is to try to eat
a porcupine.

Near the fangs are

pedipalps that help
hold prey. In adult
males, they hold
sperm.
2 DANGER! POISON!
Funnel-web spiders are large and
extremely poisonous spiders found in
Australia. They are mostly black, with
a body size ranging from half an inch
(1.5 cm) to almost two inches (5 cm)
long. Fierce hunters, funnel-web
spiders trap their prey in sock-shaped
webs built in underground burrows.
They are feared for their dangerous
venom, even though they bite humans
only in self-defense.

The fangs are strong

and sharp enough to
pierce through soft
shoes—or fingernails!

This venom is among the

most toxic in the world.
A bite to a human causes
extreme pain and can even
cause death.

A spider uses its

spinnerets to make silk
for building webs.

Spiders have hard,

shell-like armor instead
of bones to give their
bodies support and
strength. A tiny spur on the
second leg shows
that this is the
male—smaller than
the female, but with a
much more toxic bite.

The spider’s tiny

hairs allow it to sense
the movement of
air when prey or
did you
predators come near.
know?
A SURPRISED ARMADILLO CAN JUMP
MORE THAN THREE FEET (1 M) STRAIGHT
UP—4 TIMES ITS HEIGHT!

85
 NEW BODY PARTS
Our bodies can grow new blood cells, hair, nails, and skin. They did you
can repair minor bone injuries and regrow liver tissue. But they know?
SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT THE
cannot regrow entire limbs the way some animals can. We can cut POTENTIAL TO REGROW LIMBS IS IN OUR
GENES—BUT, FOR NOW, THOSE GENES
flatworms and sea sponges into pieces, and each piece will grow REMAIN INACTIVE.
into a complete animal. More complex animals like crabs and
lobsters can regrow claws, eyes, and legs. Regenerating body
parts involves unspecialized cells, called stem cells, that can grow
into any type of cell. Scientists are researching these animals that
can regenerate body parts in hopes they can one day duplicate
limb regeneration in humans.

SEA STARS 3
Most sea star species can regrow an
arm if the central disc (the center
of the body) is undamaged. A few
species can regrow an entire body
from a single arm. Scientists have
found a DNA structure (gene) in
gray sand star larvae that is similar
to one in human embryos. The
gene is involved in embryonic
development and wound
repair. Scientists believe
they can use gray sand
star larvae as a model to
research wound healing
and tissue regrowth
in humans.

1 HOW DO BODY PARTS REGENERATE?

Stem cells renew themselves by cell division, giving
rise to two identical daughter cells. Then, through
a process called specialization, they can become
any type of cell—skin, muscle, nerve, and other When a lizard
tail breaks off, it
tissues. Specialized cells can revert to stem cells in separates on a
animals that regenerate body parts. Cell-to- special plane in
cell communication gives the stem cells the middle of a
instructions, such as what type of vertebra.
cells to become and where
they belong.

THE LIZARD’S ESCAPE STRATEGY 1

Many lizard species can voluntarily break off their tails to get away from
attacking predators. Afterward, the lizard can regenerate skin, muscle, fat,
cartilage, and neural tissues to regrow a new tail. The new tail, however, is not
as long or strong as the original as it has a cartilage rod rather than vertebrae.

86
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
This sea star is
regenerating
two arms.

87
 ECHOLOCATION
Most animals use vision to find prey and travel through their world. But
some animals use their ears to “see.” These animals emit sounds (often clicks
or squeaks) that travel in waves through air or water. When a sound wave
encounters a solid object, it bounces back. By listening to this echo, animals
can locate prey or obstacles. The echoes give information about an object’s
size, shape, distance, traveling speed, and direction of movement! This process
is called echolocation. Some bats, birds, shrews, and marine animals use
echolocation. The time it takes for an echo to return shows how far away prey
is. The loudness of an echo can indicate the prey’s size, distance, and even
texture. Dolphins can detect prey from hundreds of yards or meters away, and
bats can tell whether or not a moth is fuzzy. When bats begin a hunt, they
may send out one sound per second. As they get close to their prey, however,
they may emit 200 or more sounds per second.

Shrews have tiny eyes and

must rely on touch (whiskers)
2 THE ECHO OF A WORM and sound (echolocation) to
Pygmy shrews weigh less than a penny and can fit on locate prey.
your thumbnail. They must eat every 15 to 30 minutes,
24 hours a day. When hunting prey, pygmy shrews
make a rapid yawning motion. They aren’t sleepy. They
are emitting ultrasonic pulses of sound to echolocate
prey, such as this worm. Pygmy shrews also use
echolocation to find their way through piles of leaves
or to navigate in underground tunnels.

Shrews have two sets of

whiskers, which they can
twitch 20 times per second
Shrews and moles eat to touch and determine
insects and earthworms. characteristics of prey.
Earthworms avoid sunlight,
and instead come to the
surface to feed at night.

88
DINING LATE 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Bats have good eyesight, but they
are nocturnal mammals. Many bats
use echolocation to navigate and
find food in the dark. Different types
of bats use different echolocation
frequencies. Scientists can record the
sounds to identify bat types. Moths
have evolved strategies to defend
themselves from echolocating bats.
Some have fuzzy wings that muffle
the echo. Foul-tasting tiger moths
send clicking noises out to bats, and
bats avoid them.

Bats emit bursts of

high-pitched sounds
did you
know?
USING ECHOLOCATION, A BAT TRAVELING
to locate prey.
Echoes
bounce back
from a nearby
AT HIGH SPEEDS CAN DETECT AN OBJECT moth.
THE WIDTH OF A HUMAN HAIR!

It takes a bat less than

half a second to capture
a moth after detecting it.

89
 INSECTS
Great eggfly
butterfly
pupa

With more than 1,000,000 identified species,

insects are the most abundant animals on Earth.
Scientists estimate that millions more species
of insects have yet to be identified. Insects have Red admiral
butterfly
adapted to jungles, deserts, the arctic tundra, and
even hot springs. They are remarkably diverse in
their size, appearance, and behavior. Some can
swim while others fly. Many jump, play dead,
and even sing. Insects range in length
from less than a millimeter (fairy
fly) to more than a foot
BUTTERFLIES 3 (giant walking sticks
Butterflies and moths are in
the insect order Lepidoptera.
of Malaysia).
Butterfly eggs
Butterflies have four wings
covered with colorful scales
and a coiled tongue that they
use to sip nectar. They inhabit
every continent except
Antarctica. There are at
least 14,000 known
species of butterfly Swallowtail butterfly
and probably
thousands more
waiting to be
discovered.

Housefly

Pink sallow
moth
Blowfly
Oleander
hawk moth Dragonfly

Cranefly

Maggots
Mottled
green moth Caterpillar

Oak silk moth MOTHS 1 Polyphemus moth

pupa Unlike butterflies, moths are mostly nocturnal,
and their antennae are feathery rather than
club-shaped. There are at least 100,000
known species, the largest of which has Hoverfly
Brimstone moth a 1-foot (about 30 cm) wingspan! A
moth’s wings lie flat against its back
when at rest; a resting butterfly’s
wings point straight up.

90
 BEES AND BEETLES 2

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Bees belong to the order Hymenoptera.
Bees are nectar-eating insects responsible
for pollinating flowers, trees, and many of
Wood ant
our food crops. Scientists estimate that there
are about 20,000 species of bee. Beetles are
in the order Coleoptera, the largest insect
order. They are perhaps the most diverse
and successful animals on Earth,
with more than 350,000
known species. Beetles
are characterized by their
Honeycomb
hardened forewings,
called elytra, that Bee
protect the hindwings.
Wasp

did you
know?
MORE THAN 75 PERCENT OF ALL KNOWN
ANIMAL SPECIES ARE INSECTS. Jewel wasp Cockroach

Walking stick
insect eggs

Chafer beetle Hissing cockroach

Stag beetle

Fighting stag beetles

Dung beetle

Hercules
beetle

Ladybug beetle Mealworm

Leaf insect
Jeweled frog beetle

Mealworm

Stag beetle Frog beetle

Giant walking stick

Housefly

Red-spotted
longhorn beetle

91
 SPIDERS The cephalothorax The carapace is a hard
houses the stomach, protective layer that
brain, and central covers the cephalothorax.
nervous system.
It’s hard to think of a creepy-crawly spider
as an animal, isn’t it? Well, it is. Spiders belong to Pedipalp

the planet’s most numerous and diverse group

of animals: the invertebrates. Scientists have
identified about 1.7 million invertebrate
species, almost 40,000 of which are spiders.
Like all invertebrates, spiders lack a
backbone. Instead, they have an exoskeleton—a Silk is produced by
silk glands and spun
hard outer shell that protects them from predators, with structures called
The abdomen spinnerets, which are
shelters their internal organs, and regulates water loss. Like contains the heart, located beneath the
intestines, and abdomen.
many invertebrates, spiders are bilaterally symmetrical. That reproductive organs.
means a spider has a distinct front and back, and when you
draw a line down its middle, the left and right sides mirror each
other. Spiders are not insects; they are arachnids. Arachnids
have two distinct body sections: the head section, called the
cephalothorax, and the abdomen, or body section. Spiders also
have four pairs of walking legs, two fangs called the chelicerae, and
two pedipalps—leglike structures that function as sense organs.

2 SPINY-BACKED ORB WEAVER

Although spiders all share the same basic body plan,
some are more ornate than others. The remarkable, tiny
(2–10 mm) spiny-backed orb weaver is found throughout
the southern United States and South and Central
America. The female has 6 rosy-red spines protruding
from her kite-shaped abdomen. Male spiny backs are
smaller and less colorful than the females, and they
don’t have spines, just 4–5, small, abdominal humps.

The spines may

serve as defensive
structures that
discourage predators
from making a meal
of the little spider.

did you
know?
TARANTULAS CAN LIVE FOR MORE THAN 20 YEARS!
THAT’S LONGER THAN MOST DOGS LIVE.

92
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
2 JUMPING SPIDERS
With big eyes, fuzzy bodies, and flat faces, jumping
spiders are pretty cute, as spiders go. Ranging in size
from 2 to 22 mm, members of this family do not build
webs to catch prey. Instead, they use their extraordinary
jumping ability and keen binocular eyesight to pounce
Some spiders can
on prey with marvelous accuracy. Scientists believe that spin up to eight
jumping spiders have the best eyesight of any spider. different types of silk,
That’s because they have rows of eyes on the front, including egg sac silk.
top, and sides of their heads, so they can see close-up,
wide-angle, and distance. Like most spiders, jumping
Some spiders
spiders have four pairs of eyes, with each pair used for a guard their egg sacs and
different type of vision. care for the young. Others
abandon them after the
sacs are made.

1 EGG SAC
Female spiders lay hundreds to thousands of
eggs in silken sacs. These egg sacs keep the
eggs warm and protect them from predators.
Some spiders attach the sacs to the bottoms
of leaves or stones to hide them. Other
spiders carry the sacs in their jaws or
attached to their spinnerets until
the spiderlings hatch.

93
 EXOSKELETON
Clams, spiders, lobsters, and snails all have their own body armor, called an exoskeleton.
These tough coverings act as protection, keeping the outside out and the inside in.
They also support the creature living inside. Like our skin, these coverings help protect
the animal from drying out. Unlike skin, exoskeletons do not automatically increase
in size when the animal inside grows. Some animals, such as clams, are able to add
onto their shells layer by layer. Insects and crustaceans such as crabs, with more
complicated body shapes, have a different solution. These creatures molt, or shed,
their exoskeleton regularly as they grow. Some even reabsorb or eat their old outer
covering to keep the valuable proteins inside.

Cicadas are also called dry

bugs, because they leave
SINGING CICADAS 3 behind a dry shell after
Cicadas are flying insects that feed on the molting. The abandoned
sap of plants. They have several different life exoskeletons are often a
sign that the cicadas have
stages, and their exoskeletons molt as the emerged from underground.
insect grows. The young nymph cicadas live
underground for up to 17 years, and suck on
roots for food. Once they emerge from the
ground, adult cicadas mate, produce eggs,
and then die—all within a few weeks.

The fiddler crab’s limbs

are attached to its hard
shell, or carapace, Four pairs of limbs
shown here on a are used for walking
model of the crab. The and burrowing. The
entire exoskeleton fifth pair is used for
must be molted as feeding and defense.
the crab grows.

Eye stalks poke

4 GIVE HIM A BIG HAND through holes in
Female and young fiddler the shell.
crabs have two front claws
of the same size, but mature
male fiddler crabs have one
Large powerful claw that is much larger
muscles operate than the other. This claw
the top section of The male’s single large
claw is used to fight
can be up to 65 percent of
the claw, allowing it to
open, close, and crush. and to attract mates. the crab’s weight!
It uses its small claw
for feeding.

94
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
A snail grows its shell
by adding new layers of
The exoskeleton of cicadas shell-forming calcium
and many crustaceans is made carbonate to the
of chitin. Chitin is rigid except opening. It thickens its
between certain body parts shell by adding to the
where it is thin enough to inside lining.
allow for movement

Most land snails

have two pairs of
retractable tentacles
on their head. The
longer pair has light-
sensitive eyespots.

1 COIL OF ARMOR
This slippery common snail also has an
exoskeleton, which protects its soft body.
The snail’s body can be squeezed into the
Thin, strong veins shell when the snail is alarmed. The smallest
stiffen the wings.
A hinge allows the species of snail is less than a millimeter long,
cicada’s wings to flap. but the largest land snail can reach 15 inches
(almost 39 cm)—that’s longer than some
dogs—and is a heavyweight at almost 2 pounds
(about 900 g).

Many people around

the world eat cicadas—
especially the females did you
because they’re usually
meatier. The cicada
exoskeleton is also used
know?
IF A CRAB LOSES A LIMB TO A PREDATOR, IT CAN GROW
in some traditional
Chinese medicines to
A NEW ONE! THE NEW APPENDAGE GROWS UNDER THE
treat high fevers. SHELL AND CAN BE REPLACED WITHIN A FEW MOLTS.

DO THE SIDEWAYS SCUTTLE 2

A crab’s movement is restricted by its exoskeleton, and by the way its legs
bend. The joints in its appendages can move forward and back in only one
direction—the way our knees move—but their “knees” face sideways. As a
result, most crabs move only sideways. A crab can tuck its limbs in tightly,
allowing it to squeeze into small areas, avoiding fish or larger crabs who
may want a snack.

The sharp ends of the

crab’s legs can grip
irregular surfaces.

Jointed limbs bend in

one direction only.

95
 SUPERCOOLING FROGS
Like all amphibians, frogs are ectotherms, meaning their body
temperature depends upon their environment’s temperature.
Temperature is an important abiotic factor (nonliving part) of a
frog’s environment. How do some frogs that live in colder climates
survive the freezing conditions of winter? The secret lies in their
ability to freeze! Freezing typically damages cells—mostly due to
ice formation—and can result in tissue death, such as frostbite, or
death of the entire animal. However, some frogs have a secret anti-
winter weapon. As soon as the frog’s body detects ice, the frog’s liver
quickly produces large amounts of glucose or glycerol, which the
circulatory system distributes to every part of its body. The glucose
or glycerol is a cryoprotectant. It reduces ice formation in the cells
and controls the freezing process. At the same time, water leaves the
cells and moves into empty spaces in the frog’s body, where it will
freeze without damaging the cells. Eventually, the vital organs freeze
and shut down, but the chemical interactions needed to keep the
frog alive continue, even without oxygen!

SPRING PEEPER 2
Amphibians have many ways of dealing with cold winters.
Some species of toads dig deep holes. Newts hibernate
underground in existing holes. Some aquatic species live in
the water below the ice. Spring peepers, frogs from eastern
North America that are about an inch (2.54 cm) long, can
winter in less protected areas: under logs or up in trees.

96
 GRAY TREEFROG 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Gray treefrogs inhabit eastern North
America. They help control the insect
population by eating mosquitos, flies,
and gnats. When hibernating, they
may burrow under fallen leaves or hide
beneath loose bark. Both gray treefrog
species—this eastern gray treefrog and
Cope’s gray treefrog—endure freezing
in order to survive winters in the
northern parts of their ranges.

The heart is the last

organ to shut down
during freezing and
the first organ to start
when thawing.

Ice growth typically

starts in the frog’s
hind limbs and ends
in the brain.

1 WOOD FROG ON ICE

The temperature at which each of these frogs begins to freeze also plays an
important role in helping them survive. A substance is supercooled if it remains
liquid below the freezing point. The cryoprotectant in the frog’s cells lowers the
temperature at which the frogs will freeze. For each of these frogs, their bodies
supercool only a few degrees before ice begins to form. For example, wood
frogs supercool only to between 28°F and 26°F (–2°C and –3°C) before they
start freezing. This reduces the possibility of ice growing too quickly, damaging
the organism. Instead, the process of ice formation is carefully controlled.

97
 BIRDS
This diverse and colorful crowd has about 9,000 species of all shapes and sizes. The 2.5-inch
(about 6.4-cm) bee hummingbird weighs the same as a dime. The wandering albatross wins for
longest wingspan: 11 feet (about 3.4 m). Ostriches can grow to 9 feet (2.7 m) tall. And because
most birds can fly, they live almost everywhere, from deserts to the poles. Some species of birds
do not travel far in their lifetime, while others migrate huge distances.
Hummingbird
Setting a nonstop flight record, a female bar-tailed godwit flew
7,257 miles (11,679 km) from Alaska
to New Zealand.

Zebrafinch

Blue tit

Emu
Tawny eagle

King
penguin

Pekin duck

Peahen

TOO BIG TO FLY! 3

Emus have long powerful legs,
but very small wings. They cannot
fly, but they do run fast—up to
31 miles (almost 50 km) per hour.
Other flightless birds include the
ostrich, rhea, cassowary, and kiwi.

98
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
FANCY FEATHERS 2
The Indian peacock displays his amazing long tail
feathers, called his train, to attract a mate. The peacock Parakeet
lifts his train to form a fan. Each feather has eye-like
spots of brilliant blue, green, and orange. Some studies
show that the more eye spots the peacock has, the more
peahens he attracts.

Owl

Swift

TONGUE TWISTER 3
A green woodpecker has a
powerful beak. It also has a
long, sensitive tongue
Green woodpecker
that is stored curled up
inside its skull. The tip of
the tongue is armed with
barbs, which keep the ants
and grubs the bird eats from
wriggling away.

Toucan

Flamingo

Pelican

Peacock

did you
know?
BECAUSE THEY DON’T HAVE TEETH, BIRDS NEED A SECOND
STOMACH, CALLED A GIZZARD, TO GRIND UP FOOD.

99
 BIRDS CONTINUED
Birds use food and oxygen for “fuel,” HUNTERS OF THE SKIES 2
Falcons are streamlined, fast-flying birds of prey, called
and both their frame and “engine” raptors, with long, narrow, pointed wings and long,
are built for fuel-efficiency. They have narrow tails. They feed mainly on other birds and
insects, and usually capture their prey in midair.
lightweight bones, many of which are Other raptors include owls, hawks, eagles,
hollow. For added strength, the bones and vultures. Most of these birds have
excellent eyesight and sharp,
have honeycombed supports inside. Birds hooked bills for tearing at
digest food fast, and their large, fast-beating flesh. They are highly
skilled fliers.
heart pumps nutrients quickly through their
body. Their respiratory system is very efficient.
Connected to their lungs are air sacs that tuck
into spaces throughout the body. These sacs act like
pumps, sucking in air and pushing it out of the body,
keeping a continuous flow of fresh air to the lungs.
The lungs themselves don’t contract much. Even so, birds
breathe rapidly during flight. Pigeons breathe more than 400
times per minute!

Most feathers are 4 FEATHERS FOR ALL OCCASIONS

called contour feathers, Birds are the only animals that have feathers.
including the wing and
tail feathers, and are There are many types—to insulate, streamline,
aerodynamic devices. and waterproof the bird, and to enable flight.
Each bird has between 1,000 and 25,000
Fuzzy feathers, such as feathers, depending upon the species and
down, are for insulation. size. The tundra swan has the most on record.
Colorful feathers are to
attract mates.
Feathers are composed mostly of keratin,
the same substance that horns, hooves, and
fingernails are made from. Birds molt once or
twice each year to replace old, broken, or worn-
out feathers with new ones.

Peacock down
feather

Pheasant feathers

Peacock feather

100
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you

The great hornbill, about

know?
SOME BIRDS’ LARGE EYEBALLS ARE SO
4 feet (about 1.2 m) tall, TIGHTLY PACKED INTO THEIR NARROW SKULL
has a horny growth, called THAT THEY ALMOST TOUCH IN THE MIDDLE.
a casque, on top of its bill.

SHAPED FOR EATING 1

Each type of bird has a bill or beak adapted for its
particular diet. The great hornbill’s sturdy beak can handle
not only its favorite fruit, figs, but small animals. A strong
cone-shaped bill helps finches and grosbeaks pick up
and crack seeds. Insect-eaters such as warblers have
thin, slender, pointed beaks. Hummingbirds have long,
strawlike bills to sip nectar from flowers. A merganser
grabs fish with the hooked point of its bill and holds it
with the bill’s jagged edges.

Some raptors can

see a rabbit a mile
(1.6 km) away.

In flight, the wing

feathers closer to the
body provide lift. The
longer outermost
feathers at the tip of
the wing pull the bird
forward.

Curved, sharp claws,

called talons, help
raptors catch and
grip prey.
Tail feathers function
as direction-changers
and as brakes.

101
 ALGAE
Some may be tiny—living as microscopic, single cells in
soil, on rocks, or in water. Others may be tall—making up dense
underwater forests of seaweed 100 feet (about 30 m) high. Whether
tiny or tall, algae are important organisms! Algae are producers. Producers
are living things that make their own food from carbon dioxide and water, using
the energy from sunlight. The oxygen made by algae helps living things all over
the world survive. And, as producers, algae form the base of many aquatic food
chains. They are especially important in ocean food chains. There, the algae living
in the sunlit upper waters are food to countless other organisms. And those
organisms are food for even larger organisms, and so on up the food chain. In
this way, the energy of sunlight is transferred from one living thing to another
throughout the ocean.

WALLS OF GLASS 3
Ocean diatom found
Diatoms may seem like tiny glass ornaments. In fact, near the island of
they are microscopic algae that have cell walls made Oahu, Hawaii
of silica, the main substance that makes up sand Diatoms can have a wide
and glass. Most diatoms live as single cells in variety of shapes, including
oceans, lakes, and soils. It is long rods, round discs, fat
cylinders, and stars, such as
estimated that diatoms carry this one.
out more than a quarter of
the world’s photosynthesis.

did you
know? GIANT KELPS ARE MANY-CELLED ALGAE THAT
CAN GROW TO A LENGTH OF 200 FEET (60 M).

102
 SUNLIGHT HARVESTERS 2

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Algae, such as this single-celled desmid, are like tiny solar
panels. The broad, flat shapes of algae can maximize the amount
of sunlight that they take in. They use sunlight to produce
sugars and oxygen through the process of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis takes place in cell structures called chloroplasts.
A pigment called chlorophyll found in chloroplasts gives many
algae and plants their vivid green color.

Freshwater desmid

The nucleus of a desmid is

located in the very center of
the cell.

A desmid reproduces by
splitting along this central
line. A new half grows
onto each of the original
half cells.

4 VISIBLE FROM SPACE

When conditions are right, algae can multiply quickly in a
very short period of time. These quick population spurts are
called algal blooms. Algae called coccolithophores live in ocean
surface waters, where they can get enough light to carry out
photosynthesis. They can sometimes form algal blooms so large
that they can be seen from space.

From the space shuttle

Discovery, trillions of single-
celled algae look like a
turquoise cloud swirling in
the Atlantic Ocean.

103
 OCTOPUS
Although octopuses spend a lot of time lounging or strolling along the
ocean floor using the suckers on their arms, they can move fast if they
are hunting for food or escaping danger. Octopuses propel themselves by
repeatedly taking in and squirting water out of a tube near their eyes, called
a funnel. This maneuvering requires a well-developed circulatory system.
Octopuses are one of the few invertebrates with a closed circulatory system,
which means their blood is contained and transported inside the blood
vessels. This allows blood, dissolved oxygen, and nutrients to travel quickly
through the body. Octopuses power their circulation with three hearts: one
large heart that pumps blood to the body and two smaller hearts that pump
blood to the gills, which are responsible for respiration.

The blue-ringed octopus

only displays its vivid blue
rings when threatened.
The bright pattern warns
predators to steer clear of
this venomous octopus.

OCTOPUS ANATOMY 2
Octopuses belong to the order
Cephalopoda, which means “head
foot.”Their eight boneless, muscular
arms branch out of their heads. Each
arm has two rows of super-strong Mantle
Salivary (venom) gland
suckers. The big sack behind the
octopus’s eyes, which looks like a Stomach
giant forehead, is called its mantle. Brain
Digestive gland
It contains most of the octopus’s
organs. The head includes a mouth, Eye
Heart (one of three)
with a hard beak, as well as
the eyes and brain.

Arm
Gills

Funnel

Mouth

Sucker

104
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
4 BLUE-RINGED OCTOPUS
Blue-ringed octopuses, which live off the
Australian coast, produce highly toxic venom
for which no known antidote exists. In just
minutes, the venom can kill an adult human!
The toxin is produced by bacteria that live in
the octopus’s salivary glands. Despite their
deadly venom, blue-ringed octopuses are shy
creatures that weigh less than a golf ball. They
are only aggressive toward humans when
provoked.

OCTOPUS CAMOUFLAGE 2
Octopuses are nature’s quick-change artists.
In the blink of an eye, they can change their
skin’s color, pattern, and texture by triggering
color-changing pigment cells in their skin,
called chromatophores. Octopuses use this
ability to blend into their environment or to
startle would-be attackers. When in danger,
octopuses will also shoot ink from an ink
gland, giving them time to escape.

did you
know?
OCTOPUSES ARE THOUGHT TO BE THE SMARTEST
INVERTEBRATES. IN CAPTIVITY, THEY HAVE BEEN
TAUGHT TO UNSCREW THE LID ON A JAR OF SHRIMP.

105
 SHARKS The spotted catshark pup
emerges from the egg capsule.

Sharks were here long before dinosaurs, and

they haven’t changed much in the last
100 million years. Sharks are “apex” predators, The newly hatched
pup is about 3.5 to 4
meaning they are at the top of the food chain. inches (9–10 cm) long.

They help maintain the balance of their ocean

environment by keeping the populations of prey
animals from becoming too big. Often, they
prey on sick and dying animals of many species.
These include whales and seals, which have
few predators because of their size. The shark HATCHING 1
Most sharks give birth to
population tends to increase or decrease in size live young. Some sharks—
mostly small ones like the
as the size of its prey populations expand or spotted catshark—lay eggs and
shrink. However, the relationship between shark attach them to rocks or seaweed.
The eggs have thick cases that protect
populations and their prey may be thrown out the embryos from predators. A yolk
of balance due to overfishing by an unnatural sac within the egg capsule provides
nourishment as the embryo grows.
predator of sharks—human beings. The newly hatched shark is
called a pup.

The egg capsule of the catshark

and some other sharks is called
KEEN SENSES 3 a mermaid’s purse.
Sharks use some common senses such as
vision, hearing, and smell. Other senses, such
as electroreception and the lateral line—pores
along the flank and back—are used mostly
by aquatic animals. Electroreception makes
sharks incredibly sensitive to electrical fields.
This sensitivity allows sharks, like the oceanic
whitetip shark shown here, to find hidden prey
that can’t be detected with their other senses.
The lateral line system enables sharks to sense
waves of pressure or disturbances in the water.

106
 SPEEDY SWIMMERS 2

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

The dorsal fins on a shark’s
back help the shark “balance” The white shark, shown below, swims deep in the water,
in the water as it swims. looking for seals. When it spots a seal near the surface,
the shark rushes straight up with a great burst of speed
and captures its prey. The fastest shark is the shortfin
mako, which can chase down some of the world’s fastest
fish, including tuna and swordfish. It can reach speeds of
30 miles per hour (about 48 km/h) or more.

A powerful caudal
fin propels the shark
forward through the
water. It cannot swim
backward.

did you
know?
SHARKS CAN GROW, LOSE, AND REPLACE UP
TO 30,000 TEETH DURING THEIR LIFETIME!

Sharks use their

pectoral fins to steer
and turn as they move
through the water.

An ancestor of modern
sharks existed nearly
400 million years ago.
Scientists think that A shark’s teeth are not
sharks are the first actually embedded
vertebrates with a in its jawbone, but
complete jaw. are attached to the
membrane that covers
the jaw.

TEETH FACTORIES 3
Sharks have more than one row of teeth. When a
shark attacks its prey, it may lose some teeth from the
front row. But new teeth are waiting to move forward
and take the place of the lost ones. Shark’s teeth
vary depending on the species of shark and the type
of prey it eats. Fossilized shark teeth have enabled
scientists to identify ancient species of sharks.

107
 WHALES
Whales are huge mammals
that have adapted to life in the
water. The blue whale is the
biggest animal living on Earth. The
largest blue whale on record weighed
about 300,000 pounds (about 136,000 kg)
and measured more than 108 feet (about 33 m)
in length. To maintain their huge sizes, whales eat
a lot. The diets of different whale species vary quite a bit.
Some species of whales have teeth—for example, orcas or “killer
whales.” They eat different kinds of fish but also hunt seals, sea lions,
and even sharks! Other species, such as the blue and the humpback
whales, have bony plates called baleen in the upper jaw. Baleen
whales eat millions of zooplankton and tiny fish every day. They
gulp great amounts of water and strain the food using their baleen.
A whale’s body is covered by a thick layer of fat called blubber, which
can be up to a foot and a half thick (about 46 cm). Blubber keeps
whales warm in freezing temperatures and, since blubber is lighter
than water, it allows whales to float better.
Whale pectoral flippers help
stabilize a whale’s body in the
water. By slapping a flipper on the
surface of the water, whales can
communicate with each other.

1 BUBBLE NETTING
Some humpback whales cast their own nets when A whale’s ears are
very sensitive. Whales
fishing—only their nets are made of bubbles! A group can hear other whale
of whales dives deep below a school of fish. One whale calls across hundreds
blows bubbles while swimming in a circle. The bubbles of miles of ocean.
rise up and form a cylinder of bubbles that the fish will
not swim through. Then the other whales, with their
mouths open wide, lunge to the surface through the
middle of the cylinder. They get a huge mouthful of
water and fish.

108
 2 WHALE PODS

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Whales are social creatures that live in groups called pods. Some group
members are old and others are young calves. A whale in a pod may
live close to its parents for several years. Groups are especially effective
when working together to round up fish with bubble nets, and for
protecting the calves from predators. If predators threaten a sperm
whale calf, the adults form a ring around the calf, facing outward.
To get to the calf, the predator would probably think twice
before attempting to get past the massive adults! Whales
also produce amazing sounds to communicate
with each other in breeding grounds, to
hunt schools of fish, and to locate
geographic features in the ocean
as they migrate. Scientists
have shown that whales
can hear their calls
through hundreds
of miles of ocean.

The tail, or fluke, of a whale is very

strong. It is used to propel the
animal forward. Flukes also allow
scientists to identify each animal by
its unique tail markings.

SPOUTING 3
Because they are mammals, whales
need to breathe air. They must come
to the surface. Whales breathe through
blowholes located near the top of their
head. Blue whales can hold air in their
lungs for more than 30 minutes, and
sperm whales can do it for up to 1.5
hours! When the whale exhales or
spouts, the moist warm air from its
lungs is released into the outside air,
forming a cloud. Some spouts can reach
a height of 33 feet (10 m).

did you
know?
BOWHEAD WHALES CAN
LIVE CLOSE TO 200 YEARS!

109
 GORILLAS
Gorillas are members of a group of primates known as the great
apes. This group includes gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, and
humans. Great apes are distinguished from monkeys by their larger
size, upright posture, and lack of tails. Primates shared a common
ancestor that lived more than 65 million years ago, but the
gorilla line began only about 7 million years ago. Today, scientists
recognize the several subspecies of gorilla, all living in equatorial
Africa: the western lowland gorilla, the eastern lowland gorilla,
and the mountain gorilla. Like all primates, gorillas have highly
developed brains and a great capacity for learning. Researchers
have taught gorillas sign language, which the gorillas have used
to identify objects, numbers, words, and people. Researchers have 1 SNOWFLAKE,
also documented gorillas using sticks and stumps as tools in the THE WHITE GORILLA
Snowflake, a beautiful and rare
wild. And, thanks to the work of dedicated scientists such as Dian white gorilla, was the first ape with a
Fossey, we also know a great deal about gorilla communication. documented case of albinism. Albinism,
which can also affect humans, is a
These amazing animals express themselves using complicated genetic mutation that prevents the
vocalizations and gestures, including hoots, whines, chest beating, production of melanin—the pigment
that colors our eyes, hair, and skin.
lip puckering, and smiling.
Older male eastern lowland gorillas are
called “silverbacks” because their black
hair turns silver below their shoulders.

Gorilla nose
prints are like human
fingerprints! Scientists
can use them to identify
individual gorillas.

Gorillas have five

toes, including an
opposable big toe
that helps them
grab branches and
objects with their
feet.

110
 GORILLA REPRODUCTION 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Spinal column
Gorillas have large, round bellies,
did you
know?
GORILLAS CAN GIGGLE! RECENT
making it difficult for scientists
to determine whether a female is
pregnant. Female gorillas give birth Humerus
Fetus

RESEARCH HAS SHOWN THAT GORILLAS to one 4.5-pound (about 2 kg) infant Womb
AND OTHER GREAT APES LAUGH WHEN gorilla after an 8½-month pregnancy.
TICKLED AND WHILE PLAYING. After about 4 years, she will give
birth again. Young gorillas grow twice
as fast as human babies and become
independent when they are about
3½ years old! Carpals (wrist bones) Intestines

PARENTAL CARE 3
Gorilla mothers invest a lot of energy in
raising and protecting their young. For its
first 5 months, a young gorilla never leaves
its mother’s side. The mother is responsible
for feeding, grooming, and nesting with her
offspring. The father teaches the young gorilla
to interact and play with the rest of the troop.

Gorillas have binocular,

color vision that lets
them focus both eyes
on an object and judge
distance.

At about 6 or 7 months of
age, young gorillas ride
piggyback. They hang
on by clutching their
mother’s long hair.

Unlike monkeys, apes do

not have tails.

4 WESTERN LOWLAND GORILLAS

When gorillas walk, they
use their arms (which These gorillas live in the rain forests of
are longer than their central Africa and, like all gorillas, are
legs) for support, highly endangered as a result of habitat
pressing their destruction and poaching. Western
third and fourth
knuckles against lowland gorillas are distinguished by
the ground. This a wide, cone-shaped head, small ears,
is why they and short hair. They are shy vegetarians
are known
as “knuckle who use their strong jaws to eat more
walkers.” than 200 different types of plants. Male
gorillas can eat up to 45 pounds (about
20.4 kg) of food per day!

111
 FROZEN ZOO
Polar bears, seals, Arctic foxes—perhaps you can imagine finding these
animals at a zoo somewhere in the frozen Arctic Circle. A frozen zoo,
however, is a very different kind of zoo. You won’t find animals there—but you
will find their sperm, eggs, embryos, blood, cell cultures, and tissues. Samples
like these contain the animals’ genetic material. An individual animal’s genetic
material, or DNA, is what determines the animal’s size, shape, color, and other
physical characteristics. Genetic material can also support an entire species’
ability to survive. Scientists have been collecting and freezing the genetic
material of endangered animals for more than 30 years. Why? Conservation.
Genetic material helps scientists protect and strengthen endangered animal
populations. With DNA, scientists can assist with breeding the animals to
increase their number of offspring and improve an entire species’ chances of
avoiding extinction.

did you
know?
IN 1980, ONLY 19 CALIFORNIA CONDORS REMAINED IN THE WILD. WITH
CONSERVATION EFFORTS AND HELP FROM SAN DIEGO’S FROZEN ZOO, THERE
ARE NOW MORE THAN 300 BIRDS, 135 OF THEM LIVING IN THE WILD.

SAN DIEGO’S FROZEN ZOO 2

Samples of genetic material from more than 8,400 individual
animals from 800 species and subspecies “live” at the Frozen
Zoo at San Diego Zoo’s Institute for Conservation Research. They
include animals like the Gobi bear, secretary bird, and
African clawed frog. Scientists
at the Frozen Zoo track
evolutionary trends
and preserve genetic
variation, or
differences among
individuals
within a species.
Species with
diverse gene
pools have a
greater chance
of survival.

You might see a

Bengal tiger cub in
a zoo. Only between
3,000 and 4,700 of
these endangered cats
remain in the wild.

112
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
4 THE GIANT PANDA CHALLENGE
About 1,600 giant pandas are all that
remain in the wild, but more than 160
live in captivity. Pandas are extremely
slow breeders. Females can bear young
only about once every 2 years. To help
find a solution to the problem, Chinese
scientists used DNA from a panda’s
cells to create a clone, or exact copy of
the panda, in the form of an embryo,
or fertilized egg. Their plan is to place
the cloned embryo inside a female that
could carry and give birth to the panda.

Giant panda cubs whose

mothers are unable to care for
them have been successfully
raised by humans.

4 YELLOW SEA HORSE

The yellow sea horse population is declining. The
species is used in traditional Chinese medicine and
sold for use in aquariums. Its DNA, along with the
DNA or tissue samples of about 1,000 species, has
been preserved by the Frozen Ark Project at the
University of Nottingham in England.

Ocean pollution and habitat

destruction also contribute
to the decreasing number of
yellow sea horses.

CRYOSPRESERVATION 3
Frozen zoos use cryopreservation,
the process of freezing and
preserving genetic material.
Scientists fill special holding
tanks with liquid nitrogen that
keeps the temperature of the
samples at –320°F (–196°C).
Frozen genetic material can be
stored indefinitely, perhaps for
thousands of years. If a species
nears extinction, scientists can
thaw the samples and use them to
help animals produce young.

113
114
EARTH

EARTH SCIENCES
SCIENCES
As far as we know, Earth is the only
place in the universe capable of
supporting life. This is due to unique
features including an optimum distance
from the sun, vast quantities of water,
and a breathable and protective
atmosphere. But our planet undergoes
constant change due to natural or
human-induced phenomena. Tectonic
plate movement continually reshapes
the surface by creating new continents,
mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes.
Wild and unpredictable weather, floods,
droughts, rock erosion, and pollution
can have devastating effects. Studying
the Earth reveals its past evolution, and
helps us to predict how changes, like
global warming, might affect its ability
to sustain life in the future.

115
 GEOLOGIC TIME
A volcano’s flow
of lava—melted
A million years may seem like a long time to us, but it is only a tiny
rock from deep
underground—gives
fraction of Earth’s age. Scientists have calculated Earth to be 4.6 billion
us an idea of what
Earth was like when it
years old! Scientists have divided this time into units that we can
first formed. use to describe the different parts of this immense span of time. To
understand the length of Earth’s history, imagine how it would
look if it were drawn on the face of a clock. Say you mark the
beginning of the geologic record of Earth—4.6 billion years
ago—at 12:00 on the clock. A full circle of the clock, 12 hours,
represents geologic time from the beginning of Earth to
the present. In this model, each hour represents about
383 million years. You can use this model to picture
the different lengths of time that spanned important
events in Earth’s history.

PRECAMBRIAN: 4.6 BILLION TO 542 MILLION YEARS AGO PALEOZOIC: 542 MILLION TO 251 MILLION YEARS AGO
Precambrian time is the longest era of the geologic record— In our clock model, the Paleozoic era took nearly an hour,
more than 10 and one-half hours on the clock model. At the extending to about 20 minutes after the 11 on the clock. It
beginning, the planet’s surface was mostly melted rock. It began with the Cambrian explosion, named for the diversity,
eventually cooled and formed a solid crust covered in part by or variety, of living things that appeared in that time. The
oceans of liquid water. After more than 600 million years— continents came together to form giant land masses that later
between 1 and 2 hours on the clock—the first living things broke apart. Plants began to grow on land and many kinds
formed from chemical building blocks in these early oceans. of animals evolved. By the end of the Paleozoic, there were
Simple, single-celled bacteria used energy from sunlight and began forests, amphibians, and reptiles that breathed with lungs.
producing oxygen. This oxygen helped create an atmosphere that It ended with the largest mass extinction ever: the Permian
would later support more complex life. It was nearly the end of extinction. About 70 percent of land animals and 90 percent of
Precambrian time before the first multicelled organisms appeared. all ocean species were wiped out.

116
 BIG IDEA REF...
did you

The oldest known trees

know?
NEARLY 87 PERCENT OF THE PLANET’S 4.6 BILLION-YEAR Modern humans
had branches and leaves HISTORY TOOK PLACE BEFORE THE SIMPLEST MULTICELLULAR first appeared about
like those of these 190,000 years ago—
modern tree ferns. LIFE FORMS EVEN CAME INTO EXISTENCE. less than 2 seconds
in the clock model of
geologic time!

MESOZOIC: 251 MILLION TO 66 MILLION YEARS AGO CENOZOIC: 66 MILLION YEARS AGO TO THE PRESENT
The Mesozoic era lasted for about half an hour on the clock. If you imagine that Earth’s history took place in a 12-hour
When you think of extinct animals, you probably think of period, the entire Cenozoic era happened during only the
the dinosaurs. The dinosaurs ruled during this era. However, last 10 minutes. During this era, small mammals and reptiles
other living things evolved too. Mammals appeared about thrived. As the continents moved closer to where they are
200 million years ago. Birds began to fly about 50 million today and the climate went through many changes, plants
years after that. Plants also changed. Ferns, then cone- and animals began to evolve with the shifting conditions.
bearing trees, and later flowering plants and trees became Whales evolved from land mammals that moved to the
the dominant plants on land. The Mesozoic ended with oceans. Grasslands formed where forests retreated. Large
another mass extinction that killed off the dinosaurs. Their grazing animals appeared. Only in the last 30 seconds of the
absence created an opportunity for modern animals to clock model did the ancestors of humans begin to walk on
evolve and flourish. two legs and use tools.

117
 FOSSILS
Fossils are like Earth’s history book. They can show what lived where
and when, and who ate what—or whom. Fossils have been discovered
in some very unlikely places. Saber-toothed cats, mammoths, ground
sloths, and prehistoric American lion fossils have been found in the
middle of the city of Los Angeles! These fossils came from the site of
La Brea Tar Pits, the largest and most diverse collection of plants and
animals from the Ice Age. Fossils of more than 2,000 individual saber-
toothed cats have been recovered from this site. But these fossils are
very young—only 10,000 to 40,000 years old. Some of the oldest known
fossils, which are of bacteria, are nearly 3.5 billion years old.

4 TRILOBITE
Trilobites are extinct arthropods—
animals like crabs and insects—that
The root of the tooth lived in ancient seas as long ago as
was embedded in the
530 million years. These creatures,
cartilage of the jaw.
which ranged in length from under
a centimeter to more than 2 feet
(70 cm), had particularly hard
exoskeletons. They molted, or shed
their exoskeletons, leaving behind
many fossils, which are still found
today. The trilobites’ soft tissues, such as
their legs, decomposed. Scientists have
pieced together information about the
trilobites using what they know
about today’s
arthropods.
Trilobites are named
for their three lobes
that run head to tail.

SHARK TOOTH 1
Sharks’ tooth fossils are abundant. When a
tooth breaks and falls out of a shark’s mouth,
a new sharp one replaces it. One shark can
shed thousands of teeth during its lifetime.
Their teeth fossilize easily, so where there The skull and tusks of
were prehistoric sharks, there are lots of Gomphotherium were
more than 6.5 feet
shark tooth fossils. long (2 m).
Tusk

did you ONLY SEVEN T. REX SKELETONS THAT ARE MORE

know? THAN HALF COMPLETE HAVE BEEN FOUND.

118
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Plastic pots for
Safety helmet collecting small
fossils

FOSSIL HUNTING 3
Fossils are most often buried in layers
of rock. To get to the fossils, you need
Protective goggles
the proper tools—for your safety and
for the fossil’s safety. Wearing a hard
hat, goggles, and gloves will protect you.
Using a hammer and a chisel is the best
way to get through the rock and protect
the fossil. Brushes help clean and repair
the fossil.

Gloves

High-backed skull Chisels Hammer

for use with
a chisel

Narial opening Brushes for fossil

(nostril) preparation

The crinoid’s waving,

food-gathering arms
always come in
multiples of five.

Cheek tooth

FOSSIL CRINOID 1
GOMPHOTHERIUM 1 Although it looks like a plant, a crinoid is
This skull from the Gomphotherium genus is about 20 million years old. actually an animal called an echinoderm. It is a
Gomphotheres were ancestors of extinct mastodons and modern elephants. relative of sea urchins and sea stars. During the
They had both upper and lower tusks, and most likely lived in lakes and swamps Paleozoic era, crinoids blanketed the sea floor.
where they used their lower tusks to dig up the vegetation. Gomphotherium Experts have used their fossil records to identify
remains have been found in many parts of the world, including Germany, Kenya, hundreds of different species of crinoids, some
and even in the middle of the United States, in Kansas. of which still exist.

119
 DINOSAURS Up in the nose of many
dinosaurs were big,
Who says that dinosaurs are ancient history? Even now, scientists are fleshy nasal passages.
These helped the
discovering new things about these Mesozoic beasts! In 1995, a fossil animals gain or lose
heat when they
hunter in Argentina discovered the skeleton of a new species of dinosaur. breathed air.

Scientists measured its bones and found that this giant meat-eating creature
was bigger than T. rex! Maybe that’s why they named it Giganotosaurus.
Along with new discoveries, there are also new arguments brewing among
scientists. Paleontologists, the scientists who study dinosaurs, are arguing
about whether dinosaurs were warmblooded or coldblooded. Recent
discoveries show that some dinosaurs were quick and active, and not
at all like the slow, lumbering, coldblooded reptiles that dinosaurs were
once thought to be. Now, many scientists are also saying that dinosaurs
are not really extinct. Most paleontologists believe that modern birds,
such as ostriches, are actually related to some of the dinosaurs who lived These sharp,
sawlike teeth
100 to 200 million years ago. were perfect for
tearing meat.

Large eyes suggest

well-developed vision.
Large inner
ears suggest
sensitive
hearing.

did you PLANT-EATING DINOSAURS COULD GROW OVER 100 FEET

know? (30 M) LONG AND WEIGH AS MUCH AS 33 CARS!

4 TROODON
The Troodon, whose name means “wounding tooth,”
was one of the first dinosaurs discovered in North
America. Studying the Troodon’s skeleton has given
scientists plenty of clues about what it was like. They
believe it was a small, quick predator with keen vision
and hearing. Because of the large size of its braincase,
scientists think the Troodon was one of the smartest
dinosaurs around.

Big, flexible Some pterosaurs had

hands were flaps on their tails
made for to keep them stable
grasping. during flight.

PTEROSAUR 3
It’s not hard to figure out why the pterosaur’s name
means “wing lizard.” However, it may be surprising
to know that these flying creatures were not
dinosaurs, even though they lived during the same
Long, thin legs
helped the Troodon time. Dinosaurs were land animals who never flew
to move quickly. until some of their descendants used feathers to fly.
Pterosaurs flew using wings with no feathers. They
were relatives of the dinosaurs who ranged in size
from tiny birds to airplanes. Their bones were hollow,
though, so these lightweight winged lizards could
soar easily through the skies.

120
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
2 GIGANOTOSAURUS
The Giganotosaurus is part of a
group of meat-eating dinosaurs
called theropods, whose name
means “beast feet.” Scientists
say that the Giganotosaurus is
probably the largest theropod in
the world. Its body measures
about 41 feet (12.5 m) long
and it is estimated to have
weighed between six and
eight tons!

Dinosaur fossils
sometimes show the
shape and size of horns
and armor.

This is what
scientists believe
the Giganotosaurus’s
tongue looked like.

The neck is protected by

thick, dry, scaly skin.

A hairlike body covering

suggests that some
pterosaurs may have been
warmblooded.

Catching fish from the

sea was easy with this
scooplike beak.

The wing was

supported along its
edge by a very long
fourth finger from
the hand.

121
 EXTINCTION
Imagine an asteroid the size of Manhattan hurtling toward Earth, its
edges in flames as it burns through the atmosphere. If you think
such an event happens only in science fiction, think again.
Scientists have found evidence that large asteroids have hit
Earth in the past. Many hypothesize that this kind of event
caused the mass extinction of the dinosaurs. Extinction
happens when an entire species dies out. A mass
extinction occurs when hundreds of different species
become extinct in a single event. The largest mass
extinction took place about 250 million years ago, just
before the first dinosaurs came into existence. This
event, called the Permian–Triassic extinction, killed off
more than 90 percent of all sea life and 70 percent
of land animals.

2 CAUSES OF MASS EXTINCTION

At least five mass extinctions have taken place in the
last 540 million years. These may have been caused
by asteroids or comets colliding with Earth, increased
volcanic activity, ice ages, or changes in sea level. Species
that survive have a new chance at life. After the Permian-
Triassic extinction, new species took the places of those
that disappeared. Dinosaurs, such as Corythosaurus and
Ceratops, dominated the era that followed.

Plant-eating Corythosaurus
had a toothless bill like a
duck and was 30 feet
(about 9 m) long.

Members of the Ceratops

genus had beaklike mouths
and bony frills on their
heads. Some had horns. They
probably ate plants.

122
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
The asteroid believed to have
caused the dinosaur extinction did you
created a crater that is about
112 miles (180 km) in diameter
in Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula.
know?
AN ENDANGERED SPECIES IS DEFINED AS ONE THAT IS IN DANGER OF
EXTINCTION THROUGHOUT ALL OR A SIGNIFICANT PORTION OF ITS RANGE.

4 SURVIVING AN ASTEROID COLLISION

Species that survive an asteroid collision confront other
problems. Dust sent up when the asteroid hits Earth could
darken the sky for weeks. The dust can strain breathing,
harm plants that depend on sunlight, and kill single-celled
organisms that are sensitive to even subtle chemical changes
in their surroundings. The extinction of some species can cause
the death of others that depend on them for food and oxygen.

Tyrannosaurus bones found

in the Rocky Mountain
region of North America
show bite marks made by
T. rex teeth, leading
scientists to believe they
fought one another or were
cannibals.

Scientists believe
that T. Rex was
wiped out during the
Cretaceous-Tertiary
mass extinction,
which may have been
caused by the Yucatán
Peninsula asteroid.

1 WAS T. REX IN YOUR BACK YARD?

Not all extinction hypotheses can be
proved, leaving scientists with incomplete
answers. Fossils provide the strongest
evidence of extinction. Scientists have also
observed a pattern in fossils that suggests mass
extinctions occur every 26–30 million years. Some
believe the pattern relates to regular travel paths of
asteroids and other celestial objects.

123
 GIANT MAMMALS
The last 65 million years are known as the Cenozoic era. This era is also
known as the Age of Mammals, because mammals thrived during this time.
Many mammals grew to incredible sizes during the Cenozoic era. These giant
mammals included beavers almost the size of modern day black bears, and
cave lions that weighed around 800 pounds (360 kg)! Most giant mammals
became extinct around 10,000 years ago for reasons that are still being
debated. Some scientists believe early humans hunted the giant mammals to
extinction. Other scientists blame the last ice age, which began 70,000 years
ago when glaciers—large, moving sheets of ice—spread across much of Earth
limiting greatly the resources these animals needed to survive.

WOOLLY MAMMOTH 3
The woolly mammoth—a symbol of the last ice age—is probably the most famous
Cenozoic mammal. Scientists know a lot about them from preserved mammoth
carcasses found in Siberia and from European cave drawings. A two-layered coat
kept mammoths
Woolly mammoths dominated the cold, northern regions toasty warm. Long,
of Europe, Asia, and North America between 350,000 and shaggy guard hairs
10,000 years ago. They were about 11 feet (about 3 m) covered a layer of
dense underfur.
tall and may have eaten about 300 pounds (136 kg) of
vegetation a day!

Woolly mammoths had

curving ivory tusks that
could reach lengths of
10 feet (about 3 m).

did you
know?
THE NOW EXTINCT HORNLESS RHINOCEROS
A mammoth
stands
11 feet tall;
INDRICOTHERIUM WAS THE LARGEST LAND this man
is 5’9” tall.
MAMMAL EVER! IT WAS 26 FEET (ALMOST 8 M)
LONG, 18 FEET (ABOUT 5.5 M) TALL, AND
WEIGHED ABOUT 20 TONS.

124
ARSINOITHERIUM 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

This rhinoceros-like African herbivore lived in swamps around 30 million
years ago. A male arsinoitherium had two huge horns sticking out from
the front of its head. These horns were hollow and scientists believe they
may have been used to produce mating calls and to duel with other males.
These massive mammals stood about 6 feet (1.8 m) at the shoulder.
Arsinoitherium
stands
The giant sloth’s head
about 6 feet
was small compared
tall; this
with its body.
man
is 5’9”
tall.

4 GIANT SLOTH
The king of the Cenozoic ground sloths
was the South American mammal
Megatherium. As big as a modern
elephant, the long-haired Megatherium
resembled an overgrown guinea pig
with a long tail. Many scientists think
that Megatherium could stand on its
hind legs and dine on leaves and
twigs that it pulled off the very top
branches of trees with its long,
sharp claws.

A giant sloth
stands 20 feet
tall; this man Megatherium may
is 5’9” tall. have used its strong
tail for balance and
support when it
stood on its back legs
to reach leaves.

125
 DATING ROCKS
A tree has rings, but how do you tell the age of a rock? Rocks have
built-in clocks. Some elements in rocks go through a process called
radioactive decay. The atoms of these elements emit particles from
their nuclei. Over millions of years, this decay causes one type of atom
to become another type. Take the element uranium, for example, a
radioactive metal found in many rocks. Some forms of uranium decay
into the element lead. If geologists count the atoms of lead in a rock
sample, and compare it with the number of uranium atoms, they can
tell how old the rock is. How? In the same way that we know how
long it takes a log to burn, geologists know how long it takes uranium
to decay into lead. So, the more lead in the rock, the older it is, because
it has spent more time decaying.

did you
know?
THE OLDEST KNOWN ROCK FORMATIONS ON
EARTH CAN BE FOUND IN GREENLAND. THEY ARE
THOUGHT TO BE 3.8 BILLION YEARS OLD.

DATING CAVE PAINTINGS 2

Scientists can also date matter that was once living, such
as bones and fabric. In the Pech Merle cave in France, the
prehistoric artists used tiny amounts of charcoal in their black
paint. Scientists measured the small amount of the radioactive
form of carbon, carbon-14, that was in the charcoal to estimate
that the paintings were created about 25,000 B.C. Scientists use
different radioactive elements depending on what elements
make up the item being dated. For instance, potassium-40 is
used to date moon rocks, because they contain trace amounts
of this radioactive element.

126
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
RESEARCH TOOLS 1
Radioactive elements have what is called a half-life: the
length of time it takes for half the atoms in element A to
decay into element B. Using a tool called a mass spectrometer,
a scientist finds that half of the atoms in a sample are A and
half are B. If A has a half-life of 100 years, and half its atoms
have decayed into B, the rock sample must be 100 years old.
The elements used to date rocks have incredibly long half-
lives. Uranium-238, for example, has a half-life of about
4.5 billion years!

Stromatolites are
rocklike structures
made of layers of primitive
microorganisms, such as
algae and bacteria, pressed
together with layers of mineral
deposits. Fossil stromatolites represent
some of the first forms of life on Earth and
have been found in rocks dated at 3.5 billion
years old. Some moon rocks collected by
Apollo astronauts ranged from
3 to 4.6 billion years old.

A pair of fossilized
tree cones dates from
between 65 and 145
million years ago.

LAYERS UPON LAYERS 1

Scientists often use more than one technique to date
rocks. Rock layers provide a way of learning what’s
called the relative age of rocks and fossils. Older rocks
are usually in the bottom layers, while younger rocks
are on top. This helps scientists infer the relative age
of fossils that are found in different layers of rock.

127
 COAL
Did you know that you can use dead plants to turn on your lights? Well, kind of.
Some electricity in the United States is produced by coal, which, at its basic level,
is made from dead plants—really dead ones—millions of years old. When layer
upon layer of plant remains are compressed under rocks and dirt for millions of
years, the result is coal—a brownish-black sedimentary rock that burns. Coal is
made up of carbons and hydrocarbons, which are quite combustible. The energy
that was trapped in the plants underneath all the rocks and soil is released when
the coal is burned. Power plants burn coal to make steam, and the steam turns
turbines that produce electricity. So dead plants = working light bulbs.

did you U.S. COAL DEPOSITS CONTAIN MORE

SURFACE MINING 2
When coal is buried less than 200 feet (about 61 m)
know? ENERGY THAN ALL THE OIL IN THE WORLD.

underground, it can be surface mined. Most of the Contour mining, a type of surface
coal in the United States is mined this way. Monstrous mining, is used in mountainous
areas. The paths follow coal beds
machines remove the topsoil and expose the coal along the hills.
beds beneath. After the coal is mined, the topsoil is
replaced. This coal mine is in Wyoming—where about
40 percent of the nation’s coal is mined.

128
HOW COAL FORMED Coal is a fossil fuel,

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Conveyor belt Mechanism that
made from the remains of ancient animals operates the lift
and plants. Coal is also a nonrenewable
resource. Once it is used up, it cannot be
Pile of coal raised
replenished. from mine

Lift shaft

From 100 to 300 million The giant plants died Over millions
years ago, giant plants and were buried. As of years, the Coal seam
containing lots of they decayed, they pressure exerted
energy lived in formed a material by accumulated
swampy forests. called peat. sediments and heat
compressed the
peat into different Coal face
Lift carries miners
types of coal such down to the tunnel
as lignite, anthracite,
subbituminous, and
bituminous coal.

The coal bed is DEEP MINING 1

divided up and
mined in layers.
Coal is sometimes buried more than 200 feet (61 m)
underground. Brave miners take elevators down deep
mine shafts. They cut the coal from the coal face with huge
machinery and send it up on long conveyor belts.

129
 ICE AGE
Would you believe someone who says we are living in an ice age? You
should. Ice ages can last many thousands of years. An ice age consists
of both cold periods (glacials), marked by the widespread advance
of glaciers, followed by warm periods (interglacials), when glaciers
retreat. We are living in an interglacial period. The last glacial period
ended about 12,000 years ago during the Pleistocene epoch. In that
glacial period, mountain ice caps and sea ice grew. Thick ice sheets
extended from the north polar region into Greenland, Russia, and
northern Eurasia, and covered Canada and parts of the United States.
Ancient ice still exists in Greenland, Antarctica, and some mountain
ranges. Scientists study the ice and the grounds where glaciers
once were to learn how ice ages affect Earth’s climate and geology.
Fossilized animals and plant matter, sediment and ice cores, and rock
studies all provide evidence of prehistoric life and climate change.

READING AN ICE AGE

Scientists can determine Pleistocene glacial activity by studying
rock layers, rock surfaces marked by glacial movement, and
boulders carried great distances by advancing ice sheets. There
are many fossils from the Pleistocene epoch. Because they are
well preserved, scientists can tell exactly when the organisms
lived. Fossils of plant pollen, single-celled organisms, and animal
remains provide significant data about the effects of climate
change on plant and animal life.
Fossilized bone
remains

THE WOOLLY MAMMOTH 1

The woolly mammoth is the best-known fossilized vertebrate
animal from the Pleistocene epoch. Carcasses, skeletons, and
other fossils have been found in Eurasia and North America.
Scientists debate why the species became extinct. Climate
change, overhunting, and disease are three strong theories. Fossilized woolly
mammoth tooth

130
 4 EARTH’S OWN CLIMATE RECORDS

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Ancient rocks, dating to about 2.3 billion years ago,
contain evidence that a rise in atmospheric oxygen led
to the earliest ice age. Sediment tells scientists where
glaciers were located. Fossils of pine cones, stems, leaves,
and pollen indicate how the movement of glaciers, as
well as the climate change it caused, affected where
different northern trees grew. Tree rings of fossilized ice
age wood show how much growth took place.

Tree ring widths reflect

changes in rainfall and
temperature from one
growing season to the next.

Face masks protect

the ice core sample
from germs and
heat carried by the
scientist’s breath.

GLACIAL ICE CORE STUDY 3

Scientists study glacial ice
cores to determine how the
composition of the atmosphere
has changed over time. They
extract gases from tiny air bubbles
trapped in the core and measure
how much carbon dioxide,
methane, and other greenhouse
gases they contain. They also infer
historic temperatures by studying
water molecules released when
the core melts. Scientists use both
sets of data to reconstruct Earth’s
climate change record.
Ice core sample

did you
Ice core drill bit
know?
TO STUDY HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF YEARS OF
CLIMATE HISTORY, SCIENTISTS HAVE DRILLED ICE CORE
SAMPLES DEEPER THAN 2 MILES (3.3 KM)!

131
 GLACIERS
Earth’s poles are locked in ice, but for how long? Glaciers— CAVES AND CALVING 2
Glacier ice can be unstable where a glacier
large masses of ice that grow and move over time—have meets the sea. The vertical cracks, called
advanced and retreated throughout Earth’s history. As they crevasses, in this glacier form at areas of
weakness. Meltwater, running down into a
do, they leave behind telltale landforms as signs of their crevasse, has widened one crack far below
into an ice cave. Often, huge chunks of the
movement. Deposits of rock left by glaciers in South Africa glacier break free and fall into the sea below
and Australia, which are 290 million years old, provide becoming icebergs. This process, called calving,
increases as global temperatures rise.
evidence that these areas that are now separate were once
joined. At that time, much of the world was covered in
ice sheets. During the reign of the dinosaurs, 145 million
years ago, the world was warmer. There were no ice sheets
on Earth, not even at the poles! Sea levels were higher
did you
and a shallow inland sea covered what is now the Great
Plains of the United States. Cooler temperatures eventually
know?
THE GLACIER ICE IN ANTARCTICA IS MORE
THAN 2.5 MILES (4 KM) THICK!
returned, glaciers formed again, and sea levels fell. Today,
three fourths of Earth’s fresh water is frozen in ice caps and
glaciers. As Earth’s average temperature rises, glacier ice
melts faster than it accumulates. Will shallow inland seas
return some day?

Accumulation zone,
where snow builds
up from winter to
winter

Glacier’s end, called

its terminus

4 A GLACIER FORMS
Glaciers form when snow falls and stays frozen
from one winter until the next. Each year, more
snow accumulates, making a larger snowfield
that reflects the summer sunlight. Reflected
sunlight reduces the amount of melting
before winter arrives again. Years of
accumulation, along with melting and
recrystallizing of snow, creates a mass
of ice that advances downhill under
its own weight—a glacier.

132
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
A medial, or middle,
moraine forms where
Lateral, or side, two glaciers flow
moraines form together, joining their
terraces along the lateral moraines.
valley’s edge.

A glacier fills the valley.

Meltwater lakes

Meltwater
streams

Crevasses can fill with

sediment washed in
by meltwater. Lateral moraine
The terminal Meltwater chamber
A moraine is a pile of moraine is the farthest
sediment left by a melting moraine left by the end,
or moving glacier. or snout, of a glacier.

PICK UP AND DROP OFF 1

Glaciers are powerful agents of erosion and
deposition. As they grow, glaciers pick up pieces
of sediment ranging in size from boulders the size
of cars to dust as fine as flour. These sediments
scour the land when the glacier moves. They
gouge grooves in bedrock and widen valley walls.
Where the glacier melts, it drops its load, forming
distinctive landforms, called moraines, that persist
long after the glacier is gone.

133
 WATER
Each of us is made up of roughly 60–70 percent water. In fact, all life on
Earth owes its existence to water, a molecule that consists of two atoms of
hydrogen bound to one side of an atom of oxygen. Water is a polar molecule:
the oxygen end of the molecule has a slightly negative charge and the
hydrogen end has a slightly positive charge. This causes water molecules to
be attracted to each other. It also causes the particles of many substances
to separate from each other in water, a process that is called dissolving.
Because of water’s ability to dissolve so many substances, water is essential
for our body’s health. Most nutrients in the body are dissolved in water and
transported to cells. Wastes are dissolved in water and transported away from
cells. Water helps in regulating body temperature. Red blood cells carrying
oxygen are suspended in blood, the liquid portion of which is a solution of
more than 90 percent water. In addition, water plays an important role in
several chemical processes in the body. Water is needed to break down large
molecules, such as proteins, into smaller molecules, like amino acids, that
the body can use. Water is produced as a by-product when small molecules
combine to form large molecules, such as starches and proteins. Water is also
produced during cellular respiration, the process by which a cell breaks down
glucose to get energy.
Fresh water is found Much of Earth’s fresh
in rivers, lakes, and water is frozen as
streams. Water is also ice and snow in the
found below the polar ice caps and
Earth’s surface. glaciers.

Most of Earth’s water is

found in the ocean. Many
salts, such as the salt
you sprinkle on food, are
dissolved in ocean water.

4 HOW MUCH WATER?

About 5 hours into their trip to the moon, the
astronauts on board Apollo 17 took several pictures
of Earth. Earth appears blue because almost three
fourths of its surface is water. Almost 97 percent
of Earth’s water is in the oceans. Most of the fresh
water is frozen in the polar ice caps, glaciers, and
snow. That leaves about 1 percent of Earth’s water in
rivers and lakes, swamps, and groundwater sources.
There is also water in the air, some appearing as
clouds, and in the cells of living things.

134
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Water remains liquid
over a wide range of
temperatures. This
seal lives in near-
freezing waters.

Water flowing over a

rocky cliff edge and
pounding the rocks
below can slowly
dissolve minerals in
the rock.

ICE 1
An unusual property of water is that its solid state—
ice—floats on top of its liquid state—water, since
ice is less dense than water. When water freezes,
ice forms from the surface downward. Unlike fish,
aquatic mammals such as this Weddell seal must
come to the surface to breathe air. This seal has
found a breathing hole in the ice.

did you
know?
IF EVENLY SPREAD OVER ALL LAND SURFACES, SALT
FROM ALL THE OCEANS WOULD FORM A LAYER
MORE THAN 500 FEET (152 M) THICK.

WATERFALL 3
Water is the only natural substance that is found
on Earth in all three states: solid, liquid, and gas.
Water changes from one state to another in what
is called the hydrologic cycle. For example, liquid
water in lakes, rivers, and oceans evaporates to
form water vapor. In the atmosphere, this gas
condenses and returns to its liquid state. This
constant cycle redistributes water on Earth’s
surface. Water then shapes the land by dissolving
rock and depositing sediments.

135
 OCEAN CURRENTS
The water in the ocean is in constant motion. It moves in huge continuous
streams we call currents. When you see waves crashing against the shore, you
are looking at the power of ocean currents. But how do they form? Ocean
currents are of three basic types: surface currents, deep currents, and tidal
currents. They are caused by wind, gravity, and water density, and are also
affected by the position of the continents. Surface currents occur in the top
328 feet (100 m) of the ocean and are driven mainly by wind. They have a
big impact on Earth’s weather and climate. Deep currents sweep along the
seafloor and are driven by water density and gravity. Tides, caused by the
gravitational pull of the moon and sun, move water up and down. Although
tidal currents affect smaller areas than other ocean currents do, they are
important because they affect life, transport, and commerce along the coasts.

Map of global deep ocean currents Warm deep

ocean current 4 THE CONVEYOR BELT
Arctic Ocean Deep ocean currents are part of what is known as the
“Global Conveyor Belt” because they move water
around the globe. Cold, dense Arctic water from the
North Atlantic Ocean moves to the south toward
Europe Antarctica between Africa and the American
continents. It then enters the Indian and
Pacific oceans where it warms up, rises to
North the surface, and moves back towards
America Africa the Arctic. Deep currents also
Australia move water vertically. They are
a source of oxygen for deep-
South sea life and of nutrients
America for surface water life.

Pacific Ocean

Indian Ocean Cold deep ocean current

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean Cold dense water

SURFACE CURRENTS 3
Surface currents move in nearly circular
patterns that are formed mainly by wind.
This map shows the surface ocean currents
around the world. The orange arrows
indicate warm water that is carried away
from the equator. The blue arrows indicate
cold water that is carried from the poles
toward the equator. This movement of Warm current
ocean water determines, in part, the Cold current Map of global surface ocean currents
climate and weather patterns of our planet.

136
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
California

Hawaiian Islands

did you
know?
IN 2005, HURRICANE KATRINA PRODUCED A TIDAL
SURGE 25–28 FEET (ABOUT 7.6–8.5 M) ABOVE
NORMAL TIDE LEVELS IN SOME PARTS OF THE
MISSISSIPPI COAST.

EL NIÑO 1
El Niño is the periodic irregular warming of water from the coasts of Ecuador
and Peru to the central Pacific Ocean. During an El Niño period, the winds
become weaker. This allows warm currents to flow from the west, heating the
usually colder surface of the ocean. The yellow, orange, and red in this map of the
Pacific Ocean indicate the warm waters of El Niño. El Niño is thought to have
contributed to some torrential rainfalls in South America and the United States
in the last couple of decades, as well as drought in Australia and record high
temperatures in Europe.

Rip currents, which

carry tidal waters
back toward the sea,
can be a hazard to
swimmers.

TIDES
A tide is an alternating high and low point in sea level
with reference to land. Tides are produced mainly by the
gravitational pull of the moon, and to a lesser extent by that
of the sun. Twice a day, water pushes onto the shore and
then flows away in a predictable way. The current produced
by a high tide is known as a flood current. The current
produced by a low tide is called an ebb current. Tides can
determine when ships can enter port and when or where
fishers can expect a better catch. Tides are an essential part
of the daily lives of coastal peoples.

Tidal currents and

surface currents
move sand around,
Mariners in small
creating dangerous
boats or large ships
sandbars and deep
must be aware of the
channels.
power of currents.

137
 MIDOCEAN RIDGE
Some of the most dynamic parts of Earth’s surface are also some of the least
known. Mid-ocean ridges occur where Earth’s tectonic plates are stretched and
pulled apart. Oceanic plates move away from one another at amazingly slow rates
of about 0.4 to 8 inches (1 to 20 cm) per year. The movement makes an opening
down to the hot magma below. As the plates separate, this magma, or molten
rock, bubbles up through the opening, creating mountain ranges. Almost all of
these mountains are completely under water. They form a ridge system that winds
around the planet in a chain that is more than 40,000 miles (about 65,000 km)
long. On average, the top of the ridge is more than 1¼ miles (2,000 m) beneath
the ocean’s surface, deeper than the Grand Canyon. In some places, such as
Iceland, the ridge extends above sea level, and appears as islands with volcanoes.

did you
know?
THE STRING OF MID-OCEAN RIDGES RUNNING
THROUGH THE WORLD’S OCEANS MAKE UP THE
LONGEST MOUNTAIN CHAIN ON EARTH.

This plane shows the sea

surface. Wherever the
seafloor extends above
the surface, islands, shown
in green, appear.

Arrows show east and west

motion of the tectonic plates.
1 OLD SEAFLOOR Earth’s magnetic field is in a
In the Atlantic Ocean, north-south direction.
near North America’s
continental shelf, the seafloor
is nearly 300 million years old.
1. As magma from 3. Millions of years later, the
It is covered by a layer of sediment, original crust (pink) has slowly
a volcano hardens,
thousands of feet thick, that built up as iron bits within crept away from the
particles of sand and dust joined the the magma (pink) mid-ocean ridge.
bodies and shells of dead organisms line up with Earth’s
drifting to the bottom. The age of the crust magnetic field.
4. After Earth’s
and the thickness of the sediment decrease magnetic
2. After the magnetic field
toward the mid-ocean ridge, where new reverses, new crust field reverses
crust is being formed right now. lines up in the opposite again, the bits
direction (green). of iron in new
rock line up
in the original
STRIPES OF ROCK 3 direction.
Alternating stripes of rock provide evidence that new crust is
constantly being added to the seafloor. When magma on the seafloor
cools, the iron bits inside line up with the direction of Earth’s magnetic
field. Surprisingly, the direction of Earth’s magnetic field reverses every
few hundred thousand years. The pattern in the rocks also reverses,
forming magnetized stripes. The iron in the stripes closest to both
sides of the ridge points in the direction of today’s magnetic field.
Stripes of older rock have been pushed farther from the ridge.

138
 NEW SEAFLOOR

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge extends from the Arctic, through Iceland,
and south nearly to Antarctica, dividing the Atlantic Ocean. Along
The depth of the ocean is Continental shelf this ridge, seafloor spreading occurs—new crust forms as magma
shown by color—darker blue oozes through weak places in the crust. As this crust moves east
is deeper water. The Mid- and west, it cools and slowly sinks so that the ocean on either side
Atlantic Ridge shows up as a Iceland of the ridge is much deeper. You might think that the Mid-
light blue line splitting
the seafloor. Atlantic Ridge is a place with no life. This is not the
case, however. Hydrothermal vents provide hot
water, rich in minerals from magma. An
entire ecosystem lives near these
places in the ridge where the
minerals in the heated
water provide energy
for living things.

Antarctica

139
 DEEP SEA VENTS
Deep sea vents are like rocky, underwater chimneys. In fact, they are often called smokers,
because they spew plumes of hot, mineral-rich fluid that look like chimney smoke. They
occur thousands of feet below the ocean surface, around the places where tectonic
plates—huge pieces of Earth’s crust—move away from one another. These places are
called mid-ocean ridges. The vents form when cold water sinks into cracks around
these ridges. Magma, molten rock deep within Earth, heats the water, which then
rises back up through the ocean floor. Even though the sun’s rays cannot reach
deep sea vents, hundreds of organisms live around them. How? Instead of
converting sunlight into energy through photosynthesis, these deep sea vent
communities get energy through chemicals coming out of the vents, in a
process called chemosynthesis. Could this be how organisms first
developed on Earth?

WHAT’S FOR DINNER? 2

The image below compares photosynthesis
and chemosynthesis. The chemosynthetic cycle
begins with bacteria. Bacteria feed on chemicals
released by the vents. Smaller animals prey on
these bacteria and then larger animals feed on the
smaller ones.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS CHEMOSYNTHESIS

The sun Vent plumes

Bacteria
Plant cells convert
convert chemicals
sunlight into into energy.
energy.

Tube worms
absorb the
The plant energy.
stores the
energy as
food.

Fish eat the

tube worms.
Animals eat
the plants.

140
 TOTALLY TUBULAR WORMS 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Tube worms look like long
tubes of red lipstick. They are
huge animals—up to 8 feet (about
2.4 m) long, although most of
their bodies are usually hidden
in the tubes. They have a special
relationship with bacteria. The
bacteria live inside the worms,
turning chemicals from the vents
into nutrients for the worms. The
worms in turn may become food
for fish and crabs. Yum!

This is a black smoker.

Smokers can also be white,
clear, or gray, depending
on the minerals that are
dissolved in the fluid.

4 MARINE LIFE AROUND A VENT

Deep sea vents form a unique ecosystem for the
creatures that live there. As a matter of fact, it is one of
the most extreme environments on Earth. The creatures
that live in vent communities have adapted to live
in total darkness. They endure freezing-cold water,
scorching-hot vents, and pressures great enough to
crush a human skull! More than 500 different organisms
have been discovered near deep sea vents. These
include strange and wonderful creatures such as giant
clams, furry “yeti” crabs, vent crabs, and soft-bellied
spaghetti worms. Scientists believe these creatures are
similar to early life forms on Earth.

did you EVEN THOUGH VENTS CAN REACH TEMPERATURES OF 752°F

know? (400°C), HIGH PRESSURE KEEPS THE WATER FROM BOILING.

141
 CORAL REEFS
Coral reefs are often called “rain forests of the oceans” because of the huge
number of sea creatures that live there. The most essential inhabitant in a
coral reef, however, is the coral. Reefs are formed by corals that live in groups, Mount Otemanu
rises in the center
called colonies. A coral’s body is a small, round, pouchlike sac called a polyp. of the island.
The bottom of a polyp is attached to a surface, and the top consists of a
mouth and tentacles. Some polyps are the size of a pinhead, while others
are a foot (about 30 cm) wide. The coral polyp uses calcium from seawater to
make a hard limestone cup to live in. After the coral dies, other corals build
their homes on top of it. Millions of hard cups together form a coral reef.

A SOUTH PACIFIC REEF 3

This coral reef near the island
of Bora Bora formed when coral
larvae attached themselves to
the submerged edges of an
island volcano. Over time, the
reef grew outward and upward
and formed what is called an
atoll, a ringed reef around the
island. Atolls, along with other
types of reefs, need warm water
and sunlight to grow.

1 COLORFUL CORALS
Inside a coral polyp lives a
special kind of one-celled algae.
The algae use photosynthesis to
make nutrients, which the coral
shares. The coral, in turn, provides a
safe place for the algae to live. These
algae give corals their color. If the algae die,
the corals turn white, a process called coral
bleaching. Disease, pollution, and increased
water temperature can all cause coral bleaching.

142
HOW CORAL REEFS FORM 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Layers of lava and ash Living corals grow at Vegetation grows on
have built up from or near the surface. top of nonliving coral
Coral reefs are formed from the volcanic eruptions. skeletons.
skeletons of generation after generation
of coral polyps. Most reefs are 5,000 to
10,000 years old. The sedimentary rock
known as limestone can form from
coral skeletons that are compacted
to form rock. People use limestone to
make cement and to neutralize acids.

did you
know ?
ALTHOUGH CORAL REEFS COVER ONLY
0.2 PERCENT OF THE OCEAN FLOOR, THEY
CONTAIN MORE THAN 25 PERCENT OF ALL
MARINE LIFE!
Corals grow in water
that is warm, salty,
shallow, and clear.

An edge of the reef

An atoll is a circular ring of

coral reef that surrounds a
volcanic island.

143
 CAVES
No, there was not an explosion at the vanilla pudding
factory. These drips and blobs are solid rock inside a
cave. Caves can form in several ways—boulders
move apart, surf wears away rock, or lava
hardens into a tube. But most caves form the
way this one did—from water seeping
into rock and dissolving it. Rain
mixing with carbon dioxide in the
air forms a watery acid that can
dissolve minerals in rocks. This
solution flows underground
through cracks and small
spaces between rocks.
Over time, it dissolves
minerals in one place
and deposits
them in another,
creating and
reshaping these
underground hollows.
1 HARRISON’S CAVE
The many passages and rooms of
Harrison’s Cave, on the Caribbean
island of Barbados, stretch over at
least 1.4 miles (about 2.25 km). The
largest room has ceilings that are nearly
50 feet (15 m) high. Like most caves
formed by dissolving rocks, this one
Stalactites
is made of limestone.

Stalagmites

4 ICICLES AND DRIP CASTLES

Mineral formations called stalactites extend like
delicate soda straws from the ceiling of a cave
and grow in much the same way as icicles. Often,
where the mineral-containing water drips down
from the stalactite, a second kind of formation,
called a stalagmite, grows upward from the cave
Pools of floor, like a sandcastle made by dripping watery
water
sand. Eventually, these two formations can grow
together and form a column.

144
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
This close-up of a
stalactite shows how a
mineral solution drips
down from it.

1 LIMESTONE CAVES
The mineral in limestone that is
dissolved when caves form is called
calcite. It is the chalky remains of
organisms such as clams and corals
that were deposited in ancient
oceans. Landscapes that include
hollows from dissolved rock, such
as in many parts of Florida, are
known as karsts.

did you IT CAN TAKE MORE THAN 100 YEARS FOR A

know? STALACTITE TO GROW JUST HALF AN INCH!

145
 GEODES
Giant crystals tower overhead. Sparkling crystals cover the walls, ceiling, and
floor, surrounding you in glittering color. You are inside a geode! A geode is a
hollow rock lined with mineral crystals. A few geodes are big enough to walk
into, but most are small enough to hold in your hand. A geode forms in an
empty space or pocket within a rock. Hot, mineral-rich water seeps through
cracks in igneous rock, for example, depositing layers of microcrystalline
minerals on the walls of the opening. These crystals are so tiny you can
see them only under a microscope. But as the rock and water cool, larger
crystals grow. Geodes can also form in sedimentary rocks, such as limestone.
Sometimes the minerals in a geode are replaced by another mineral.
Scientists can tell if this has happened because the new mineral has
a different crystal shape! Part of a geode’s beauty
comes from the layers of
different types of minerals
that have crystallized inside it.
AN ISLAND OF GEODES 2
Geodes often form within rock that is softer than the
Traces of iron turn
plain quartz into minerals that make the geode. When the softer rock
purple amethyst. The weathers away, the geodes remain. Here, on the island
purple is often darker of Socotra, in the Indian Ocean, the weathering of soft
near the crystals’ tips.
limestone on this plateau has left behind a field of hard,
round geodes.

146
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you
know?
ONE OF THE LARGEST GEODES IN THE WORLD WAS DISCOVERED
IN 1999. ITS INNER LENGTH IS 26 FEET LONG (ALMOST 8 M)
WITH CRYSTALS UP TO 6.5 FEET (ALMOST 2 M) LONG.

HIDDEN TREASURES 2
Opening a geode reveals wonders that have been
hidden from view until that very moment. You can
crack geodes open with a hammer and chisel or cut
them with a special rock saw to reveal more detail.
You can also place a geode inside a sock and gently
tap it with a hammer. So what’s inside? Quartz is the
most common geode-forming mineral. In a geode,
it can form smooth, milky, banded agate or large,
glassy amethyst crystals—or both. Calcite is another
common geode-forming mineral. Some geodes
contain multiple minerals. For example, calcite crystals
can grow on top of quartz, or brass-colored metallic
crystals of pyrite can be tucked among the larger
One geode can grow inside
crystals. If you have a large geode, try rattling it gently another geode. This round calcite
before opening it. You may hear loose crystals inside. geode contains other irregularly The largest crystals,
shaped calcite geodes. near the center of the
geode, were the last
The crystals in this to form and took the
band of blue agate longest.
are submicroscopic—
too small to be seen
with an ordinary
microscope.

147
 MARBLE QUARRIES As the magma
slowly cools, it
forms igneous Sandstone
changes to
It makes up the bone-colored bricks in the rock, such as
granite. quartzite.
dome of the Taj Mahal. It gives Michelangelo’s
statue David its smooth, skinlike texture. Even
a few toy marbles were made out of—you
guessed it—marble! Whether part of
an ancient work of art or a kitchen
countertop, marble must first come out of
the ground—at a marble quarry. A quarry
is an open pit where stoneworkers cut Limestone
changes to
rock out of the walls. Different quarries marble

all over the world produce different colors Mudstone A batholith is a large mass of
magma that pushes its way
and qualities of marble. Marble forms changes to slate.
into upper layers of rock.
from a chalky rock—limestone. Limestone
forms when sediment that is deposited in 1 CHANGING ROCK
layers hardens. Limestone is dull, while marble A large mass of slowly cooling liquid rock pushes up
through layers of sedimentary rock beneath Earth’s
has tiny crystals and can be polished. How surface. This movement creates enough heat and pressure
does one type of rock turn into another? This to melt the nearby layers. The metamorphic rocks that
form have different colors, mineral grain sizes, and
process, called metamorphism, is a little like hardness than the sedimentary rocks they used to be.
pressing with a spatula on a grilled cheese
sandwich in a frying pan. Underground, heat
and pressure cause melting and chemical
changes in rocks that cannot be undone.

Sawing off flat

blocks rather
than uneven
chunks makes
THE WORLD’S MOST PERFECT MARBLE? the marble
easier to
Marble comes in many colors: green, red, transport, stack,
pink, blue, and even black. Thick veins of and use in a
contrasting minerals can give it different textures. wide variety of
The different colors and textures come from applications.
mineral impurities that arise when the marble
forms. A lack of impurities results in uniform
A worker checks
white marble. The large block of marble that the marble
Michelangelo eventually carved into David came to ensure it
from the marble quarry of Carrara, located in has no faults
or staining
what is now northwestern Italy. This quarry was minerals.
famous during the Renaissance and still is today
for its pure, dazzlingly white marble.

148
MICHELANGELO’S DAVID 2

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Michelangelo was an Italian Renaissance artist
most famous for his religious paintings on the
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Vatican City
and for this marble sculpture, David,
located in Florence. Michelangelo
carved David from a single
block of Carrara marble.
He completed the sculpture
in 1504, at the age of 29.
However, he was not the
first artist to tackle the
job. Other Florentine
artists had already
tried sculpting the
same block of
brilliant white marble
decades before.

did you
know?
AT 17 FEET (5.18 METERS), ABOUT 6
TONS, AND MORE THAN 500 YEARS
OF AGE, DAVID ’S ANKLES SHOW
SIGNS OF STRESS.

Michelangelo imagined
that when he carved a
piece of marble, he was
“freeing” the sculpture
“imprisoned” in the stone.

149
 EARTHQUAKES
What causes Earth to shake? Earth’s crust is made of about twelve blocks of rock,
called tectonic plates, sitting on a layer of hot molten rock. Most earthquakes occur
where two plates meet. Pressure builds up as the plates try to slide under, over,
or past each other. At some point, the plates move into a position that results in
an earthquake. Some quakes are so mild that they can’t be felt, and others shake
the ground violently, destroying roads and buildings. The vibrations, called seismic
waves, travel both on and below Earth’s surface. The type of area they travel
through influences how much destruction the waves cause.

HOW BIG WAS THAT QUAKE? 2

The Richter scale records the magnitude of seismic waves.
People usually don’t feel earthquakes of 2.0 or less. Each whole-
number increase indicates a tenfold increase in magnitude. A 5.0
is moderate, while a 6.0 is 10 times larger. Great earthquakes, Seismic waves measured
of 8.0 or above, occur somewhere on Earth about once a year. farther from the focus
appear as shorter lines
Another scale, called the Mercalli scale, uses Roman numerals
on a seismograph.
to rank earthquakes by how much damage they cause.
Seismic waves move out
from the focus in circles.
They can cause damage for
great distances.
The epicenter is on
the surface directly
above the focus.

Cracks can form

in the ground
when tectonic
plates move.

The focus
is the point
did you
underground
where an
earthquake
know?
THE WORLD’S LARGEST RECORDED
originates.
EARTHQUAKE TOOK PLACE IN CHILE IN 1960.
IT WAS A 9.5 ON THE RICHTER SCALE.

150
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
KOBE EARTHQUAKE 2
In 1995, an earthquake of magnitude 7.2
on the Richter scale struck Kobe, Japan.
The strong ground motions caused this
expressway to collapse. Hundreds of
thousands of buildings and homes were
destroyed, and thousands of people were
killed. The quake was a shindo 7 on a SEISMOGRAPHS MEASURE GROUND MOVEMENT 1
Japanese intensity scale that measures An instrument called a seismograph records the seismic waves
the degree of destruction from 0 to sent out by earthquakes. A pen makes a zigzag line when the
7. Kobe was rebuilt with earthquake- ground under it moves. The bigger the movement sensed,
resistant buildings and roads. the taller the line.

151
 AFAR TRIANGLE
Blistering desert heat, miles of cracked SPLITTING UP 2
The Afar Triangle is part of the
earth spewing sulfur and lava, constant East African Rift System, one of
earthquakes, and almost no water— the largest systems of faults, or
splits, in Earth’s crust. Rifts are
you have come to the Afar Triangle. valleys that form when plates
This wedge of land, about the size of move apart. Over millions of
years, one rift separated Africa
Nebraska, lies where Ethiopia borders the mouth of the Red Sea. and the Arabian Peninsula. Then
Underneath the triangle, three giant pieces of Earth’s crust meet the Red Sea filled in the gap. The
rift forming in the Afar Triangle
in what is called a triple junction. The pieces, called tectonic plates, extends south beneath several East
African countries. It could one day
are pulling away from each other, stretching and thinning Earth’s separate those countries from the
crust. Along the edges of the plates, volcanoes erupt. As the three rest of the continent.
plates drift apart, the land between the plates sinks. Some areas
of the Afar Triangle are already more than 300 feet (100 m) below
Pools of sticky mud are all
sea level. That is about as tall as a 30-story building! That’s why that remain after it rains in
the Afar region, where one
many geologists call this area the Afar Depression. river barely supports the
people who live along it.

152
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Mountains and highlands Lakes can form in open crevices
protect the Afar Triangle and may even cool rising
from flooding. magma flows.
When plates move apart,
large cracks called rifts form.

Small rifts form and then

widen as the land continues
to sink.
The mantle below Earth’s
crust heats, cools, and
moves constantly, slowly
moving the plates and
changing the surface.
LOWER AND LOWER 1 Volcanoes grow from
magma that flows through
For now, low mountains to the east keep the jagged cracks and splits to
Red Sea from flooding into the Afar Triangle, the surface.
but these mountains are wearing down over
time. Scientists predict that seawater will one
day cover the Afar region. did you
know ?
SOME OF THE OLDEST HUMAN-LIKE
FOSSILS—MORE THAN 3 MILLION YEARS
OLD—WERE FOUND IN THE AFAR REGION.

153
 LANDSLIDES
Landslides are mass movements of earth, rock, or debris down did you
a slope. They are natural hazards that occur all over the world. know?
THE LARGEST LANDSLIDE IN RECENT HISTORY
Landslides can be small, or so big that you can photograph them WAS TRIGGERED BY THE 1980 ERUPTION OF
MOUNT ST. HELENS IN WASHINGTON STATE.
from space! Some move slowly—a few inches a year. Others are IT WAS 14 MILES LONG (ALMOST 23 KM).
fast and catastrophic, at speeds of more than 175 miles an hour
(about 281 km/h). These mass movements of earth are triggered
by natural events such as earthquakes, rainstorms, volcanic LANDSLIDE IN GUATEMALA 2
This spectacular landslide occurred in
activity, or wildfires. They can also be caused by human activities Guatemala in January 2009. Officials
believe this landslide was nearly a mile
such as road building, flooding, or mining. Landslides can be (1.6 km) wide! Millions of pounds of
very destructive. In 1970, a landslide triggered by an earthquake rock, earth, and mud tumbled down a
mountainside, burying part of a road
in Peru killed more than 18,000 people and destroyed two towns and killing at least 33 people. Geologists
near Mount Huascarán. They can also reshape the landscape. believe this landslide was triggered
by a fault that runs through the area.
For example, the huge landslide that accompanied the eruption Faults are cracks in Earth’s crust that
of Mount St. Helens in the state of Washington in 1980 changed separate adjacent surfaces, making the
surrounding area unstable.
the shape of the mountain and the course of rivers.

TYPES OF LANDSLIDES 2
There are many different types of landslides, but all happen when a weakened
part of earth separates from a more stable underlying material. Rocks can fall
or topple, soil can slide and spread, and mud can flow. For example, soggy soil
can weaken and then move downhill or “ slump. ” This image shows how this
type of landslide wiped out part of a road in Portugal.

Rock debris
buried part of
the road.

A pile of rock debris

that collects at the
bottom of a landslide is
called a talus.

154
 4 SEEN FROM SPACE

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

A NASA satellite captured this image of a
massive landslide that occurred in China’s
Chongqing region in 2009. A mountainside
collapsed and filled the valley below
with 420 million cubic feet (almost
12 million m3) of rocky debris and
earth. The landslide buried houses,
power lines, and part of an
iron ore mine, killing
residents and miners.

Debris field

One of the two roads

that were partially
buried

The very end of the

landslide is called
the toe.

This long, clifflike

edge is called a scarp;
it marks a place from
which land broke away.

155
 KILAUEA
Kilauea in Hawaii has been active for between 300,000 and 600,000 years,
making it one of the most active volcanoes in the world. A volcano does not
have to be erupting to be considered active— an active volcano is simply
Trade winds carry
capable of venting lava, ash, vapor, and gases. Kilauea is located on the Pacific water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and sulfur
plate, one of Earth’s tectonic plates. It is situated directly above a hotspot, a dioxide to the coast,
creating volcanic
column of magma that reaches Earth’s crust and forms a vent. Kilauea began smog, called vog, that
can affect air quality.
as an undersea vent, erupting with lava repeatedly until it emerged from the
ocean as an island between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. Usually volcanoes
that form above a hotspot die as the tectonic plate moves away from the
column of magma. Most of the islands in the Hawaiian chain are dormant
volcanoes that have moved away from the hotspot. Kilauea, however, remains
above the hotspot—and active.

KILAUEA’S ERUPTION AREAS

did you
know?
SINCE 1983, KILAUEA HAS PRODUCED ENOUGH Kilauea erupts from three main areas: a caldera (crater)
LAVA TO PAVE A ROAD TO THE MOON FIVE TIMES. at the summit and two rift zones (fractures or cracks)
located high up the volcano’s sides. Lava flows into the
caldera and cools, heightening the volcano. Lava that
emerges from the rift zones creates ridges that extend
outward from the summit. As it flows downhill, the lava
cools, gradually building up the volcano’s shieldlike form.

The caldera is about

3.7 miles (6 km) across.
Lava that erupts from
Kilauea’s cone flows
through a system of lava
tubes (closed channels The most recent
formed by continuous lava eruption at Kilauea
flow) to the sea. has been ongoing
since January 1983.

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 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
PRE-ERUPTION 1 ERUPTION STARTS 1 ERUPTING 1
As magma rises to Earth’s surface, The concentration of sulfur dioxide Plumes of lava may rise up to about
tremors, earthquakes, and ground uplift emitted at the summit increases and 1,000 feet (300 m) above the volcano’s rim.
occur in the vicinity of the volcano. Sulfur becomes hazardous to tourist and Usually this lava flows down the volcano’s
dioxide gas pressure builds and the residential areas downwind. Summit vents lava tubes. Occasionally explosions at
summit of Kilauea inflates, like the top of exhibit a dull red glow from rising lava, the upper rift zones or summit spew
a soda can that has been shaken. and small streams of lava begin to flow. steam, lava, and rock fragments over the
surrounding landscape.

LIFE RETURNS TO LAVA FIELDS 1

Fern spores and seeds carried by the wind fall
into cracks in lava fields. Plants that take root can
reach fertile soil below the hardened lava.

157
 LAVA
While you attend school each day or spend time
with your friends, Earth is shifting and changing
under your feet. You may not actually feel it,
because the movement is so slow. But you hear Pumice forms when gas-filled,
frothy lava explodes from a
about it whenever an earthquake or volcanic volcano and hardens. Pumice
is a lightweight rock and floats
eruption makes the news. Magma—fiery-hot on water.
molten rock—flows beneath Earth’s crust. Volcanoes
form where intense heat and magma escape to Earth’s Pahoehoe lava is smooth,
often ropy lava that is
surface, usually along the edges where tectonic plates meet. common in lava flows.
Magma that reaches Earth’s surface is called lava. The temperature WHEN LAVA COOLS 1
and viscosity of magma (how fluid it is) and the amount of As lava cools, it forms volcanic
igneous rock, turning black, gray,
dissolved gases in it affect how the lava will erupt. Some lava or dark red. Volcanic igneous rock
erupts with a violent explosion, sending rocks, dust, and ash into contains fine crystals and is often
glassy. Lava that flows directly into
the air. Other lava forms a lava flow that pours out of a volcano. the ocean can cool so fast it shatters
into sand. Pillow lava forms when
molten lava breaks through the thin
wall of an underwater lava tube. The
This lava flow occurred near lava squeezes out like toothpaste,
Hawaii’s Kilauea volcano in
March 2007. The upper lava creates irregular tonguelike shapes,
did you
know?
HAWAII’S BLACK SAND BEACHES WERE CREATED
layer has cooled and hardened. and quickly hardens.

INSTANTANEOUSLY WHEN HOT LAVA SHATTERED

AS IT REACHED THE SEA.

158
 LAVA TUBES 2

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Volcanic eruptions can last a long time, creating streams of lava that flow for
several hours or days. Ongoing lava streams create flow channels on Earth’s
surface. When the outer edges of a channel cool and harden, the sides build
up. A crust can form over the top of the channel, creating a lava tube. Lava
that flows through lava tubes stays hot and fluid much longer than surface
lava. When the eruption ends, the lava flows out of the tubes, leaving caves
and tunnels, often large enough for people to explore.
Obsidian is a type of
volcanic glass. It is
composed of melted
sand (the primary
ingredient of glass).
Lava drips, called driblets, can
harden into many shapes.

LAVA ON THE MOVE 2

Scientists identify lava types not only by how
they erupt but by their silicon, oxygen, iron, and
magnesium content. Common lava flows swiftly
because it contains less silicon and is therefore
thinner than lava that contains high amounts of
silicon. Dissolved gases rise easily to the surface of
thin lava, so eruptions are not explosive. Dissolved
gases cannot easily rise through the silicon of
thicker, slower-moving lava. Instead, the gases
build up pressure, and when the gas bubbles
finally reach the lava’s surface, they explode.

The lower layer is

still hot and flowing
because the crust above
helps hold in heat.

159
 GEYSERS
What do you get when Mother Earth lets out a steaming did you
burp? A geyser! A geyser is a hot spring that has eruptions. know?
THERE ARE MORE GEYSERS WITHIN YELLOWSTONE
These eruptions send steam and boiling hot water into the air. NATIONAL PARK THAN ANYWHERE ELSE ON EARTH.
There are only about 1,000 active geysers on Earth. They are so
rare because they form only under very specific conditions. For
a geyser to form, there must be a lot of water filling a system
of watertight underground cracks. These pipelike cracks OLD FAITHFUL 2
must be able to withstand great pressure. Most importantly, This reliable geyser erupts every 65
to 92 minutes for a period of 1.5 to
this water must be located near a very hot place—such as 5 minutes. Old Faithful is one of the
an underground pocket of melted rock, or magma, that most frequently erupting of the big
geysers in Yellowstone National Park in
feeds a volcano. Such heat from deep underground is called Wyoming. It sends 3,700–8,400 gallons
geothermal energy. In nature, geothermal energy powers (about 14,000–31,800 L) of water into
the air during each eruption.
geysers, many kinds of rock changes, and volcanoes. People
use geothermal energy, too. Geothermal power plants are like
human-made geysers. The hot steam that comes up can be
used to power turbines that generate electricity.

Colorful mats of heat-loving

bacteria thrive in the hot
springs near geysers.

FLY GEYSER 1
These colorful shapes look like plastic fountains you might
see at an amusement park. They are actually rocky mounds
deposited by a man-made geyser. In 1964, a company
looking for geothermal energy drilled a test well in Nevada.
The 200°F (93°C) water was not hot enough for their needs,
but after they left, the water kept bubbling up from the
ground. Over time, the hot water deposited minerals that
built up around the openings in the ground. Various types
of heat-loving algae give the rocks their color.

160
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
At the surface, the steam rises
Old Faithful’s column of into the air, followed by the
The rims of hot
water can shoot as high boiling water that has built
springs and cones
as 184 feet (about 56 m) up. Cooled water seeps back
of geysers are made
in the air. into the ground to begin the
up of deposits of
dissolved rock, process once again.
called sinter.

Pipelike underground
cracks

Water heated by hot

rocks forms bubbles
of water vapor, which Hot spring
can be trapped in
narrow passageways.

HOW A GEYSER WORKS 1

The boiling point of a substance
increases with pressure. Water deep
underground is at high pressure due to
the weight of the water above. So this
water must reach temperatures higher
than 212°F (100°C) to boil. Once this
water starts to boil, bubbles of water
vapor travel up toward the surface.
These bubbles get trapped in the
narrow passageways. As more bubbles
are trapped, the force on the water
above increases until a small amount of
water is pushed out of the geyser. Once
this water is out of the way, there is less
pressure on the water underneath. Less
pressure means the water will boil at a
lower temperature—one it has already
reached. All of the water boils at once,
sending steam and hot water erupting
out of the geyser.

161
 ISLANDS
On a globe, Earth’s landmasses appear to have water all around them.
So, are all landmasses islands? No. Islands are completely surrounded by
water—but they are smaller than a continent. They also differ from continents
in the way they form. Scientists believe that plate tectonics—the theory
stating that fragments of Earth’s crust shift or float on Earth’s mantle—
created the continents. Most islands, however, form in three main ways.
Volcanic activity below the ocean floor caused oceanic islands, such as the
Hawaiian Islands, to form and rise above sea level. Continental islands,
such as Greenland and New Guinea, are parts of continental shelves. They
became isolated when glacial ice melted, flooding and covering the land
that connected them to the continent. Islands like the Maldives, located off
the coast of India, arose from coral reefs. Over time, enough sand and dust
accumulated on the reefs to form islands.

Many of the Rock Islands

appear mushroom-like.
They are made of easily
dissolved limestone that is
undercut at the waterline.

did you
know?
KILAUEA, A VOLCANO ON THE ISLAND OF HAWAII,
HAS BEEN ERUPTING NEARLY CONTINUOUSLY
SINCE 1983.

THE ISLANDS OF PALAU

The Republic of Palau, an archipelago
(group of islands) located near the Philippines,
includes volcanic, coral, low limestone, and high
limestone islands. Some of the islands are a
combination of types. The Rock Islands (shown
here) and other limestone islands formed when
tectonic plates shifted. The shift pushed parts of
ancient coral reefs and ocean floor above sea level.

162
HOW VOLCANIC ISLANDS FORM 2

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Volcanic islands form when oceanic plates collide and the edge of
one plate subducts, or slides under another. The subducted edge
melts, and the magma rises to form an island. Volcanic islands
also form when oceanic plates move across hot spots in Earth’s
mantle, a process shown in the diagram below.

The island lying over Islands farthest away from the hot spot
the hot spot is the are the oldest. They are smaller due to
most recently formed erosion and because the plate below
and is volcanically cooled and sank as it moved away
active. from the hot spot.

As the plate
moves over 1 THE BIRTH OF AN ISLAND
the hot spot, a In 1963, undersea volcanic eruptions heaved up a new island
chain of volcanic Direction of plate
movement as it slides
from the ocean floor about 20 miles (32 km) south of Iceland.
islands forms.
over Earth’s mantle Named Surtsey, this island belongs to a volcanic system of
islands and underwater cones that crosses east central Iceland.
Hot spot

1 THE FORMATION OF SURTSEY

By the time volcanic eruptions stopped in 1967, Surtsey
was 492 feet (150 m) above sea level and spanned about
1 square mile (almost 3 sq km). The ocean eroded parts
of the island before its core solidified as rock.

1 THE GREENING OF SURTSEY

In the absence of a true The general public cannot visit Surtsey, so plants and
soil layer, vegetation on animals are able to colonize there without threat.
the islands grows out of Ocean currents, wind, and birds carry seeds and
the loose limestone rock.
organisms there. Scientists can study the natural
progression of colonization and observe succession,
the changes in species populations.

163
 TSUNAMI
A tsunami’s destructive power
can be seen in the debris, like this
boat, that was tossed onto land.

The wind causes most ocean waves, but not the huge
series of waves called a tsunami. Movements of the ocean
floor—earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides—
can cause these waves. However, most tsunamis are
caused by earthquakes. Sudden movement of the massive
plates of Earth’s crust releases a huge amount of energy.
The earthquake’s energy is transferred to the water. The
resulting surge can move at 500 miles per hour (about
805 km/h), travel hundreds of miles, and hit land as a
100-foot (about 30-m) wall of water.

164
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
1. Where Earth’s plates
meet on the seafloor,
one plate is pushed up.

5. Waves become tall

and destructive in
2. The water above shallow water.
the uplifted seafloor is
suddenly pushed up.
3. The rising water 4. As the waves move
causes waves in the into shallower water,
deep ocean. their wavelength
shortens and 1 HOW A TSUNAMI FORMS
the wave height Tsunamis travel quickly through
increases. deep water. The waves move
in all directions from the
4 THE POWER OF WATER earthquake’s center. In deep
On December 26, 2004, a tsunami in the Indian Ocean water, they are seldom larger
killed more than 200,000 people and destroyed thousands of than normal waves and may
buildings. It dropped this fishing boat on top of this house on not be noticed by ships at sea.
the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. The earthquake that caused Tsunami waves slow down as
the tsunami registered 9.0 on the Richter scale and occurred they run into the shallower
about 150 miles (about 241 km) away from where the water closer to land. The wave
wave struck land. Huge waves also reached the is compressed, forcing more
coast of Africa, more than 3,000 miles (more water into each peak and trough.
than 4,800 km) away. This causes the wave to grow
dramatically taller.

did you
know?
A TSUNAMI CAN TRAVEL ACROSS THE
PACIFIC OCEAN IN A SINGLE DAY.

165
 FLOODS
Although water is necessary for all life, a flood is too much of a good thing. Floods most often
occur because more rain falls than an area can absorb in a given period of time. This can cause
landslides, broken dams, and rising rivers. When rivers rise slowly, people may have time to
leave the area before water overflows the banks. When torrential rain quickly sweeps into
an area, it can cause what is called a flash flood. Because these floods happen too quickly for
people to get to higher ground, flash floods can cause many deaths. Tsunamis, hurricanes, and
broken dams can create dangerous waves, storm surges, or moving walls of water that overrun
everything in their path. Entire drainage systems can overflow, especially
in urban areas where there is not enough open land to soak up the
water. Over the last century, the highest death
toll—several million people—from a natural
disaster was from a 1931 flood in China.

SOUTHERN CHINA, 2008 2

In June of 2008, large areas of southern China
experienced day after day of heavy rainfall.
Because the water level rose slowly,
many people were able to evacuate.
The floods caused landslides;
destroyed homes, roads, and
crops; and displaced more
than a million people.

166
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Giant piers contain the machines that
raise and lower the barrier gates that
are between the piers.
Depressions
in the land,
called salt pans,
collect water,
until the water
evaporates.

On January 4, 2003, Tunisia is at the start of the winter

rainy season.

The darkening
and spreading 4 NORTHERN AFRICA, 2003 1 THE THAMES BARRIER
of the blue Extreme conditions—cold The Thames Barrier is the largest
colors show
that the water temperatures, very heavy rains, movable flood barrier in the
is deeper and snow in mountainous areas— world. It protects the city of
and that the caused floods in northern Tunisia London from flooding. Normally,
salt-pan lakes
have grown.
and Algeria during the winter of the barrier gates are lowered to
2003. NASA photographs taken allow the Thames River to flow
about two weeks apart show more and ship traffic to pass. During
snow and water, in shades of blue. tidal surges, the barrier gates are
On January 19, 2003, more areas of blue and gray Flooding drove 3,000 people from raised to hold back water that
show flooding. their homes. travels up the river from the sea.

A survivor guides his craft

atop water-clogged streets to
get his passenger to safety.

did you
know?
SOME ENGINEERS PROPOSE A “GIVE WATER SPACE” POLICY FOR THE NETHERLANDS
AND NEW ORLEANS: A PLAN TO BUILD CANALS AND STORAGE AREAS FOR WATER TO
FLOW INTO, NOT JUST DIKES AND LEVEES TO KEEP WATER OUT.

167
 ATMOSPHERE
Earth’s atmosphere has a big job. It’s like bubble wrap, protecting the planet and the
life on it from the harsh conditions of space. It filters out dangerous radiation, stops
meteors, and helps transfer heat across the globe. Billions of years ago, volcanoes
belched out gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor. Some of those
gases were held in by Earth’s gravity. Many biochemical processes—cloud formation,
rain, rock formation, and photosynthesis—eventually added oxygen to the mix.
Now oxygen makes up 21 percent of the atmosphere. Oxygen, nitrogen,
and traces of carbon dioxide and water vapor form an
atmosphere that provides the materials for
sustaining life on Earth.

UP TO THIN AIR
The layers of the atmosphere differ from one another in the
number of gas particles they contain. The closer a layer is to
Earth, the denser it is, because more gas particles are held by
gravity. The troposphere and the stratosphere, together extending
just 30 miles (50 km) above Earth’s surface, contain 99 percent
of the gases in the atmosphere. The air becomes increasingly
thinner in the mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The lower atmosphere
holds most of the world’s
water vapor, giving rise to
clouds and severe storms.

Thunderstorms can send special lightning—

red rings, called sprites, and blue streaks, called
blue jets —into the upper atmosphere.

168
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Exosphere, where
satellites orbit and
Earth’s atmosphere
merges into space
HOT OR COLD UP THERE? 3
Each of the first three layers of the atmosphere is
topped by an area called a pause, where temperatures
Upper thermosphere,
change. As you climb to the tropopause, the top of the where air is so thin that it
troposphere, the temperature drops to -60ºF (-51ºC). is often considered part of
The stratosphere warms with altitude, to about 5ºF outer space
(-15ºC), as ozone forms a layer that absorbs the sun’s
UV radiation. The mesosphere has few particles to
absorb solar radiation. It gets colder as you go up,
reaching -184ºF (-120ºC). The thermosphere has even
fewer particles, but they are closer to the sun and can
heat up to 3,600ºF (2,000ºC).

did you
know? SCORCHING PARTICLES IN THE THERMOSPHERE
ARE SO FAR APART THAT THE AIR FEELS COOL. Lower thermosphere,
where the space shuttle
flies and auroras happen

Mesosphere, where
most meteors burn up
as shooting stars

Stratosphere, where
commercial jets fly in the
stable air layers

Troposphere, where most

weather forms and small
airplanes fly

Land and sea surfaces

interact with the
atmosphere.

Bedrock within Earth’s

crust separates magma
from the surface.

High-energy gases
dissolved in magma can
help eject dust from
erupting volcanoes even
into Earth’s stratosphere.

169
 AURORA BOREALIS
You see a strange, glowing light in the corner of the night sky. The mysterious
light grows into a swirling cloud of green and red that fills the sky above.
Then, within hours, it fades back into darkness. You have just seen an aurora!
An aurora is a natural light display seen at night in the polar regions of
Earth. Auroras happen when charged particles from the sun reach
the magnetic field that surrounds Earth and are trapped.
Many of these trapped particles move toward Earth’s
magnetic poles. There, they can run into gas
molecules in the atmosphere. These collisions
give off light energy, producing an aurora.
In the Northern Hemisphere these
strange and beautiful lights are
called the aurora borealis, or the
northern lights. In the Southern
Hemisphere, they are called
the aurora australis, or the
southern lights.

NORTHERN LIGHTS 3
Most auroras occur about 60 miles (100 km) above Earth,
in the thermosphere layer of the atmosphere, though
they can occur 10 times higher. Auroras can have many
different colors of light, caused by the different types of
gas molecules in the atmosphere. Oxygen most often
makes green light, the most common color of an aurora.
Blue light is given off when the charged particles collide
with nitrogen. Some of the light given off is ultraviolet
light, which we cannot see.

170
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
The yellow and red display shows where Blue circles show the area
did you
know?
in the sky an aurora might appear. of the sky covered by
each ground station.

THE COLLISIONS THAT CAUSE AURORAS ALSO

TAKE PLACE DURING THE DAYTIME, BUT THEY
ARE NOT BRIGHT ENOUGH TO BE SEEN.

Aurora lights that occur very

high in the sky can appear
red or purple.

TRACKING AURORAS 1
Sometimes an aurora will brighten, break up into smaller parts, and dance
across the sky as it changes color. The cause of this special type of dancing
aurora is unknown. To solve this mystery, NASA scientists will use data from
probes launched into space and cameras on the ground. This image shows how
the ground stations might detect an aurora.

Aurora borealis makes

the sky appear green in
Manitoba, Canada.

Some aurora displays can

spread thousands of miles
across the sky.

171
 WEATHER FRONTS
Air masses are like sumo wrestlers belly bumping in the atmosphere. Suppose
a huge body of cold, dry air moves toward a huge body of warm, wet air. The
cold air is more dense and slides under the lighter warm air. The warm air
rises, cools off, and may form clouds that drop rain. The greater the difference
in the temperature and humidity of air masses, the more intense the weather
will be when they meet. That’s why the boundary between air masses is called
a weather front, the place where battles take place. Air masses originate in
areas called source regions. When slow-moving air hangs over these large,
mostly uniform stretches of land or water, the air takes on the characteristics
of the land below. Dry, or continental, air masses form over land; moist, or
maritime, air masses form over oceans. Cold, or polar, air masses form over
polar regions; warm, or tropical, air masses, form near the equator.

On weather maps, warm fronts Cold fronts are usually

are usually shown in red, shown in blue, with
with half circles showing triangles showing the
the direction of direction of movement.
movement.

Cold air

Big rain clouds form Warm air rises quickly

Warm air slides up Fast-moving cold
near the ground. and condenses into
over cold air. fronts push warm air
thick storm clouds.
out of the way.

WARM FRONT 1 COLD FRONT 1

The diagram above shows a warm air mass, in red, moving Above, the blue cold air mass is moving toward the red warm air
toward a cold air mass, in blue. The leading edge of the warm air mass. The cold air is heavy and usually moves faster, pushing the
mass is a warm front. The warm air is lighter, so it slides slowly warm air out of the way. If the warm air is also humid, its water
up on top of the cold air. Water vapor in the warm air condenses vapor may condense and form thunderstorms. Typically, the cold
as the air rises and cools, so clouds form. These clouds may dump air that passes through after the storms is drier.
heavy rain.

SQUALL LINE: FAST AND FURIOUS 3

A sudden gusty wind that usually comes with rain is called a
did you
know?
AIR MASSES TYPICALLY COVER HUNDREDS OF
squall. Squall lines like this one form along fast-moving cold
fronts. The row of dark clouds marks the boundary where the
cool air mass is pushing up a warm, humid air mass. Until now,
THOUSANDS OF SQUARE MILES (MILLIONS OF KM2). this was a good beach day! But severe thunderstorms can form
when the warm humid air starts to cool as it rises. Then the bad
weather approaches along the advancing front.

172
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
GUST FRONT 3
Unstable atmospheric conditions can
have dramatic results. This curved cloud
at the edge of a thunderstorm shows the
location of a gust front. A gust front is
the leading edge of gust winds that are
formed by the strong downward currents
of air in a thunderstorm. Some gust fronts
are strong enough to damage buildings
and knock down trees and power lines.

173
 THUNDERSTORMS
Thunderstorms are nature’s display of fireworks.
They produce lightning and thunder, and are usually
accompanied by rain or hail and wind. Beautiful and
powerful, thunderstorms can also be deadly. Clouds
form as moist air rises from Earth’s warm surface.
As the air cools down, the clouds fill with millions
of particles of ice. Those particles collide with each
A discharge of built-up
other as the wind moves them up and down inside energy produces lightning.
the clouds. This collision of particles is what builds up
electrical charges. As negatively charged particles are
attracted to areas of positive charge, they produce a
large spark, which is lightning. Some thunderclouds
build a negative electrical charge at the bottom of
the cloud. This causes Earth’s surface to become
positively charged, through what’s called induction.
Negatively charged particles on Earth’s surface are
repelled by the like charges at the bottom of the cloud,
so they move away. This leaves Earth’s surface with a
positive charge. When you see a lightning bolt strike The longest recorded
lightning bolt was
the ground, you are actually seeing negative charges, 118 miles (about
190 km) long.
or electrons, moving from the clouds to the ground.
The positive ground charge tends to concentrate
on elevated areas such as antennas, trees, or hills.
Standing in such locations during a thunderstorm is
very dangerous—you are an easy target!

You see a powerful

flash of light when
the negative charge
of lightning meets
the positive charge of
Earth’s surface.

174
4 THUNDER

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

The sound of thunder in the distance warns you
that a storm may be heading your way. If you hear
thunder, look for cover! When lightning flashes
across the sky, you hear thunder a few seconds after
you see the light. Light travels faster than sound,
so the light of the bolt reaches your eyes before the
sound reaches your ears. What produces the sound
of thunder? Lightning heats the surrounding air,
sometimes by as much as 50,000°F (about 33,000°C).
That’s almost 5 times the temperature of the sun’s
surface! This hot air expands very fast, causing a
shock wave to radiate in all directions. The shock
wave travels as a sound wave that makes the sound
of thunder. Thunder makes a rumbling sound
because you are hearing sound waves that radiate
from different parts of the zigzag lightning bolt.

1 THUNDERSTORMS ARE BENEFICIAL

Thunderstorms are beneficial to Earth in many ways. Lightning
produces nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere that react with other
chemicals and sunlight to produce ozone—the gas that protects Earth
from ultraviolet radiation. Thunderstorms also help plants. Plants can’t
absorb nitrogen through their leaves but they can absorb it dissolved
in water. Lightning helps nitrogen dissolve in water, which then gets
into the soil. Finally, thunderstorms help maintain Earth’s electrical
balance. Electrons from Earth’s surface are constantly flowing upward,
and thunderstorms transfer electrons back to Earth.
Lightning is so hot it can melt sand and
turn it into amazing glass tubes called
fulgurites. These tubes form in one second
and take the shape of the lightning as it
hits the sand.

did you
know?
LIGHTNING FLASHES SOMEWHERE IN THE WORLD
MORE THAN 3 MILLION TIMES PER DAY!

175
 RAINBOWS
Whether they form while you are washing the car or during a cloudburst,
rainbows happen because of light energy interacting with matter. Rainbows
form from sunlight that is both reflected and refracted by water droplets
suspended in the atmosphere. To reflect means to bounce light, such as when
light hits a mirror. To refract means to bend light. Instead of traveling along a
straight path, a beam of light bends or moves off at an angle from the object
it strikes. Refraction happens when white light strikes a prism or a raindrop.
White light is made up of many colors of light, called wavelengths. A rainbow
forms because water refracts the different wavelengths at slightly different
angles and separates the colors. Violet light bends more than red light. The
farther the light travels from where it refracts, the more spread out the colors
of the rainbow appear in the sky.

4 THE MAGIC NUMBER

Rainbows form when sunlight enters and leaves water
droplets at a 42-degree angle. As long as that condition
is met, even spray from a waterfall can form a rainbow.
For this reason, the highest point at which a rainbow
can form is at a 42-degree angle above the horizon. If
the sun is higher than that, a rainbow cannot form.

A RAINBOW’S SHAPE AND COLOR 1

Rainbows are arc-shaped because water droplets are
round and the inside surface that reflects the light is
curved. At sunset, rainbows are semicircular. When
the sun is higher, the arc is smaller. A rainbow’s color
intensity is affected by the size of the water droplets.
Large droplets produce bright, well-defined rainbows.
Tiny droplets form overlapping color bands that appear
almost white.

176
 UNDERSTANDING ALL THE ANGLES 2

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Sunlight, in the form of white light, refracts as it passes from the
atmosphere into a water droplet. When the light strikes the
back of the droplet, it reflects at an angle, and then refracts
again as it passes back out of the droplet. Different
colors refract at different angles because they travel at
different speeds when they pass through water.
The sunlight separates into the visible color
spectrum on their way out. Rainbows can form
a complete circle, because a circular droplet
creates a circular reflection—but the
horizon cuts the circle in half.

Raindrop

Red light has the

longest wavelength
and violet light has
the shortest.

did you
know?
BRIGHT MOONLIGHT CAN CAUSE A “MOONBOW,”
OR LUNAR RAINBOW. IT IS HARD TO SEE A
MOONBOW’S COLORS, HOWEVER, BECAUSE THE
REFRACTED LIGHT IS DIM.

177
 PREDICTING HURRICANES
Hurricanes are one of nature’s most destructive storms. Long ago, people
had no way of knowing when a hurricane was approaching. In 1900, a
hurricane struck Galveston, Texas, and 6,000 or more people died when the
island was flooded. Such a loss is unlikely today, because forecasters can
predict 5 days in advance how strong hurricanes will be and where they
might make landfall. How do forecasters know so much about hurricanes?
They use modern equipment like satellites, airplanes, radar, ocean buoys,
and sophisticated computer modeling systems. Satellites can see the ocean
where there are few ships. They can track cloud formations and ocean
temperatures. Doppler radar can monitor wind data and precipitation levels.
Ocean buoys send back data on air and water temperature, wave height,
and wind speed. Airplanes drop tiny weather stations into the storm to get
up-to-date information. Complicated computer programs analyze all the
data to predict hurricane behavior.

LOOKING INTO HURRICANE IVAN

NASA’s Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite,
originally designed to measure rainfall, allows scientists to see
did you
know?
THE MOST DESTRUCTIVE PORTION OF A HURRICANE
rain patterns inside hurricanes. With TRMM, meteorologists
can better forecast hurricane intensity. Hurricane Ivan (shown
in the large background image) was one of the worst Atlantic
IS FOUND IN THE EYE WALL—WHICH BORDERS THE hurricanes ever recorded. Ivan caused enormous damage and
CALMEST PART OF THE HURRICANE, THE EYE. spawned 117 tornadoes in the United States. Because storm
forecasts were so accurate, however, fewer than 100 people died.

1 2 3

HURRICANE RITA ENTERS THE GULF OF MEXICO Ocean

regions that have sea surface temperatures of 82°F (almost 28°C) or more
(indicated as red and orange areas) are warm enough to form a hurricane.
RITA GATHERS STRENGTH The hurricane winds are strengthened by
the heat energy from the warm ocean. Sea surface temperatures cool as the
hurricane passes.
RITA MAKES LANDFALL Rita makes landfall on the Texas-Louisiana
border. Because the ocean no longer supplies energy, Rita quickly
downgrades from an intense hurricane to a tropical storm.

178
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
The National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) monitors the
Western Hemisphere with
satellites similar to this one.

STORM CHASERS 1
Some experienced meteorologists pursue severe weather events
in trucks called Dopplers on Wheels (DOW). They use radar to
collect data from inside storm cells. This up-to-the-minute,
localized storm information is added to other collected data to
help scientists forecast the weather more accurately. DOWs have
shed light on how hurricanes intensify. Here, a DOW collects
data as Hurricane Frances approaches Florida in 2004.

Surface winds
converge toward the
center of Hurricane
SATELLITE WEATHER OBSERVATION 1
Ivan and form a The United States uses stationary and polar-orbiting satellites
cylinder of calm air, to observe weather and other phenomena 24 hours a day.
called the eye. These satellites track fast-breaking storms and tornadoes in
Bands of clouds,
called spiraling rain the country’s interior and tropical storms in the Atlantic and
bands, trail away Pacific oceans. This 3-D model made from a satellite image
from a ring of tall of Hurricane Wilma shows its eye and rings of moderate to
thunderstorms intense rain. Red portions indicate areas of heaviest rainfall.
surrounding the eye.
At the time of this image, Wilma had sustained wind speeds
of 150 miles per hour (about 241 km/h).

179
 FOG
We can see fog, but we can’t touch it. So what is it? Fog is a cloud that forms
close to the ground. Water is continuously evaporating from Earth’s surface,
adding water vapor to the air. Water vapor is water in a gaseous state, and it’s
invisible. Air can become what is called saturated—it holds as much water
vapor as possible—also referred to as a condition of 100 percent humidity. As
air cools, some of the water vapor condenses into liquid water droplets. As
these water droplets form, they may cling to particles in the air, such as dust,
pollution, or salt. A low-lying patch of water droplets clinging to particles is
called fog. Such an area much higher in the atmosphere is called a cloud. Fog
is defined as a condition in which visibility is less than 0.6 miles (about 1 km).
When visibility is greater than 0.6 miles, the condition is called mist.

4 FOG OVER MONT ST. MICHEL

France’s Mont St. Michel is a rocky
island surrounded by tidal mud flats.
Fog forms here on clear nights when
the mud cools. The cool mud also cools
the air above it. The water droplets
condense onto salt particles suspended
in the air to create ground-level fog
that rarely moves. It usually disappears
after the sun rises, because warm air
evaporates the water droplets.

Water vapor sits in

higher, warmer air.
4 FOG ROLLS IN
Fog forms at sea when warm, moist air
drifts over cold water. The water cools the
In lower air, water vapor
air, and condensation takes place. Sea fog
The wind blows the
fog inland. condenses to form fog. is “glued” together when condensed water
attaches to salt particles tossed into the
air by crashing waves. Salt is an unusual
condensation particle. It will allow
fog to form when the humidity is
only 70 percent—that’s less than
complete saturation.
Cold ocean water cools the warm, As the fog rolls in over land,
moist air above it. the warm land and air heat the
water droplets, causing the fog
to vanish.

180
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Wind currents created by
the airplane‘s wing tips cut
a swath in the fog, causing
the edges to curl in a spiral
shape called a vortex.

did you
know?
SMOG FORMS WHEN WATER VAPOR
CONDENSES ON POLLUTION PARTICLES,
OFTEN FROM CAR EXHAUST.

Air currents can push

fog into unusual
shapes or patterns.
Here ridges are formed
below as a plane
passes through fog.

Flying through fog is

risky without proper
training. Student pilots
must master flying in 4 FLYING IN FOG
clear conditions before Fog can create an optical illusion for
traveling through fog.
pilots. They report feeling that the plane’s
nose is pointing up. Pilots unaware of
this illusion will turn the nose down too
quickly. Commercial airline pilots who fly
planes through fog use the instrument
panel for navigation. In the fog, a pilot
cannot use vision or other senses to
tell up from down, and must rely on
technology to guide the plane.

181
 AIR POLLUTION
Cough, hack, wheeze! Where do you go for a breath of fresh air when you
are surrounded by pollutants? Air pollution is any chemical in the air that
can cause harm to people or other living things. Some common pollutants
are smoke, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, ozone, and
lead. Many cause direct harm when animals breathe them or take them in
through their skin. Others mix with harmless chemicals in the atmosphere
to form acid rain or smog. Even chemicals that are not normally poisonous,
such as carbon dioxide, can cause far-reaching environmental problems
when given off in large amounts. People are working to reduce air
pollution by using air filters and smokestack scrubbers in factories and
power plants, and catalytic converters in cars. Alternative energy sources,
environmentally friendly materials, and new production and disposal
processes are also being developed. Governments are setting limits and
charging fines to companies that produce pollution. International treaties,
such as the Kyoto Protocol, organize the efforts of many countries together
to reduce these harmful gases.

did you WHERE DOES IT COME FROM? 2

know?
A PERIOD OF EXTREME AIR POLLUTION IN
Pollutants can come from natural and human sources. Smoke
is produced during a forest fire. Volcanoes produce sulfur
Wind can carry air LONDON, CALLED THE GREAT SMOG OF 1952, dioxide and carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
pollution hundreds KILLED CLOSE TO 4,000 PEOPLE IN JUST 4 DAYS. and sulfur dioxide come from car exhaust and gases released
of miles and affect from burning fuel in power plants. Lead can come from
communities far from industrial wastes and cars, and ozone is created when other
its source.
pollutants react together in the atmosphere.

Steel manufacturing is one

source of air pollution in
Volta Redonda, Brazil.

182
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
A cement manufacturing plant
generates carbon dioxide gas
as a waste product.

Coal beds that

cannot be mined Underground pipes
can absorb carbon are needed to carry
dioxide. the carbon dioxide
away from the plant.

Aquifers are
formations that
hold or carry water
underground. Carbon dioxide could also
Aquifers that hold When oil or natural gas be stored in a salt bed.
salt water are not is removed from the
useful for humans. ground, the empty spaces
They could be used left behind could be used
for waste storage to store carbon dioxide.
instead.
1 REDUCING AIR POLLUTION
There are two main ways to lower the amount of air pollution
created by humans. One is to produce less air pollution by
using clean energy sources, such as wind or solar. The other is
to reduce the amount of pollution released to the atmosphere
by catching the pollutants. Carbon capture and storage (CCS)
is a new technology that traps carbon dioxide gas and stores
Smokestacks carry the
it underground. This process might help coal-fired plants
gas above the buildings.
However, clouds of the minimize their carbon dioxide discharge, but it has its problems.
pollutants quickly mix The technology is expensive, and leakage into drinking water
with the air surrounding supplies or back into the atmosphere is a big concern.
the town.

183
 ACID RAIN Built around 420 B.C., this porch
decorates an ancient Greek
temple at the Acropolis of
Athens, Greece.
It can cause the paint to rub off your car. It can eat away
stone buildings and sculptures, poison trees, and even
kill entire lakes full of fish. You might think that only WEARING AWAY STONE 3
very concentrated acids can cause this kind of harm. Rain and other kinds of weather slowly
break down rocks over time. Acid rain
However, given enough time, acid rain can be quite a can speed up this process. Normal rain
threat. When power plants, cars, and factories burn fuel, can have an acidity, or pH, of 6. Acid
rain, on the other hand, can be ten times
they emit gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide. more acidic—with a pH of 5. Acids react
Volcanoes, forest fires, and decaying plants emit these with stones such as marble, limestone,
and granite to form softer materials that
gases, too. When these gases enter the atmosphere, they crumble away over time.
react with harmless gases to form sulfuric and nitric acids.
These acids combine with water vapor and fall back to
Earth in the form of acid rain. Acid-rain-forming gases
can travel with winds for hundreds of miles. That means
that acid rain can have expensive and deadly effects both
locally and far from where it formed. did you
know?
THE UNITED STATES PRODUCES MORE
SULFURIC ACID THAN ANY OTHER
CHEMICAL—ABOUT 40 MILLION TONS.

ACID BURNS 2
Concentrated sulfuric acid is an oily, colorless
liquid. When the acid comes in contact with
this paper, it reacts with carbohydrates, such as DESTROYING LIFE 2
cellulose—a fiber that comes from wood and Acid rain that soaks into soil can dissolve and wash away
other plants. In much the same way that a nutrients that are important for plant growth. Trees weakened
hot fire burns wood, the reaction removes by acidic soil can lose their leaves. They can also become more
water molecules and leaves behind susceptible to other environmental threats. Acid rain collects as
black, soot-like carbon. runoff in rivers and lakes, killing fish and other aquatic organisms.

Just as concentrated
acid burns this paper,
weaker acid rain
slowly poisons and
disintegrates living
and nonliving things.

184
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Column sculpted
from solid marble

Until it was moved to

a museum, acid rain
was dissolving this
ancient work of art.

185
 GLOBAL WARMING
On a cold night, a blanket keeps you warm. In cold space, greenhouse gases like
carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and methane surround Earth and keep it warm. When
the sun’s rays enter the atmosphere, Earth’s surface absorbs most of the heat; the
rest radiates back into the atmosphere. Some of this radiated heat passes into
space, but greenhouse gases trap most of it. Living things need a certain
amount of this trapped warmth to survive. Burning fossil fuels—oil,
coal, and natural gas—to power automobiles, factories, and homes
releases substantial amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere. Most
scientists are confident that these CO2 emissions increase the
amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, trapping too much
thermal radiation. They have concluded that global warming—
the increase in Earth’s average surface temperature—leads to
climate change that impacts life on Earth.

MELTING ICE 2
Studies show that global warming is changing circulation did you
patterns in the oceans and atmosphere. These changes,
along with warming temperatures, contribute to the
know?
MORE THAN HALF OF ALL FOSSIL FUELS
widespread melting and shrinking of glaciers. Scientists EVER USED HAVE BEEN CONSUMED IN
use satellite images and computer models to observe and JUST THE LAST 20 YEARS.
predict changes in the rate of melting. Evidence indicates
that glacial melting is accelerating. Melting arctic
ice reduces the habitat of wildlife, such
as polar bears.

186
 RISING SEA LEVELS 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Global warming is causing sea levels to rise faster,
partly because of the rapidly melting glaciers. At
the same time, warmer water temperatures increase
the volume of ocean water. This process is called
thermal expansion. Average sea levels are expected
to rise by 7 to 23 inches (about 18 to 58 cm) or more
by the end of this century. Barrier islands and coastal
wetlands may be lost, and coastal communities are
at greater risk of flooding. The streets of Venice,
Italy—a city historically prone to flooding—have
some degree of flooding 200 days per year. If sea
levels rise, that number could rise.

KEY
Land submerged if sea
level rises

13-FOOT (ABOUT 4-M) RISE IN

SEA LEVEL

Georgia
Alabama
Atlantic Ocean

Miami
Florida
Gulf of Mexico

Straits of Florida

Rising sea levels in Florida would

affect cities and ecosystems.

26-FOOT (ABOUT 8-M) RISE IN

SEA LEVEL

Georgia
Alabama
Atlantic Ocean

Miami
Florida
Gulf of Mexico

Straits of Florida

Much of southern Florida, including

Miami, would be submerged if sea
levels rose 26 feet (about 8 m).

Researchers are developing gates

that will close Venice’s three inlets
against the flooding tides of the
Adriatic Sea.

4 BLACK CARBON POLLUTION

Incomplete combustion, or partial burning, of fossil fuels,
biofuels, and biomass, such as wood, releases black carbon
into the atmosphere. Black carbon is a type of tiny floating
particle called an aerosol. Black carbon absorbs incoming
solar radiation and contributes to atmospheric warming.
Researchers estimate that, in the past 30 years, aerosols
have caused 45 percent of the warming in the Arctic region.

187
 Earth’s axis

EQUATOR 23.5°N
Arct
ic Cir
North Pole 90°N

cle
66.5°N

The equator is like a belt that circles Earth’s

middle. It is an imaginary line located equal
0°
distances from the North and South poles, Trop
ic of
Canc 23.5°N
er
at what is known as 0 degrees latitude. The
23.5°S
equator is the longest line of latitude on Equa
tor
Earth, measuring about 24,901 miles (about 0°
Trop
40,075 km)! It is often used as a point of ic of
Capr
icorn
23.5°S
reference. The distance of each location from
the equator determines how many hours of South Pole 90°S
Antarctic Circle
sunlight it receives each day and how direct Earth’s axis 66.5°S

that sunlight is. The areas near the equator LINES OF LATITUDE 1
are very, very hot! But, since other factors Earth’s axis is tilted slightly, relative to the sun. Places
farther from the equator receive varying amounts of
also affect weather, such as nearness to the sunlight during the year, depending on which of Earth’s
hemispheres is facing the sun. The area near the
ocean, mountains, height above sea level, equator, called the tropics, gets about 12 hours
and atmospheric conditions, temperature of sunlight each day year-round.
The tropics lie between two other
and rainfall in each place can vary a lot. That imaginary lines of latitude, the
is why you can find both tropical rain forests Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn.
and deserts near the equator.

Drought has lowered the

level of Lake Turkana,
concentrating the water’s
salt and other chemicals
so the water is now barely
drinkable.

AN AFRICAN DESERT
Many areas along the equator
are parched and dry. Rainfall
in this part of Kenya is
typically less than 8 inches
(about 200 mm) annually. Running
through this desert landscape is a valley,
called a rift, which formed as pieces
of Earth’s crust pulled—and continue
to pull—apart. Lakes formed in these
valleys. This village is on Lake Turkana,
which is a large but shallow
lake in the middle of a desert.

188
 TROPICAL RAIN FOREST OF HAWAII 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

The Hawaiian Islands lie just south of the Tropic of
Cancer. The weather can vary dramatically within short
distances. Honolulu can receive more than 20 inches
(508 mm) of rain in a single year. Three miles inland, here
in Manoa Valley, more than 150 inches (3,810 mm) fall.
Like other tropical rain forests near the equator, this one
is rainy, warm, and teeming with life.

did you
know?
TANZANIA’S MOUNT KILIMANJARO IS ONLY 3 DEGREES
OF LATITUDE SOUTH OF THE EQUATOR—ONLY 207 MILES
(ABOUT 333 KM)—BUT ITS PEAK IS CAPPED WITH SNOW.

Acacias, or umbrella thorn

trees, provide shade, food,
fuel, and more for the people
who live near the lake.

189
 DUNES
In a village in the West African nation of Mauritania, homes are in 2 DUNE DIRECTION
Which way are these dunes
danger. Houses in this arid desert are being swallowed by advancing moving? A dune’s shape tells its
sand dunes. A dune is a landform in motion, constantly shifting story. Dunes move toward their
leeward side—the side opposite
position as wind erosion moves particles of sand from one location from the wind direction. Generally,
the windward slope is less steep
and deposits them in another. Dunes form when wind carries sand- than the leeward slope. Surface
size particles in a jumping or bouncing motion, a process called ripples are also revealing. Those
on the windward side are longer
saltation. As the wind carries the sand, the wind slows down. The and shallower, while the ripples on
wind then deposits the sand, often forming ripples that correspond the leeward sides are shorter and
steeper. In this photo, the steeper
to the lengths of the jumps. The wind continues to pick up and slopes are to the right, so the
deposit sand in this way. Larger particles can creep along in the dunes are moving in that direction.

desert when they are hit by these

saltating particles.

Wind deposits sand down

the leeward side, called the
Wind pushes sand up the
slip face. Its steepness is
windward slope. To move
determined by the size and
sand, wind must be fast
shape of sand grains.
enough to overcome
surface friction.

190
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
A climbing dune (left of
rock) and tail dune form
where wind hits a barrier.

WIND POWER 3
Depending on its direction, wind sculpts dunes
into different shapes. Barriers, such as rocks, affect
dune shape dramatically. Wind blowing constantly
from one direction forms classic curves, whereas
wind blowing sometimes from one direction and
Tail dune
sometimes from another creates a series of long,
linear dunes. Star dunes are formed where wind Climbing dune
blows from many directions.
Barchan dunes form
where wind blows in one
main direction.

Barchan dune

Seif dunes form where

wind blows in two
directions.

Seif dune

Wind from many directions

forms star-shaped dunes.

Star-shaped dune

did you
know?
SCIENTISTS ARE RESEARCHING WHY CERTAIN VERY DRY SAND DUNES
IN CALIFORNIA, NEVADA, AND HAWAII EMIT SQUEAKING, BOOMING,
OR SINGING SOUNDS WHEN THEY ARE DISTURBED.

191
 MIRAGES
In just about any cartoon that takes place in the desert, a hot, thirsty character
sees an inviting pool of water in the middle of a burning expanse of sand. But
what the character actually sees is a mirage, not a pool of water. A mirage is
an image of a distant object that is caused by refraction—light waves changing
speed as they pass from one medium into another, causing the light to
bend. The mirage is real in the sense that it is an optical phenomenon, like
a rainbow, that can be photographed by a camera. When you look out at an
expanse of hot sand or highway, you might see a shiny, bluish surface on the
ground. You are actually seeing an image of the sky, which looks as if there
were a mirror lying on the ground. But the sky on the ground makes no sense,
so your brain interprets the image as something that might actually form on
the ground—a pool of water.

A LAKE IN THE DESERT?

Mirages are especially convincing in places like the Namib Desert in
Africa. Mirages occur where the eye can see across a relatively flat surface
for some distance. Here, the trees appear to be reflected in a lake. What
looks like a lake is the result of light bending as it passes through layers
of air that are at different temperatures. For a mirage to occur, the light
has to be hitting the hot desert surface and the trees at a certain angle,
typically from lower in the sky. The light that bounces off distant objects
is refracted as it passes from the cooler air at eye level to the hotter air on
the desert floor.

The mirage of the

trees and sand is Light refracted as it
seen below the passes through the hot
trees and sand, air above the desert
so it is called an appears as a lake.
inferior mirage.

192
 WET ROAD AHEAD 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Where did that puddle come
from on a hot, dry day? Black
pavement doesn’t reflect
images, so it has to be water
that you see, reflecting the
motorcycles and car up ahead.
As you draw closer, however,
the water disappears. That’s
because there never was any
water—you saw a mirage!

1. Light rays usually 2. This ray coming 3. The light ray

travel in a straight line. from the top of the is bent upward
tree begins bending by hot air.
when it hits the
4. The bent light
hot air.
Real object ray enters the eye
in a straight line,
so it appears to
Layer of have originated
cool air from a point on
the ground, as if it
had traveled in a
Layer of straight (dashed)
did you hot air
know?
MIRAGES CAN OCCUR ABOVE COLD SURFACES, SUCH AS Mirage
line.

THE OCEAN, ICE, OR SNOW. ON THE OCEAN, ISLANDS

CAN APPEAR TO BE FLOATING ABOVE THE HORIZON.
WHEN A MIRAGE IS SEEN ABOVE THE ACTUAL OBJECT,
IT IS CALLED A SUPERIOR MIRAGE. HOW IT WORKS 1
Light rays bounce off a tree in the distance. The rays travel
through layers of air. Usually the light rays travel in a straight
line. The layer of air right next to the sand is much hotter than
the layer of air above it. Light travels faster through hot air, which
is less dense than cool air. The light rays that pass from cool air
Light travels directly to to hot air travel faster, so they refract. These rays bend upward
your eye to form an image Light refracted through
the layer of hot air creates toward the viewer’s eye, rather than continuing on the path they
of the tree in the distance.
an inverted image. were on in the cool layer, forming a mirage.

193
 ATACAMA DESERT
The driest place on Earth is right next to the Pacific Ocean. It’s the Atacama Desert,
a narrow plateau that stretches more than 620 miles (1,000 km) along the coast of
Chile. In some parts of the Atacama, rain has never been recorded! This is because
the desert is bordered on the east by the high Andes Mountains and on the west
by a coastal mountain range. The Andes block warm, wet air from reaching the
desert. The air rises when it hits the mountains, cools, and then falls as snow in
the mountains and rain in the Amazon rain forest. By the time the air reaches the
Atacama Desert, it is dry. The air that blows in from the cold Pacific is dry, too.

194
SPINY SURVIVORS 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Although the Atacama’s climate is extremely
dry, a few plants have adapted to desert life.
Many are unique to the region. Cactuses are
some of the few organisms that can live in
the Atacama’s harsh conditions. Their stems
are covered in a waxy coating that keeps the
plant from losing too much water through its
pores. Cactus roots are also close to the soil
surface, so they can quickly suck up rain when
it finally falls.

4 A MOONSCAPE
Because it rarely rains in the Atacama, This candelabra
the soil is not moist enough to support cactus grows less The air in the Atacama is
than 1/4 inch (5 mm) so dry that clouds here are
much plant life. Few animals can annually, about the rare. The most significant
survive here because there is little to length of an eyelash! source of moisture to the
eat. In fact, in the Atacama it rains Atacama Desert is fog from
on average only .004 inches (.01 cm) the Pacific Ocean.
a year. By comparison, New Orleans
receives an average of 58 inches (147
cm) of rain per year. Many parts of the
Atacama are so barren, or lifeless, that
they are often compared to the surface
of the moon or Mars. NASA scientists
found so little life in Atacama’s soil
that they suggested it would be a good
place to test the equipment they use
when they search for life on Mars.

Human remains that

are 9,000 years old
have been found in
Unlike hot deserts
the Atacama Desert.
such as the Sahara, the
Atacama is relatively The dry air slows
cool. Average daily decomposition and
temperatures range keeps the mummies
from 32ºF to extremely well
77ºF (0ºC–25ºC). preserved.

did you
know?
THE DRIEST PLACE ON EARTH IS JUST
WEST OF ONE OF THE WETTEST PLACES
ON EARTH—THE AMAZON BASIN.

195
 AMAZON RIVER
The Amazon River practically cuts South America in half. It DRAINING A BASIN 2
The Amazon River, and the rivers that
starts in the Andes Mountains, close to the Pacific Ocean, and feed into it, drain a vast area of South
flows almost 4,000 miles (6,400 km) across the continent to America. This area, called the Amazon
basin, covers more than 2.7 million
the Atlantic. For most of its length, the Amazon pushes lazily square miles (7 million sq km)—almost
through the gentle slopes of the forest. Don’t let that pace fool as much as the continental United
States. The Amazon basin is home to
you, though. The Amazon carries more water than any river thousands of species of animals. In the
in the world. In some places it is so wide that you cannot see river, manatees munch on aquatic plants.
Freshwater dolphins use the echoes of
from one bank to the other. It carries trillions of gallons of their high-pitched voices to find fish.
Along the riverbank, you might find
water—more than ten times the flow of the Mississippi River. large hunters, such as the jaguar, the
Even so, it has incredible force. When it reaches the Atlantic most powerful cat in the Americas.
Ocean, the Amazon River’s fresh water pushes the ocean’s salt
One river cannot drain the basin
water for more than 100 miles (161 km) before they mix. by itself. More than 1,000 other
rivers dump their waters into
the Amazon, including the one
shown here, the Tigre.

The Amazon is a river of many

colors, from black to muddy
yellow, depending on each
region’s soil and plants.
About 20 percent of the
world’s supply of fresh water
flows down the Amazon River
to the Atlantic Ocean.

196
THE TOP OF THE RIVER 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

The waters of the Amazon and its tributaries
aren’t all calm and quiet. The river begins in
the high mountains of Peru. As gravity pulls
the water, it tumbles downward with amazing
force, scouring rocks and carving deep
canyons. The water pours over cliffs, creating
crashing waterfalls, some of them hundreds of
feet high. The sediments from the high river
nourish the land far downstream. Don’t try
rafting here!

did you
know?
ALTHOUGH THE AMAZON CUTS ALL THE
WAY ACROSS BRAZIL, NOT A SINGLE
BRIDGE CROSSES THE RIVER. There are more than Although most of the
2,000 species of fish more than 20 species of
in the Amazon River, piranha in the Amazon
greater than the are vegetarians, it is the
Between 60 and 140 inches number of species
(about 1,500–3,500 mm) of rain red-bellied piranha, with
of fish in the entire its sharp teeth, that stars in
fall each year in the Amazon Atlantic Ocean.
basin. jungle movies.

The rain forest creates its own rain.

About half of the water vapor in the
air comes from the leaves of plants.

197
 RAIN FOREST
When you imagine a rain forest biome, do you picture a
hot, humid jungle filled with colorful flowers and birds;
noisy insects; and spectacular snakes, frogs, and mammals?
You might think rain forests exist only in the tropics, near
the equator—but they are on every continent except
Antarctica. Our own Pacific coast, from northern California
into Canada and Alaska, is home to the largest temperate
rain forests. Rain forests are defined by temperature
and rainfall. Tropical rain forests receive between 72 and
360 inches (about 183–914 cm) of rain a year and have
temperatures of about 80°F (about 27°C) and higher.
Temperate rain forests are cooler and average 60 to 200
inches (about 152–508 cm) of rain a year. The differences in
rainfall and temperature create two distinctive rain forest
biomes, each with its own structure and wildlife.

did you
know?
ABOUT 70 PERCENT OF PLANTS THAT HELP FIGHT
CANCER COME FROM THE TROPICAL RAIN FOREST.

4 GOLDEN LION
TAMARIN
Weighing from 14 to 29 ounces
(about 396–822 g), this species of
small monkey lives in family groups
in the canopy of Brazilian rain forests. For
food, they depend on organisms and water inside
certain plants, as well as fruit, insects, and small
lizards. The golden lion tamarin is critically endangered
because its habitat has been destroyed by deforestation.

198
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
The keel-billed toucan
of Belize lives in the canopy.
It enjoys mainly fruit, but
sometimes eats insects and
small animals.

4 GIANTS OF THE JUNGLE

Both tropical and temperate rain
forests are divided into layers. Rain
forests have an emergent layer, in
which the tallest trees poke through
the canopy. Growing to more than
200 feet (about 61 m), the trees of
the tropical rain forest have ample
space around them to spread their
foliage. Between intense rainstorms,
the emergent layer is exposed to
extreme, drying sunlight and winds.
The emergent trees of the temperate
rain forest can grow to heights
greater than 328 feet (100 m) due
to their long lives—they usually live
over 500 years!

ADAPTABLE ANIMALS 3
Tropical and temperate rain
forest animals compete for
food and shelter, so they must
adapt to survive. Monkeys
developed prehensile tails that
can grasp branches. Other
animals, such as this tree frog,
sport bright colors to warn off
predators or patterns to blend
in with the forest. Still others
have adapted a specialized diet
and eat only one or two foods.

4 THE FOREST ROOF

The dense branches and foliage of
the tropical rain forest canopy shield Growing to more than 5 inches (13 cm)
the layers below from direct sun, in length, the white-lipped tree frog of
Australia is the largest tree frog in the world.
wind, and heavy rain. Insects, birds,
monkeys, snakes, and frogs feast
on the abundance of fruits, flowers,
leaves, seeds, and nectar. Fewer
creatures live in the redwoods and
other tall evergreen conifers—trees
that produce cones and seeds—that
dominate the temperate rain
forest canopy.

199
 RAIN FOREST CONTINUED
Rain forests cover about 2 percent of Earth’s surface, yet
more than 50 percent of all plant and animal species live
in them. Rain forests are a valuable, yet fragile, resource.
They regulate global temperatures and weather patterns
and help maintain Earth’s limited supply of fresh water.
Native cultures that live in tropical rain forests depend on
resources from this environment for their survival.
Valuable products, such as timber and coffee, are
important exports, but they come at a price. Local and
global companies with farming, timber, and ranching
interests are deforesting the rain forest at an alarming rate.
Although some deforestation is necessary to build homes
and create agricultural areas, practices like clear-cutting and
burning vast areas of land, as well as mining, are destructive.
Rain forest destruction threatens biodiversity, promotes
flooding, and causes soil erosion.
THE DARK MAZE 3
Very little sunshine penetrates through to the understory layer of the
tropical and temperate rain forest. Shade-loving plants with large
leaves are home to insects such as beetles, bees, and ants. Snakes,
lizards, and spiders can hide in the dense overgrown shrubbery.

JAGUAR 2
Jaguars are fierce predators in the tropical rain forests of
Central and South America. They hunt mainly on the ground,
but sometimes pounce from tree limbs onto unsuspecting
prey such as crocodiles, snakes,
monkeys, and large piglike
animals called tapirs.
Jaguars are considered
“near-threatened”
because of
deforestation
and poaching.

200
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
The northern spotted owl is considered Leafcutter ants bite
a threatened species. Its habitat has off and carry away
been severely reduced by logging of bits of leaves. They
temperate rain forests in the United use the leaf bits to
States and Canada. grow a fungus that
they eat

LIFE IN THE UNDERSTORY 3

Flowers in the tropical understory
are large, pale, and heavily scented
to attract pollinating insects.
Many grow on tree trunks, unlike
temperate rain forest flowers.
Camouflaged reptiles and insects
can easily hide from predators in
the dim light.

4 A SOFT LANDING
The soil of the temperate rain forest is rich and moist, covered with
decaying needles and leaves. Wildflowers, grasses, mosses, and
toadstools grow here. On the crowded floor of the Alaskan rain
forest shown here, seeds can fall onto dead trees. Seedlings can
take root right on the decaying trees, which are called nurse logs.
The tropical rain forest floor is dark and the air is almost still.
Little more than fungi and plants that get their nutrients from
decaying leaves can grow in such darkness.

CREATURES OF THE FOREST FLOOR 3

Termites, scorpions, and other invertebrates live
on the tropical rain forest floor. Foragers
hunt bugs and edible roots. Most
temperate rain forest creatures live on
or near the floor, where most of the food is.
Chipmunks, birds, deer, black bears, and
cougars are among these animals.

Its pattern helps the tropical

Gaboon viper hide on the forest
floor, waiting for its next meal.

did you
know?
GABOON VIPERS HAVE THE LARGEST FANGS OF ALL SNAKES.
THE FANGS CAN GROW AS LONG AS 2 INCHES (ABOUT 5 CM).

201
 MOUNT EVEREST
The top of Mount Everest is the highest place on Earth. Its snowcapped peak
stands at 29,035 feet (almost 8,850 m) above sea level—and it is still growing!
Colliding tectonic plates are pushing the mighty Himalaya Mountains up at a rate
of about 5 millimeters per year. Weather conditions at the summit can be extreme,
with hurricane-force winds and an average temperature of –33°F (–36°C). Most
climbers try for the summit in the spring when conditions are most favorable.
But even then, fierce storms can happen suddenly. Even in good weather, glaciers
can shift and crack, creating dangerous crevasses. With only
one third of the oxygen at sea The North Face is
one of Everest’s three
level available to them, many faces, or sides.
climbers have died because of
these treacherous
conditions.

Rongbuk glacier

SNOW LEOPARDS 3
Snow leopards are an endangered
species and are very rarely seen in the
wild. Between 3,000 and 6,000 of these
amazing cats are left in the vastness
of the Himalayas. They have been
THE YAK 1 hunted for their beautiful thick fur,
Yaks are huge shaggy beasts well suited to life in and their bones and organs are used in
the mountains. They have adaptations, such as traditional Chinese medicine. Only one
large lungs and more red blood cells, that allow snow leopard has been seen on Mount
them to live at high altitudes where oxygen is Everest in the past 40 years.
scarce. Yaks are important to the survival of the
people of the Himalayas. They are a source
of milk, meat, and fur for warm coats.
Their dung is dried and used as fuel,
and they are excellent mountain
pack animals.

202
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
The South Face is the
most popular route
to the summit.

The border between

Nepal and China
runs across the top of
Everest.

1 A BREATH OF THIN AIR

Climbing Mount Everest is no easy task. Climbers must
spend several weeks adapting to the high elevation
A MOUNTAIN WITH MANY NAMES at Base Camp—around 17,500 feet (5,334 m). They
In 1865, Mount Everest was named after Sir George Everest, then rest at higher camps over 21,000 feet (6,400 m),
the British Surveyor General of India at the time the mountain acclimating to the lower oxygen levels as they ascend.
was first mapped in 1841. In Nepalese, it is called Sagarmatha, Most climbers need extra oxygen to reach the summit.
“forehead in the sky,” and in Tibetan, Chomolungma, “goddess Lack of oxygen flow to the brain can make them feel
mother of the world.” The summit was first reached in 1953 after dizzy, sleepy, and confused. At high altitude, this is a
many failed attempts. Now, there are many expeditions up the serious risk to their lives.
mountain each year—but not all of them are successful.

did you
know? THE ROCKS THAT FORM THE HIMALAYAS, INCLUDING
MOUNT EVEREST, WERE ONCE PART OF THE OCEAN FLOOR!

203
204
PHYSICAL

PHYSICAL SCIENCES
SCIENCES
From the tiny atom, to the depths of
the universe, physical science studies
how and why non-living things behave
the way they do. With universal laws, it
explains processes that we cannot see,
but are constantly working in our world,
for example, the electricity powering
our homes, the sound of an airplane,
or the forces that move a roller coaster
car. It looks at the intricate structures
of materials, and how they interact.
So scientists can manipulate atoms to
make medicine or fireproof clothing.
Beyond Earth, physical science examines
the matter in the universe, including
stars, planets, galaxies, and all that lies
between. A space so vast, that by the
time light from distant objects reaches
our telescopes, we are really looking at a
view from back in time.

205
 GRAVITY
No matter where you stand on Earth’s surface, gravity pulls you toward the
center of the planet. As you stand, the ground is pushing upward on your feet
in reaction to the gravitational force. In deep space, where the gravitational
pull of stars and planets is very small, astronauts experience a sense of
weightlessness, a condition called microgravity. It’s possible to
feel this sensation on Earth, if only for a short time
during a jump off the ground. You can feel reduced
gravity by taking a fast elevator ride down
in a tall building. If you jump inside the
elevator, it takes longer than usual
to come to the floor because the
elevator is falling, too.

SCIENCE IN SPACE 2
The International Space Station is constantly being pulled toward Earth by
gravity. Everything inside the station is being pulled at the same rate. This
creates a condition of microgravity that is ideal for scientific experiments.
In Earth’s gravity, less dense, hot gases and soot from a candle flame rise.
The soot gives the flame its yellow color. Cooler, denser gases sink, bringing
Space scientists study the growth of oxygen to the base of the flame. In microgravity, the flame spreads in every
substances, such as these salt crystals, direction, because there is no force moving the gases. Very little oxygen moves
in microgravity to learn more about the
properties of materials. to the flame, so the flame’s temperature drops. The cooler flame produces very
little soot, so it burns blue.

206
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
THE FLOATING SCIENTIST 1
Astronauts inside the space station are being pulled by gravity
at exactly the same rate as the station itself, so they don’t fall to
the floor. They train for orbit in large jet airplanes that fly up and
down in curving paths. The plane, known as the Vomit Comet,
and its contents are falling at the same rate for about 25 seconds,
simulating microgravity. Physicist Stephen Hawking, floating
above, experienced microgravity during this type of flight.

did you

1 COMING DOWN TO EARTH

know?
WANT TO BE TALLER? SPEND TIME IN MICROGRAVITY.
As the motocross rider jumps from the ramp, his WHEN THERE IS NO DOWNWARD PRESSURE ON THE SPINE,
muscles provide a force that moves him upward. ASTRONAUTS BECOME ALMOST 2 INCHES (5 CM) TALLER.
Once he is in the air, the force of gravity takes over
and he falls. During the jump, the boy and the
bike fall at the same rate, so he experiences a brief
feeling of weightlessness. During that time, he can
perform a trick called a cordova while doing a back
flip, and land—all in a fraction of a second.

207
 BRIDGES
To cross over a creek, you find a log that reaches from one bank to the other.
The log holds up your weight and keeps your feet out of the water—as long as
you can balance! You are demonstrating Newton’s third law of motion: for every
action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Your body pushes down on the log.
The log and the points on the banks where it rests react by pushing up with equal
force. The weight the bridge can hold is called the load. The length of the bridge is
the span. Throughout history, people have found ingenious ways to carry heavier
loads over longer spans. Both bridges shown here use one of the oldest forms, an
arch, to help support the load across the span.

BRIDGES AND HAMMOCKS 3 The two main cables

Think of a hammock, held up by ropes attached to trees. This pull like a bow string
on the anchorages.
suspension bridge is held up by two giant cables—3 feet (about 1 m)
From end to end, the in diameter. The cables are draped over towers and attached on each
Golden Gate Bridge end to a 60,000-ton concrete structure, called an anchorage, where
stretches 8,981 feet the bridge is attached to the ground. Smaller cables suspend the
(2,737 m) across San weight from the two main cables. The cables distribute the load over
Francisco Bay.
the towers and out to the anchorages.

208
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Here, the force pushing down
on the long arms of the
cantilevers is balanced by the
The main towers reach weight of the structures at
746 feet (227 m) above each end of this span.
the water and about
110 feet (34 m) below
the water.

CANTILEVERS AT WORK 1
The Firth of Forth Bridge in Scotland, at 8,276 feet (2,523 m) long, is one of
the world’s longest cantilever bridges. A cantilever is a type of lever whose
long end sticks out over the water, like a huge, very stiff diving board. The
short end is held down by enormous weights. Two cantilevers, one coming
from each end of a span, can be joined in the middle to form a bridge.

The center span of the bridge, between did you

the towers, is the suspended portion.
At 4,200 feet (1,280 m) long, it is now
dwarfed by Japan’s Akashi-Kaikyo bridge—
know?
ON THE GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE, THE
the longest suspension—at 6,532 feet MAIN CABLES SIT ON THE TOP OF THE
(1,991 m).
TOWER IN HUGE STEEL SADDLES.

209
 GRAVITRON
The carnival ride starts to spin faster and you feel yourself pressing against the
wall behind you. You seem to be getting heavier. It’s hard to pull your arms
away from the padded wall. Suddenly, the floor drops away! You are sure you
will fall, but you just keep spinning. The Gravitron is a popular carnival ride
that uses a force known as centripetal force to give you a thrill. An object
keeps moving in a straight line unless a net force acts on it. When you are
whirling in a Gravitron, you have a net force acting on you that causes you
to move in a circular path rather than flinging you in a straight line. That
force is centripetal force. This same force keeps the moon and satellites in
near-circular, or elliptical, orbits. In this case, gravity is pulling these bodies
toward Earth’s center. In the Gravitron, the wall you are pressed against allows
centripetal force to keep you in your orbit!

RIDING THE GRAVITRON 3

In a Gravitron ride, you feel as if you are being
pushed against the wall, but the force is really just
the opposite. If the wall were not there, you
and your fellow passengers would
fly off the ride the way a
baseball flies out of a
pitcher’s hand.

The momentum
of the moving disk
keeps the gyroscope
at the same angle. It
takes a lot of force to
change the motion.

GYROSCOPE 1
A gyroscope is a device with a disk that spins
rapidly about its axis. Gyroscopes are useful for
studying the forces of circular motion, and they have
important applications in air, sea, and land navigation.
They are also used in the International Space Station and
the Space Shuttle to maintain correct orientations.

did you
know?
RIDERS ON THE GRAVITRON MOVE AROUND IN A
CIRCLE AT ABOUT 40 MILES PER HOUR (ABOUT 64 KM/H).

210
 4 HOLDING ONTO THE PLANETS

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Path planet would take if
there were no gravity Planets moving around a star are held
in place by centripetal force. That force
Planet following an
elliptical orbit around star
is created by gravity. Without gravity, the
planet’s inertia, or tendency to keep moving
in a straight line, would cause it to fly away
into space. The mass of the star constantly
Acceleration toward
star due to pull of gravity pulls the planet inward. If inertia is greater
than the pull toward the star, an object such
Comet from as a comet does not orbit, but instead follows
deep space
Star a hyperbolic path, which is elongated and
not a closed curve. The comet eventually
leaves the star far behind.
Planet following
a more eccentric
A comet’s (less circular) orbit
hyperbolic path

In this ride, the centripetal force is three

times the force of gravity. Astronauts
train in similar rides that have a
centripetal force almost seven
times as strong.

211
 ROLLER COASTER
Clink, clink, clink. The roller coaster car slowly climbs its steep track. You grip the
restraint in anticipation of a great fall. The thrills are about to begin! If you have
ever been on a traditional roller coaster, you may have noticed that the cars do not
have engines. They are pulled up to the highest point of the track by chains and
then released. What causes them to go down and up again? Roller coasters can
move along their tracks at great speeds because potential energy is converted
to kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the energy an object has due to its motion.
Potential energy is energy related to an object’s position or shape. In the case
of a roller coaster, the potential energy is due to gravity and the height of
the car. As the car falls, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
The roller coaster car moves fastest at the bottom of a hill or a loop
because all of the potential energy has changed to kinetic energy.

LOOP FORCES 1
When a roller coaster car enters a loop, resistance to a change
in motion, called inertia, keeps passengers in their seats. This
continues as the car changes direction throughout the loop.
When the passengers are completely upside down, the force of
gravity acts on them, and they begin to fall. Luckily, the speed of
the car keeps them moving in a circular path.

212
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Roller coasters that
go upside down may
have a restraining bar
that goes over the
shoulders as well as
the lap of the rider.

HEIGHT VERSUS SPEED 1

At the highest point on a track, the roller coaster
car has all of its potential energy and no kinetic
energy. It is completely still. As the car falls, its
potential energy gets converted to kinetic energy,
causing its speed to increase. At the bottom of the
hill, the roller coaster car is going as fast as it can.
The car has no more potential energy because
its potential energy has all been converted to
kinetic energy. The kinetic energy is converted to
potential energy again as the car’s momentum
carries it up the next hill. Each hill or loop must
be lower than the one before it, because some
of the original potential energy is lost due to air
resistance and friction between the car and its
track. Engineers design the different heights along
the roller coaster track carefully so that a car does
not get stuck due to a lack of energy.

did you

Steel roller coasters

know?
THE FASTEST STEEL ROLLER COASTER IN THE WORLD,
have tracks that are KINGDA KA IN JACKSON, NEW JERSEY, REACHES SPEEDS
usually pairs of metal
tubes. Wheels on GREATER THAN 120 MILES (190 KM) PER HOUR.
either side keep the
car firmly attached to
the track.

213
 COLLISION
The pitch and . . . the swing. There’s a sudden, HEROIC DUMMIES 3
A car crash is called an inelastic collision.
loud crack and the ball soars toward the fence. When cars collide, they don’t bounce off
This is the kind of collision you hope for one another. Instead, metal crunches and
bends, glass breaks, and sound waves
when you’re playing baseball. Both the ball carry energy away. Human bodies are
and the bat are moving, so they have what not designed to absorb these sudden
changes in energy and momentum.
is called momentum. Momentum equals the Crash test dummies are built to find out
mass of an object times its velocity. Velocity what happens to people in a car crash.
Scientists use the information to design
is speed with direction. During a hit, some of systems to protect passengers.
the bat’s momentum is transferred to the ball.
Since the mass of the ball does not change,
this momentum goes into changing the ball’s
velocity. Instead of moving toward home plate,
the ball is now soaring toward the right field
did you
fence. The total momentum of the bat and ball is
conserved—that is, the total is the same before
know?
MANY SCIENTISTS BELIEVE THAT THE MOON
FORMED AFTER A COLLISION BETWEEN
and after the collision. So the bat’s momentum EARTH AND A MARS-SIZED ASTEROID
must decrease by the same amount as the ball’s BILLIONS OF YEARS AGO.

momentum increases by. So what’s the secret to

hitting a home run? Transfer enough momentum
to hit the ball out of the park.

ELASTIC BUMPERS 1
In what is called an elastic collision, the colliding objects bounce off of each other
and don’t change shape. All of the energy goes into changes in speed. Bumper
boats are a great way to feel an elastic collision. As your boat smacks into your
friend’s boat, you both go spinning away from the collision.

214
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Crash test
dummies come
in many sizes
and shapes—
adult men
and women,
children,
infants, and
even pregnant
women.

Airbag

As the airbag inflates,

the seat belt locks
in place, so that
the dummy—or
Joints are The airbag fills with a person—does
designed to gas in a fraction of a not keep moving
move as human second—faster than forward as the car
joints do. the blink of an eye. stops.

1 FALLING INTO A BALLOON

If a car stops suddenly, the people in it will keep moving until something
stops them. The soft surface of an airbag stops a person more slowly than
either the dashboard or steering wheel. This results in less force on the person.

215
 CATAPULTS
What do a kangaroo, a fishing lure, and a pole-vaulter have in common?
They are all launched into the air with the help of a simple machine: the
lever. A lever that is used to throw things is called a catapult. If you have ever
put a marshmallow in a plastic spoon, bent the spoon back, and then let go,
you’ve operated a catapult. Levers, like seesaws, lift things. If a lot of force is
applied quickly to one arm, the lever not only lifts but also throws whatever
is on the other arm. Most catapults have one long arm and one short one.
They were used as ancient weapons to hurl large stones or other objects at
enemies. A stone would be placed on the end of the long arm. When many
people pulled a rope attached to the short arm, the long arm swung
up, launching the stone up and at the enemy.

The pole is made of

strong materials so
that it springs back
with great force
when bent.

Australian Sophie
Lichoudaris pole vaults
during a 2009 athletic
festival in Sydney.

POLE VAULT 3
In the sport of pole vault, athletes use a long
pole to launch themselves over a raised bar.
Holding one end of the pole, the athlete runs
toward the bar and places the far end of the
pole in the ground just below the bar. The
pole becomes a long lever that swings the
athlete up and over the bar.

216
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
CASTING LONG 2
A fishing rod uses the power of the catapult to cast a lure
out into the water, and then uses the rod as a lever to haul
in a fish. The angler’s right hand acts as the balance point,
called the fulcrum. With a quick motion, he pushes on
the short arm of the catapult with his left hand. The rod
pivots around his right hand, lifting the lure into the air
and flinging it out across the water. If a fish bites, the rod
becomes a lever that lifts the catch out of the water.

A hopping kangaroo can The long, heavy tail

travel more than 35 miles helps the animal
(56 km) per hour. balance.

KANGAROO HOPS 1
Kangaroos’ legs use a lever action to
launch them 30 feet (9 m) through
the air. They have an especially long
and springy Achilles tendon, which
is a rubbery band that attaches
leg muscles to heel bones. The
tendon stores and releases
energy so effectively that
kangaroos get more bounce
and use less energy when
they speed up their hopping.

The raised bar is

set to release easily,
preventing injury
should the athlete
bump into it.

did you
know?
POLEVAULTER SERGEI BUBKA CLEARED A
Two vertical poles 20-FOOT (6 M) BAR—ABOUT THE HEIGHT OF
hold up the bar. A TWO-STORY HOUSE WITHOUT THE ROOF.

217
 LIFTING ELECTROMAGNETS
Picking up your little sister’s toy truck with a large magnet can make you feel
very powerful. Imagine how exciting it would be to pick up a full-size car or
a train. To do this, your tool would be an electromagnet. An electromagnet
gets its strength from two sources. One source is a solenoid—coiled wire with
a current running through it. The other source is ferromagnetic material—
material that can become magnetized—such as iron, which forms a core
inside the solenoid. The power of these two magnets working together
can be hundreds—even thousands—of times greater than a magnet alone.
Electromagnets can lift by way of the attraction of opposite poles. They can
also lift by using the force of like poles repelling each other, allowing a train to
float on air. Electromagnets can do more than lift. For example, they can lock
and unlock a car door by turning an electric current on and off. They can move
parts of an audio speaker, causing vibrations that produce sound waves.

LIFTING THE MAGLEV 2

This train in Shanghai, China, is powered by magnetic
levitation, called maglev. Maglev trains have a magnetic
coil that runs along the track, forming what’s called a
guideway. When a current runs through the magnetic
coil in the guideway, it repels a magnet along the
bottom of the train, lifting the train about
0.39 to 3.94 inches (1 to 10 cm). Because
the train is floating on air, it is not
slowed down by friction with
the ground.

The floor of the train,

which has no wheels,
glides smoothly
because it is not in
contact with the
guideway.

The train wraps

around each side of
the guideway the
way your hands wrap
around a tray, so it
can’t fly off.

The train’s
electromagnets are
on the part of the
train that wraps
under the guideway.

218
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you
know? AN ELECTROMAGNET 2.5 INCHES (6.35 CM) IN
DIAMETER CAN LIFT 200 POUNDS (90.7 KG).

4 MAGNETIC JUNKYARD
Large electromagnets move metal objects from one place
to another, and are especially useful in junkyards. An
electric current is turned on to pick up the metal and
turned off when the object is in place and ready to be
dropped. A large electromagnet can be pulled through
junk to separate metal from the other materials. Only the
metal will be attracted to the electromagnet.

The electromagnet
can lift large loads,
even cars, if there
are enough coils and
enough current.

Not all metals are

attracted to an
electromagnet.
Aluminum is not. Iron
and iron alloys such
as steel are.

Electric wires from

power source

Ferromagnetic core

A SMALL ELECTROMAGNET 3
The north and south poles of this
horseshoe-shaped electromagnet
are located at the bottom of each
of the coils. The magnetic field
magnetizes the tiny pieces of iron,
4 MOVING THE MAGLEV or iron filings, between the poles.
The guideway contains two sets of coils. The result is that the iron filings line
One set of coils is used to lift and guide up with the magnetic field, forming
the train. A second set of coils, often a bridge between the poles.
called the propulsion coils, is used to
move the train along the tracks. The
current in the propulsion coils creates a
magnetic field that pulls the train from Magnetic coil, or solenoid
the front and pushes the train from
the back. The combined effect is that
maglev trains can reach speeds of more Iron filings
than 300 miles per hour (500 km/h).

219
 COLOR VIOLET
Violet is the name
Why is an orange orange and a blueberry given to the light
blue? The things we see have a spectacular with the shortest
wavelength. Purple
array of colors because of visible light. is the name given
Light travels in waves. Light waves have to the color you get
when you mix blue
different distances between the peaks and red pigments.
of their waves. This distance is called a
wavelength. You see different wavelengths as
different colors. Together, all of these colors
make up white light. But when light hits an object,
some colors are absorbed and others are reflected. An
object takes on the color it reflects. So we see
a blueberry as blue because
it reflects light with a
blue wavelength.

THE VISIBLE LIGHT

SPECTRUM
The colors that the human eye
can see make up what’s called
the visible light spectrum. This
range includes every color in
the rainbow. Red light has the
longest wavelength. As you
move counterclockwise
around this color
wheel from red,
wavelengths
ORANGE AND YELLOW
decrease.
Pigments are molecules that
give things color by absorbing
some colors and reflecting others.
Carrots and bananas, for example,
contain a pigment called carotene,
which absorbs all colors of light
except for orange and yellow.

220
 did you THE PIGMENT CALLED ANTHOCYANIN MAKES EGGPLANTS
know?

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

LOOK PURPLE AND GIVES BLUEBERRIES THEIR COLOR.
DARK BLUE
The blue pigment
known as ultramarine
comes from blue semi-
precious stones called lapis
lazuli. Renaissance painters
often saved this precious
pigment to color only the
most important people
in their paintings.

IRIDESCENT BLUE
The blue morpho butterfly’s color is not
caused by a pigment. Tiny ridges on its
wings cause the wings to reflect the blue
wavelength of light. The wings seem to
sparkle as the light bounces at different
angles. This effect is called iridescence.

GREEN
The pigment that makes
plants green is called chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll absorbs all colors of light
except green. When leaves change color
in the fall, it is because the chlorophyll
has begun to break down, and the other
pigments in the leaves can be seen. These
pigments reflect red, orange, and yellow light.

221
 RADIO
In a thunderstorm, you see the lightning before you hear the thunder,
because sound travels much more slowly than light does. How does music
travel at the speed of light to your radio? By riding on radio waves! Like
visible light, radio waves are electromagnetic waves that travel at the speed
of light. Radio waves can travel long distances without being scattered or
absorbed. Radio stations transform sound waves into radio waves. They FM antenna
modulate, or change, the radio waves so that they represent the sound
of speech and music. Those waves are
transmitted from a radio tower. Radios in
homes and cars receive the waves and
Side plate with holes for
convert them back into sound. tuning and volume dials,
Tuning dial external power source,
and AM/FM selection.

Back casing

AM antenna

Windup generator
magnets

FREEPLAY RADIO 3
The Freeplay radio was designed to work in places
Windup generator
where electricity and batteries are not available. A solar coils
panel on top converts the energy from visible light into
electricity. Alternatively, you can turn the generator
crank, which spins wire coils in a magnetic field to
generate electricity. This electricity can be stored in the
rechargeable batteries for later use.

222
 TUNING IN 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Radio announcers, news broadcasters, and disc jockeys
typically have all or some parts of the broadcast
programmed onto computers. The radio station
broadcasts its radio waves at a particular frequency,
or number of waves per second. When you tune your
radio to that frequency, you hear that station’s music.
For example, if you listen to WROK 93.1 FM, the signal
from the station is transmitted at 93.1 MHz (megahertz
or millions of cycles per second). When you select
93.1 on your radio, the radio is receiving only radio
waves at a frequency of 93.1 MHz, and you can hear
your favorite station. AM stations broadcast at lower
frequencies that are measured in KHz (kilohertz, or
thousands of cycles per second).

did you
know?
FM RADIO IS BROADCAST ONLY AT FREQUENCIES OF 88 MHZ TO
A microphone converts
the sound waves of the
The broadcaster uses the
console to control the
108 MHZ. AM RADIO IS BROADCAST ONLY AT 530 KHZ TO 1700 KHZ. broadcaster’s voice into volume of her voice, the
electrical energy. music, the advertisements,
or any other sound that is
being broadcast.
Solar panel
Front casing with
holes for generator
handle, loudspeaker,
Windup and station frequency
generator gears indicator

The loudspeaker
makes the sound you
hear.

Speaker grill

Windup generator crank

Radio loudspeaker cone

Rechargable batteries
store electricity.

223
 GUITAR
A guitar’s strings vibrate when you pluck, pick,
or strum them. When you hear the sound,
you know it is coming from a guitar—not a Tuning posts
to hold strings
violin or a piano. An instrument’s vibrations at top

are waves of particular frequencies, the number

of waves that occur in a certain period of time.
Each note an instrument plays has a certain
tone, called its fundamental tone. When you hear
that tone from a guitar, which comes from a wave
Frets are arranged so
moving up and down a string, you are also hearing that pressing a string
against a particular
other tones, called overtones, that are characteristic of a fret results in a wave
with a particular
guitar. The frequencies of the overtones are related to frequency.

the fundamental tone mathematically—they are twice,

three times, or another multiple of the frequency of the
fundamental tone. You hear the sound as one note, but Tuning peg, to adjust
tension of string
it is harmonious and musical because of its overtones.

Neck

4 UNPLUGGED
The strings of an acoustic guitar—
one that is not electric—make the
bridge vibrate. The bridge is the piece
to which the strings are attached at
the bottom. The bridge is attached
to the flat front of the guitar—the did you
know?
A GUITAR CAN HAVE AS FEW AS
piece with a hole in it—called the 4 OR AS MANY AS 18 STRINGS.
soundboard. The vibration of the
strings transfers to the soundboard
and then to the air inside the guitar,
amplifying the sound.

Bridge Soundboard

Pick guard

MUSICAL NOTATION 1
Music is written on a framework of five lines, called a staff
or pentagram. Notes are marked on the lines and spaces
corresponding to the particular sound to be played. Notes are
labeled A through G, and then back to A. The space from one
A to the next A, or B to B, is called an octave. Written music is
like a written language that uses notes instead of words.

224
 2 PLUGGED IN

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Each string has a
different thickness, Most electric guitar bodies are solid, as the sound
affecting the way it does not rely on a soundboard. Instead, devices
vibrates.
called magnetic pickups turn the string vibrations
from different locations on the strings into
electrical signals. Then those electrical signals travel
to an amplifier, which strengthens the signals.
Finally, the amplified signals cause speakers to
Bridge pickup, a vibrate the air so the sound can be heard. This
magnetic pickup
guitar is a Gibson Les Paul®, named after Hall of
Screws to adjust
Neck pickup, a bridge position
Fame guitarist and inventor Les Paul, and sold by
magnetic pickup the Gibson Guitar Corporation.

Pickup selector
switch

The bridge supports the Tailpiece to fasten strings

strings so they vibrate freely. to case

Pickup mount

Front case

Strap
connector

Volume controls
for bridge and
neck pickups

Tone controls for

bridge and neck pickups Inner wiring and
electronics

225
 SONIC BOOMS
A jet plane speeds across the sky overhead and a sound like thunder follows.
Boom! Was that the roar of its engines? Actually, it was a sonic boom. A
sonic boom occurs whenever an object, such as the plane, travels faster than
the speed of sound. To understand why a sonic boom occurs, think about
sound as the movement of air molecules. When the plane moves through
the air, it pushes the air molecules, producing pressure waves. These waves
are alternating high pressure and low pressure areas of air. As the plane flies
through the air, these waves travel in all directions including to the ground.
You hear each wave as normal airplane noise. When the plane travels faster
than the speed of sound, the waves produced by the plane can travel only as
fast as the speed of sound, which is slower than the plane. Because of this,
the waves “run into” each other and bunch up, forming very large waves,
called shock waves. A shock wave is actually a sudden increase in pressure.
When the shock waves reach your eardrum, you hear a sonic boom. The
sudden increase in pressure has the same effect as the sudden expansion
of air produced by an explosion. People nearby hear the sonic boom of the
explosion when the shock wave passes them.

did you
know?
THE CRACK OF A WHIP IS A TINY SONIC BOOM CAUSED BY THE SPEED
OF THE TIP TRAVELING FASTER THAN THE SPEED OF SOUND.

Vapor cone or
condensation cloud

4 VAPOR CONE
When a plane or rocket travels near the speed of
sound, a cone-shaped cloud, called a vapor cone,
may form around the object. This cloud forms
due to a sudden acceleration of the airplane at
high speeds, causing an abrupt drop in pressure
of the air passing over the plane. When the air
pressure decreases, the air temperature also
decreases and water vapor in the air condenses
into tiny droplets of water. Because this can
happen to an object traveling just below the
speed of sound, a sonic boom may not be heard.

226
 FASTER THAN THE SPEED OF SOUND 2

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

On October 14, 1947, Chuck Yeager, a test pilot with the United States Air
Force, reached a speed of 700 miles per hour (about 1,126 km/h) or 1.06 times
the speed of sound (also known as Mach 1.06). Yeager was flying a rocket-
powered X-1 research plane. This plane, 31 feet (about 9.4 m) long with a
wingspan of 28 feet (about 8.5 m), was modeled after the shape of a .50-inch
(1.27-cm) bullet. With this feat, Yeager became the first person to travel faster
than the speed of sound. To calculate an object’s Mach number, you compare its
speed with the speed of sound at the same temperature. For example, the speed
of sound in air at Yeager’s flying altitude of 40,000 feet (12,192 m) is about
660 miles per hour (1,062 km/h). When you divide Yeager’s speed by the speed
of sound—700/660 (1,126/1,062)—you get Mach 1.06.

Movement of the air around the

cockpit of this F/A-18 Hornet has
also caused a vapor cloud to The pilot of this
form here, as well as behind aircraft has a much
the wings of the aircraft. greater visibility from
the cockpit than
Yeager had in the
bullet-shaped X-1.

Concorde is 204 feet (about 62 m)

long, increasing by 6 to 10 inches
(about 15 to 25 cm) during flight. At
supersonic speeds, friction with the
air heats the exterior of the plane
The wingspan of Concorde is and the metal expands, so the plane
83 feet 8 inches (25.5 m). lengthens at joints in the metal.

COMMERCIAL SUPERSONIC FLIGHT 1

Flight that is faster than the speed of sound, called
supersonic flight, is not just for the military. Fourteen
A display showed Concorde passengers Concordes®, supersonic commercial aircraft, carried
their speed and altitude while in flight. more than 2.5 million people, starting in 1976 and
Mach 2 means that the plane is moving
at twice the speed of sound. At an ending in 2003. Concorde could fly as fast as
altitude of 54,000 feet (16,459 m), the 1,350 miles per hour (almost 2,173 km/h), traveling
speed of sound is about 660 miles per from London to New York in only 3.5 hours—half
hour (1,062 km/h). That means the the time needed by standard aircraft.
Concorde is flying at 1,320 miles per
hour (2,124 km/h).

227
 FORMULA 1 CAR
At 200 miles per hour (about 322 km/h), a vehicle with wings could fly.
Formula 1 cars reach that speed and do have wings attached to the front and
back of the car. Their wings, however, are designed to create the opposite of lift,
called downforce. This downward force allows cars to cling tightly to the track
as they maneuver the tight curves of a Formula 1 race. However, this force also
slows the car down. The other force slowing the car down is the force of the air
pushing against the car as it moves forward. Every part of the car is designed
to minimize these forces, by allowing air to move smoothly over, under, and
around the car. The goal in designing these cars is to achieve the highest speed
without flying off the track. This balance can get pretty tricky when 0.01 second
can be the difference between winning and losing the race.

did you
know?
FORMULA 1 CARS PRODUCE SO MUCH DOWNFORCE
WINDING ALONG THE TRACK 2
In the first automobile race, held in France in 1894, the average
THAT, AT 100 MILES PER HOUR (ABOUT 161 KM/H), speed of the winning car was about 11 miles per hour (almost
THEY COULD THEORETICALLY BE DRIVEN UPSIDE 18 km/h). Now around 20 Formula 1 races are held each year in
DOWN ON A CEILING. countries around the world. The average speeds vary with the
particular track, but on the straight portions, a Formula 1 car
moves at least 180 miles per hour (almost 290 km/h)—much
higher in some races.

228
GOING WITH THE FLOW

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

The rear wing tilts upward, directing the The front wing hits the air first.
air up. This creates a low-pressure area Its shape determines how the air
Wings, sometimes called spoilers, under the wing that acts almost as a will flow along the whole car.
on the front and back of a vacuum, sucking the rear tires against
Formula 1 car, are one of the the track.
most important design features.
Their purpose is to direct air that
is blasting against the car as it
gains speed. Airplane wings are
designed to direct the air that
hits the wing downward, lifting
the plane up. The rear wing on
a Formula 1 car directs the air
upward, so the back of the car is
pressed down.

Vertical end plates on the

front wing reduce drag
over the front tires.
The shape of the car body
is rounded and decreases in
width so that air flows over
it with the least resistance.

The tires of a Formula 1 car have to be very

light but still be able to handle a downforce of
about 9,960 Newtons on each tire. Because of
friction, the tires get as hot as boiling water.

229
 FUEL CELL CARS
Everyday, millions of people add carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and other
greenhouse gases—gases that trap heat in the atmosphere—to the air, simply by
driving to the grocery store. In fact, the largest source of carbon dioxide, the most
common greenhouse gas, is transportation. Earth needs some greenhouse gases.
Without them, the temperature of the planet would be much colder. But human
activities, such as driving, have led to an increase in greenhouse gases, ultimately
leading to global warming. The temperature of Earth’s surface has increased about
1ºF (about 0.56ºC) in the last 100 years. If we could eliminate greenhouse gases
from vehicle emissions and replace them with water vapor, the warming effect
on Earth could be greatly reduced. Engineers and scientists have developed fuel
cell cars that do just that. The fuel is hydrogen and oxygen, and the product is
electricity, heat, and water!
Exhaust from fuel cell
vehicles is clean. It
contains no pollutants,
only water vapor.

The fuel cell stack

in the center of the
vehicle combines
hydrogen with
oxygen, which
generates
electricity to
power the
vehicle.

Compressed hydrogen
gas is stored in a high-
pressure hydrogen tank.

230
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
WHERE’S THE CLOSEST
GAS STATION? 3
Some obstacles to getting fuel cell cars on
the road is the lack of pipelines, trucks, and
storage facilities to deliver the hydrogen
to the fueling stations. One company that
makes hydrogen fuel cell cars, is developing
a home energy station that can produce
hydrogen from natural gas. It would provide
heat and electricity for the home and
fuel for fuel cell vehicles. Using a home
energy station would make carbon dioxide
emissions 30 percent lower overall than
those of the average household.

HYDROGEN NOZZLE
AND METER 3
did you
know?
FUEL CELLS POWER THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS OF
Filling up your car with
hydrogen is slightly more
complicated than filling
NASA’S SPACE SHUTTLES. THE CREW DRINKS THE it up with gasoline. Most
WATER PRODUCED BY THE CELLS. fuel cell vehicles use
gaseous hydrogen. The
pump at the gas station
has to read the pressure
4 HYDROGEN FUEL CELL CAR in the gas tank and
Hydrogen fuel cell cars are now available determine how much fuel
in places where hydrogen refueling is needed. The nozzle is
stations exist. In Southern California, also different. It locks into
drivers can lease a car like the one shown place so that hydrogen
here. The minivan shown above is being cannot escape.
driven in Iceland, the location for some of
the testing of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.

FUEL CELL HYBRID 2

One company has created this fuel cell
hybrid vehicle (FCHV), which is based
on a popular SUV model. It is able to
run either on electricity or fuel cells. Nozzle
The vehicle is being tested, but is not in
production yet.

The electric drive motor of hydrogen

fuel cell cars is exceedingly quiet,
reducing noise pollution and making
for a quiet, smooth ride.

231
 CREATING ELEMENTS
Scientists describe the origin of the universe as a
sudden expansion of matter and energy—
the big bang. Particles formed, and
then joined to create some of the
elements. Three minutes after the
big bang, most of the hydrogen 1

that exists today had formed. It H

Hydrogen
took a while longer to make helium
and traces of lithium—maybe
3 4
Hydrogen is the
35 minutes or so. The rest of the
Li Be lightest and most
abundant element in
elements were formed in the stars. Lithium Beryllium
the universe. It is the
only element on the
Elements are made in the stars left side of the table
that is not a metal.
through nuclear fusion, which is the 11 12

formation of heavier elements from Na Mg

Sodium Magne-
lighter ones. As a star burns its fuel, sium

gravity pulls its material inward and

19 20 21 22 23 24
it gets hotter—hundreds of millions
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr
of degrees hotter. Then, atoms Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium

collide and fuse to make the heavier

elements. It takes the intense heat 37 38 39 40 41 42

of supernovas to make elements Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo

Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molyb-
heavier than iron. A supernova is an denum

explosion of a huge star. The pieces

55 56 71 72 73 74
flung out in this explosion come
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W
together to create new stars and Cesium Barium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten

planets. That’s how elements that

formed in the stars came to exist on 87 88 103 104 105 106

Earth. Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg
Francium Radium Lawren- Ruther- Dubnium Sea-
cium fordium borgium

THE PERIODIC TABLE 3

The periodic table is a tool that people use to
organize the elements. Each element has a unique 57 58 59 60 61 62
identity, determined by the number of protons
in its nucleus—called its atomic number. Atomic La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm
Lan- Cerium Praseo- Neo- Prome- Samarium
numbers increase from left to right in each row. thanum dymium dymium thium
The elements in the same column have similar
chemical and physical properties. The table shows
89 90 91 92 93 94
each element’s symbol, which is a one- or two-
letter abbreviation. Ac Th Pa U Np Pu
Actinium Thorium Protac- Uranium Neptu- Plutonium
tinium nium

did you
know?
MORE THAN 40 ELEMENTS ARE FOUND IN THE HUMAN BODY, BUT CARBON, OXYGEN,
HYDROGEN, AND NITROGEN MAKE UP 96 PERCENT OF OUR CELLS.

232
 4 BIRTHPLACE OF STARS

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

A supernova is essentially the death of a star. It
blows the outer layers of a star far into space.
Its matter mixes with interstellar gases, mostly
hydrogen, forming a huge cloud of dust and gas
called a nebula, like the one shown here. Within
the nebula, gravity pulls bits and pieces together,
forming new stars. Part of the material forms
planets, such as Earth, whose core is mostly iron.

2
Along with hydrogen, elements shown
in green and blue, to the right of
the metalloids, are nonmetals. Their
He
Helium
properties are very different from those
of the metals.

5 6 7 8 9 10
The metalloids (light green)
share properties with
B C N O F Ne
Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
metals and nonmetals.

Most of the elements are metals. 13 14 15 16 17 18

There are 24 nonmetals and
metalloids. All the other elements,
Al Si P S Cl Ar
from the left-most column (except Aluminum Silicon Phos- Sulfur Chlorine Argon
phorus
hydrogen) to the elements shown
in light blue, are metals.
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Manga- Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germa- Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
nese nium

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Tech- Ruthe- Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
netium nium

75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon

107 108 109 110 111

Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg The metals beneath this line are two groups of
chemically similar elements. They are almost always
Bohrium Hassium Meit- Darmstadt- Roent-
nerium ium genium set apart so that the table will fit across a page.

KEY TO ELEMENT COLORS

63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Alkali metals
Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Alkaline earth metals
Europium Gado- Terbium Dyspro- Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium
linium sium Transition metals
Lanthanides
Actinides
95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 Metals in mixed groups
Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Metalloids
Amer- Curium Berkelium Califor- Einstein- Fermium Mende- Nobelium Nonmetals
icium nium ium levium Noble gases

233
 QUARKS AND LEPTONS
What are you made of? You might think of bones, blood, skin, hair, or cells.
But if you look closer, what are cells made of? For thousands of years,
people have searched for the basic building blocks of matter. For the past
200 years, this search has focused on atoms and the particles that make
up atoms: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Now, physicists think they
have identified the fundamental particles—the smallest pieces of matter
that explain what makes up the universe and what holds it together.
Physicists have identified 6 types of particles called quarks, and
6 called leptons. An electron is one type of lepton. Protons
and neutrons, however, are made up of quarks. Physicists
have developed some interesting ways of describing the
categories of quarks. The 6 quarks are one of 6 “flavors”:
up, down, top, bottom, charm, or strange. And each is
Stomach further divided into one of 3 “colors”: red, blue, or green.
The discovery of quarks and leptons has posed many
new questions and hypotheses for scientists to answer.

1 MUSCLE CELLS
Every living organism, including
you, is made of cells. A human
body is made of thousands of
different types of cells working
together. Within the stomach, for
example, are muscle cells that work
together, moving food through the
digestive system. When these cells
contract, they mash food and mix
in enzymes that help break down
larger molecules into smaller ones.

4 MATTER EVERYWHERE
The girl and her tennis racket are both examples of
matter. All living organisms and nonliving matter
are made up of the fundamental particles called
quarks and leptons.

234
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
2 HOLDING THE CELL TOGETHER
A portion of the structure known as the cell membrane is shown
below. The cell membrane separates the inside of the cell from
its surroundings. The cell membrane holds the cell together and did you
know?
MOST COMMON MATTER CONSISTS OF UP QUARKS AND
controls the movement of molecules into and out of the cell. A DOWN QUARKS, NOT THE OTHER 4 KINDS OF QUARKS.
cell membrane is made up of molecules that include proteins
and phospholipids. Phospholipids form a double layer, and they
consist of groups of atoms that are arranged in shapes that look
something like a head and two tails.
Hydrogen atom
Proteins (light gray)

Phospholipid molecule

Nitrogen atom (blue)

Oxygen atom
(red)

2 CARBON ATOM MODEL

A little more than one hundred years
ago, scientists discovered that every
atom is made of electrons that move
Phosphorus atom around the outside of a nucleus.
(yellow)
Shortly after that, it was discovered
Carbon atom (black) that the nucleus contained protons and
neutrons. A carbon atom has 6 protons,
6 electrons, and 6 to 8 neutrons. But it
turns out that these subatomic particles
are not the smallest.

Nucleus, made up
MEMBRANE MOLECULE 3 of protons (purple)
Phospholipids are made up of atoms and neutrons (gold)
attached to one another. The chemical
characteristics of a molecule depend
on what atoms it contains and how Electrons are the
the atoms are linked together. best known leptons.
Other leptons are
the muon and the
tau.

Neutron

Proton
Inner electron shell

Outer electron shell

INSIDE THE NUCLEUS 3 Red

In 1964, two scientists suggested that subatomic particles, such quark
as neutrons and protons, were combinations of fundamental
particles. They named these fundamental particles quarks. Blue
Naming quarks quark
Since that time, experiments using large particle accelerators with color is just Green
have shown that there are 6 kinds of quarks. Quarks are a way to identify quark
always found in groups of 2 or 3 that form a larger particle. different types.
Quarks do not have
Protons and neutrons are each made of 3 different quarks. color we can see.
Scientists hypothesize that at least one more fundamental
particle exists and is just waiting to be discovered.

235
 CRYSTALS
Crystals form amazing shapes because their atoms and molecules are bonded
together in an orderly, regular, repeated pattern. The pattern gives them their
straight edges and smooth faces. But crystals aren’t just flashy gems. Everyday
things, such as sugar and salt, are also crystals. Scientists classify crystals in
many different ways. One is based on the way their molecules or atoms are
bonded. Some crystals are molecules that are weakly bonded together, such as
ice, or rock candy made from sugar. Salt, an ionic crystal, has stronger bonds,
because its atoms are bonded by the attraction of oppositely charged particles
called ions. Salt dissolves in water, but if the water evaporates, crystals of salt
form again. In metallic crystals, atoms are packed tightly to form a highly
dense structure. Diamonds are called covalent crystals, because their atoms are
bonded by sharing an electron. These bonds are extremely strong.

Axinite crystals are

flattened and wedge-
shaped.

236
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you CRYSTAL SYSTEMS 3 Cubic (or Isometric):

know?
THE WORLD’S LARGEST CRYSTALS ARE ALMOST 40 FEET
Crystals can be categorized by
the arrangement of their atoms,
halite (rock salt),
diamond, pyrope
(a type of garnet),
called lattices. Imagine that a spinel
(ABOUT 12 M) LONG AND WEIGH ALMOST 60 TONS.
THEY ARE GYPSUM CRYSTALS, LOCATED DEEP WITHIN baseball represents an atom.
THE CAVE OF CRYSTALS IN MEXICO. If you arrange baseballs into a Orthorhombic:
cube, you form what’s called a aragonite, olivine,
topaz, sulfur,
unit cell. If you stack this cube
tanzanite
onto another cube, you form
a lattice. The shape of the unit
PLEASE PASS THE SALT 2 cell is important. For example, Hexagonal/Trigonal
both graphite and diamond (two similar systems):
Southern France is famous for its seriously salty graphite, forms of
scenery. Located on the Mediterranean coast, the consist only of carbon atoms. But beryl (aquamarine
Camargue region is filled with inland salt lagoons because graphite and diamond and emerald); forms of
that evaporate in the summer sun, leaving large have different shaped unit cells, quartz (amethyst, ruby,
sapphire)
piles of sea salt behind. The salt piles form huge they have different properties.
mounds, some of which can grow up to 26 feet Graphite is black and soft enough
(about 8 m) tall. These salt mounds support a to lubricate plastic, metal, or Tetragonal:
thriving salt industry in Camargue. Now, if only wood, while diamond is clear zircon, cassiterite
they had a pretzel factory nearby! and hard enough to cut many (tin oxide), rutile
materials, including glass. The (titanium oxide)
drawings on the right show
various shapes of unit cells. Triclinic:
axinite, turquoise,
Aquamarine crystals are used Talc crystals break off in flakes Topaz crystals are rhodonite,
as gemstones. that feel soapy. shaped like prisms or wollastonite
double pyramids. They
come in a variety of
colors. Monoclinic:
gypsum, malachite,
talc, muscovite,
azurite

237
 FLUORESCENT MINERALS
If you look closely at many different rocks, you will notice that some contain shiny crystals,
or minerals. Minerals can form as molten rock cools, causing atoms to bond together. They
can also form when water that contains dissolved elements evaporates, leaving the elements
behind. Often the atoms of these elements are close enough to bond together to form
crystals. A pure mineral is made up of a single compound and is usually colorless. Add a tiny
amount of another element, or an impurity, and you can get some amazing effects. The
brilliant green of an emerald and red of a ruby come from crystal impurities. Some
minerals even seem to glow. Fluorescent minerals shine brightly when they
are exposed to ultraviolet light, sometimes called black light. Many
natural history museums have collections of these minerals.
Under normal lighting, you see interesting shapes, often
gray or brown in color. When the black light comes on,
though, the room shines with bright
yellows, reds,
greens, and blues
as the minerals
give off
these colors.

You often find several

minerals together. Under
the UV light, it is obvious
that the quartz crystals
surrounding the calcite are
made of a different material.

238
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Fluorescence is a type of
luminescence, light that
2 GLOWING IN THE DARK is produced without heat.
The energy comes from
Under normal lighting, this large calcite crystal ultraviolet light.
appears as a white hexagonal column. This
crystal contains an impurity—manganese ions.
When the crystal is exposed to ultraviolet (UV)
light, the electrons in the manganese absorb
energy. Then they give off this energy in the
form of reddish-orange light.

GLOWING IN THE LIGHT 1

The word fluorescence comes from the
mineral fluorite, the first fluorescent
mineral to be discovered. This blue color,
caused by europium atoms in the crystal,
is sometimes bright enough that the
crystal glows in sunlight.

Different impurities produce

different colors. Uranium in
quartz produces green light,
while mercury can produce pink
or bright blue light.

did you
know? THE FLUORESCENT MINERAL CAPITAL OF THE WORLD IS
THE BOROUGH OF FRANKLIN IN NORTHERN NEW JERSEY.

239
 MELTING POINT
Knowing the melting point of a solid—the temperature at which it becomes a
liquid—helps you make decisions all the time. You put bread in a toaster, but
you don’t insert a bar of chocolate. You bake cookies on a sheet made of metal,
not plastic. Generally, you expect solids to stay solid. You take for granted that
your lunch will not melt in your backpack and your bicycle will not melt in
the sun. Scientists use the melting point of a substance as a way to identify
an unknown chemical or to determine which material to use for a particular
Chocolate starts out
task. A scientist can determine each ingredient in a tablet or pill by measuring as a thick liquid made
of roasted, ground
the temperature at which each substance melts. To make clothing, utensils, cocoa beans. It is
molded into solid
electronic devices, and most everything shapes as it cools.

we use each day, manufacturers

choose the material based partly
on its melting point.

MELTS IN YOUR MOUTH 3

Chocolate is made up of about half fat, called cocoa
butter, and half cocoa particles—similar to dry cocoa
powder. When you melt chocolate, the cocoa butter
melts. The change is physical, because the cocoa butter
will harden again at room temperature. The melting
point of chocolate is just below your body temperature
of around 98.6°F (37°C). When the chocolate melts
on your tongue, it absorbs thermal energy from your
mouth, which is an endothermic change.

The flame keeps did you

burning as long as it
has fuel and oxygen. know?
TUNGSTEN METAL HAS THE HIGHEST MELTING POINT OF
THE METALLIC ELEMENTS: 6,152°F (3,410°C). IT IS USED TO
MAKE THE THIN WIRE THAT GLOWS IN LIGHT BULBS.

The wax drip on the

4 KEEPING A FLAME BURNING
candle’s side has The flame of a candle produces plenty of heat to cause wax to
gone through two melt. Candle wax melts at a temperature of about 150°F (about
physical changes: 66°C) and the flame is around 2,552°F (1,400°C). The liquid wax
melting and
solidifying. travels up the candle’s wick. The flame heats the molecules of
liquid wax so that they vibrate fast enough to vaporize into a gas.
After these two physical changes—melting and vaporizing—a
chemical change takes place. The chemical bonds between
the atoms of the gaseous wax break. The atoms bond with the
oxygen in the air, and combustion, or burning, takes place. This
exothermic reaction releases energy in the form of heat and light.

240
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Most iron is found
in iron ore, which
consists of rocks and
minerals surrounding The material used to
the iron. hold the molten iron
has to have a melting
point higher than
that of iron.

The melting point of

iron is 2,800°F (about
1,538°C).

MOLTEN IRON 3
Iron and other metals can be melted, poured into molds, and
cooled. These are physical changes. Other molten metals can be
added to molten iron to produce solid solutions called alloys. The
atoms of the two metals remain unchanged, so making an alloy
is a physical change. Combining small amounts of carbon and
other elements with iron makes various types of steel, which is Molten iron is
an alloy. This combining can add certain desirable qualities to the poured into a mold
to solidify. The solid
alloy, such as strength or flexibility. piece of iron is called
an ingot.

241
 GLASS
People have been making glass for thousands of years.
The earliest known glass objects were beads, made by
Egyptians around 3,500 B.C. In about 27 B.C., Syrians
learned they could insert a long metal tube into
molten glass and blow into it to create hollow glass
containers, such as vases and bottles. Glass is an
unusual material. When it is a hot, molten liquid,
it can be formed into shapes. Then it hardens
into a transparent solid but still retains some
properties of a liquid. When most substances
are solid, the molecules are like tightly
packed bricks in a wall. The molecules of
liquids are farther apart, allowing light to
pass through. This is why most liquids are
clear or semi-clear and most solids are opaque.
Glass has properties of both liquids and solids.
The molecules in a glass window, for example,
do not move, but are far enough apart to allow
light to pass through. did you
know?
TO MAKE A WINDOWPANE, MOLTEN GLASS
IS POURED ON TOP OF MOLTEN TIN. THE
MAKING LIQUID GLASS 2 LIQUID GLASS FLOATS AND SPREADS INTO
People make glass by melting pure sand with other A SMOOTH, EVEN LAYER.
minerals in a furnace heated to 3,092ºF (1,700ºC). They
add soda ash to lower the melting point—the temperature
at which solids become liquid. Limestone is added to
increase the strength and stability of the glass. Adding
broken pieces of other glass
speeds up the melting The remaining 5 percent
process. Ingredients 72 percent sand can include chemicals that
such as copper, gold, affect the color of the glass.
Iron oxide is used in green
and other chemical or brown glass. Crystal glass
elements give glass and television glass contain
a variety of colors. barium carbonate.

15 percent soda ash 8 percent limestone

(sodium carbonate) (calcium carbonate)

242
4 GLASS BLOWING

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

A glassworker winds the
glass, in its liquid state, onto
a long, hollow iron rod and
blows a bubble of air into the
glass to give it a pear shape.
Then, the worker rolls the iron
rod shaping the glass. Last,
the glass blower reheats the
glass and blows more air into
it to give the object its final Patterned glass
shape.
Blue glass

It takes a worker
years of practice to Green glass
know when glass is
the right consistency
to blow and shape.

A glass blower shapes

glass into a vase. THE COLORS OF GLASS 1
Cobalt turns glass dark blue, while gold can
make glass ruby red. A small amount of
chromium turns glass emerald green. Glass
made from beach sand is usually light green
or blue, since beach sand often has
impurities, such as iron, in it.
Lead makes glass sparkle
and reflect.

243
 AEROGELS
This block of material is nicknamed “frozen smoke,” but it is no gas. It’s
aerogel—a solid form of silica, the same compound that makes up glass and
sand. One of aerogel’s amazing properties is that it traps heat, so well that
a block of aerogel can protect a human hand from the flame of a blowtorch.
Aerogels are composed mostly of air. They start out as wet gels that are much
like the gelatin that you eat for dessert. The wet gel is then dried under high
temperatures and pressures. These conditions vaporize the liquid, leaving
what is called a matrix. This is a jungle-gym-like network of silica molecules
surrounding microscopic pockets of air. Aerogels are more than 90% air, making
them excellent thermal insulators. A thermal insulator is a material that is a
poor conductor of thermal energy. The trapped air inside the aerogel slows the
transfer of heat so the heat stays in the aerogel instead of passing through it.

4 WHITE OR CLEAR?
The smoky, white-blue
appearance of aerogels does
not come from color within
the materials that make them
up. Instead, the color comes
from the scattering of light
by the pockets of air trapped
inside the matrix. Polar bear
fur looks white for the same
reason. There are no white
pigments, or color molecules,
in the fur. Each hair is a
transparent, hollow tube filled
with air. This trapped air is
an effective thermal insulator,
keeping these animals warm
in their frigid environment.

244
2 EFFECTIVE INSULATOR

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

If you want to keep your ice cream chilly and
your house toasty warm, you have to slow
the transfer of heat, or thermal energy, with
a thermal insulator. Many types of thermal
did you
know?
insulators—such as the foam panels that line ASTRONOMERS USE AEROGEL AS “SPONGES” TO
a freezer and the fiberglass mats that fill the CAPTURE THE DUST FROM PASSING COMETS.
walls of many homes—rely on trapped air to
slow the transfer of heat. Aerogels are used
to insulate some extreme-weather jackets,
blankets, sheets, windows, and skylights.

The flame of the blowtorch is

hot enough to heat and melt the
surface of the aerogel, but heat The flame of a blowtorch
does not conduct far enough can be higher than 2,300ºF
into the block to reach the hand. (1,300ºC).

Because aerogels are made

mostly of air, they also make
great sponges. Researchers
are looking into ways of
using aerogels as water
filters and even as sponges
to soak up oil spills.

Aerogels hold the world

record for the least dense
solid—just slightly denser
than air—yet they can
support objects many times
their own mass.

245
 STEEL
Iron, aluminum, magnesium, chromium. These are just a few
of the elements in the periodic table known as metals. Most
metals are in the form of a metal crystal. These crystals consist
of closely packed, positively charged metal atoms, called ions,
with negatively charged electrons drifting among them. This
structure makes metal a good conductor of electricity and
heat, and makes it possible to bend and shape metals without
breaking them. However, most of the metals we use regularly
are not single elements, but combinations of elements, called
alloys. Steel is one of the most widely used alloys. It is mostly
iron, a strong and plentiful metal. However, when first
extracted from iron ore, crude iron (also called pig iron) is
brittle. Adding small amounts of carbon increases the metal’s
strength and hardness. These steel alloys are called carbon steel.
Other elements added to steel provide additional desirable
characteristics. For example, adding chromium to steel provides did you
resistance to rust and scratches. know?
THE WILLIS TOWER (FORMERLY THE SEARS
TOWER) IN CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, WAS BUILT
FROM 76,000 TONS OF STEEL.
EIFFEL TOWER 2
The Eiffel Tower, a famous landmark in Paris, France, is made of puddle iron, not
steel. Puddle iron is a type of wrought iron that was used in construction before
steel. This low-carbon iron can be made by melting and combining iron ore with
carbon. The resulting iron is strong and malleable, which means it can be rolled
or hammered into sheets or bars.

WELDING 3
Steel parts can be joined with nuts
and bolts or with thick metal pins called
rivets. However, welding is an effective
and commonly-used way to join certain
types of steel. Welding typically uses heat
to melt the materials to be joined. An
additional material may be used to join
the parts. When cool, these parts are
connected with a very strong bond.

246
4 COILED STEEL

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Steel, like all metals, is ductile,
which means it can be pulled into
long, thin, strong strands of wire.
To make steel cable, these thin
strands are twisted together
to form a thicker strand. The
thicker strands are combined
The steel typically used in
to make a cable. Steel cables construction, called low
can support tremendous carbon steel, contains
weight. For example, each between 0.05 and 0.30
percent carbon.
of the four 15.75-inch-
diameter (40 cm) steel
suspension cables on
the Brooklyn Bridge can
As an alloy of iron,
support up to 24,621,780 steel corrodes less
pounds (11,168,252 kg). than pure iron
would under similar
circumstances.

The high heat at this

point melts the steel,
forming a bond that
can be as strong as
the steel itself.

247
 FIREWORKS
If fireworks sound like gunshots to you, it might be because they rely on
the same chemical reaction—the burning of black powder. Black powder is
another name for gunpowder. It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal (primarily
carbon), and saltpeter (a chemical that contains potassium, nitrogen, and
oxygen). When lit, these chemicals react explosively, leading to a big bang,
a bright light, lots of heat, and sometimes, injuries. The explosiveness of
black powder compared with that of regular charcoal has to do with the
way charcoal burns under different conditions. When charcoal is burned
alone, it reacts slowly with the small supply of oxygen in the air around it.
However, when mixed with the other ingredients of black powder, charcoal
can react much more quickly with the oxygen in the saltpeter. The result is
a fast reaction that can be used to create the exciting (and loud) displays of
a fireworks show.

4 FIRECRACKERS
Firecrackers are simply small packages of black
powder that make a big bang when lit. Some come
as a string of firecrackers, having short fuses that are
attached to a long fuse. This arrangement lets people
light only the long fuse to set off several firecrackers
in a row. Firecrackers are illegal in some states.

Fuse
4 LAUNCHING AN AERIAL
Display fireworks come in aerial shells. A worker places
a shell in a launching pipe called a mortar and lights a
fuse. This fuse, inside the pipe, ignites a small amount of
black powder, called the lift charge. The burning of the
lift charge launches the shell into the air and ignites a
time-delayed fuse that keeps the shell from exploding
until it reaches a safe height above the crowd. This
second fuse ignites the bursting charge.

The bursting charge causes

the shell to explode.

FIREWORKS OVER THE

The explosion ignites the
surrounding black powder
BROOKLYN BRIDGE 3
and sends it out in all Fireworks designers use different materials
directions. and packing arrangements to design the
different colors, shapes, and timing effects of
fireworks. Smaller stars burn more quickly
than larger stars. Stars that contain strontium
Throughout the black
powder are objects called burn red. Those with barium burn green.
stars. These balls of fuel, Sodium makes a yellow light, while titanium
burn to give fireworks their makes a silver light. By building stars with
different colors.
different layers of materials that burn at
different times, fireworks designers can create
dramatic color changes.

248
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you
know?
FIREWORKS BURN AT TEMPERATURES
GREATER THAN 3,600°F (2,000°C). THIS
TEMPERATURE IS NEARLY TWICE AS
HOT AS A CHARCOAL FIRE.

249
 LICHTENBERG FIGURES
During a thunderstorm, an electric charge builds up in the clouds and the
ground. Suddenly, a flash of lightning pierces the sky in a jagged, branching
line. Lightning lasts only a fraction of a second, but there is a way to
“capture ” the jagged traces of moving electrons in plastic. The Lichtenberg
figures shown here were made by building a huge electric potential, called
voltage, inside a plastic block. When the voltage gets high enough, the
electrons move. In less than a millionth of a second, channels form inside
the block as the electrons tear apart the chemical bonds of the plastic.
The electrons that were trapped in the block rush out through the plastic,
releasing the charge. Lichtenberg figures are named after the German
physicist who discovered them in the 1700s. When he exposed insulating
materials to high voltage, he saw branching images on the surface. Today, we
use his discovery in printers and copy machines when charged surfaces pick
up toner and put it on paper.

As more electrons are

Conducting paths form ELECTRICAL FRACTALS 3
trapped in one place, they
repel one another. The when the electrons break A fractal is a geometric form in which a
greater the electric field, the apart chemical bonds. pattern is repeated at smaller and smaller
Lightning follows a similar
harder they push.
path as gas molecules in
scales. This Lichtenberg figure is a good
the air are torn apart. example of a fractal. Look at the widest lines
and how they branch. Each smaller branch
breaks apart in the same way. Follow the
track and you see another branch with similar
proportions and angles. There are fractal
patterns in nature. Upside down, this figure
resembles the branches of a tree.

4 LIGHTNING IN A CUBE
A particle accelerator pumped high-energy
electrons into this plastic block. Because
the plastic does not conduct electricity, the
electrons were trapped in place, building
energy as the electric field grew to millions of
volts. Eventually, they had to move. Suddenly,
electrons started tearing chemical bonds
apart, creating charged channels. With a bang
and a flash, electrons rushed away from one
another and formed a Lichtenberg figure.

did you
know?
LICHTENBERG FIGURES SOMETIMES APPEAR ON THE SKIN
OF PEOPLE WHO ARE STRUCK BY LIGHTNING, THOUGH
THEY FADE WITHIN DAYS OR HOURS.

250
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Each small branch is a miniature version of

the larger branch. As electrons rush apart,
they zigzag away from one another.

251
 MICROSCOPES
Most people can see something as small as a human hair. But if you want to
examine the tiny hairs on an ant, you need a microscope. A microscope is a tool
used to see things that are too small to see with your eyes alone. The microscopes
in most science classrooms are light microscopes. They focus light using curved
pieces of glass, or lenses. Light microscopes are useful for viewing objects only
as small as a cell. To see something smaller, like an atom, you need an electron
microscope. An electron microscope uses a beam of electrons to magnify a
sample. Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) detect how electrons interact
with the sample as they travel through it. They produce two-dimensional views
that look like cross sections. Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) detect
electrons that bounce off the sample’s surface, which has been covered with a
thin layer of metal, usually gold. They produce three-dimensional images.

SEM OF A WEEVIL 3
White blood cell This three-dimensional picture of a weevil,
a type of small beetle, comes from a
scanning electron microscope. SEM images
are usually black and white and show
Bacterium only surface structures. The final image is
created on a computer monitor, where the
White blood cell scientist can add color. SEMs are useful for
studying the shapes and arrangement of
surface structures like the tiny hairs on this
insect’s head and body.

did you
know?
AN ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE USES A
SHARP PROBE THAT IS ONLY A FEW ATOMS
WIDE TO CREATE AN IMAGE OF AN OBJECT!

Pseudopod
surrounding
bacterium

CELLULAR ATTACK 1
This transmission electron
micrograph shows a two-
dimensional, cross-section view
of two white blood cells (blue
blobs coming together). They LIGHT MICROSCOPE 3
are capturing and digesting an Light microscopes use
invading bacterium (purple). This multiple lenses to magnify
type of bacterium can cause some objects up to 1,000 times their
types of food poisoning. Notice the original size. Scientists use them
white blood cells’ pseudopods. to study both living and dead
These armlike extensions of the cell specimens, such as slices of plant
membrane surround the unwanted and animal tissues or drops of water
bacterium and destroy it. that contain microorganisms, cells, or
other small structures. Specimens are
placed on clear glass slides. Light shining
from below or above illuminates them.

252
ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (ESEM) 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Because conventional SEMs require that the sample be coated in gold and
examined under a vacuum, samples cannot be alive. The environmental
scanning electron microscope (ESEM), however, overcomes these problems.
Only the narrow electron path of the sensor is under a vacuum. ESEMs can
produce three-dimensional images of living things without killing them,
coating them, or permanently changing them.

253
 UNIVERSE The Andromeda galaxy,
the closest galaxy to the
Miles and kilometers are fine for talking about places on our planet. They Milky Way, is 2.65 million
light-years away.
can even describe the distance from Earth to the moon or sun. But once you
start talking about distances across the universe, these units are too small to
be useful. Instead, scientists use the light-year, a measure of the distance that
light can travel in a year. A light-year is equal to about 5,900,000,000,000 miles
(9.5 trillion km). Numbers in the trillions are hard to work with, so scientists
use scientific notation, sometimes called the powers of 10, to express
these numbers. In scientific
notation, one light-year equals
5.9 × 101/2 miles (9.5 × 101/2
km). The grids shown in the
diagram below are divided into
light-years or fractions of light-
The neighborhood of stars
years. If you read the diagram that includes our solar
system is on an outer arm of
from left to right, you will travel the Milky Way’s spiral.

from Earth in the bottom left

corner to the outer reaches
of the universe, shown in the
bottom right corner. Be sure to
travel back, too!
Sun
Neptune

Our solar system 5,000

consists of the planets light-years
and small bodies that Earth
orbit the sun. Neptune,
the outermost planet, This grid shows the
is about 5 light-hours, Milky Way, which is
or 2.8 billion miles about 100,000 light-
(4.5 billion km) years across.
from the sun.
5 light-years

Alpha Centauri, more than

4 light-years from the sun

1 light-hour

Earth

0.5 light-seconds

The Moon is about 2.5 light-seconds,

or 239,000 miles (about 384,000 km),
from Earth.

254
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you ECHOES OF THE UNIVERSE’S BIRTH DURING THE BIG BANG,
know? CALLED COSMIC BACKGROUND RADIATION, ADD TO TV STATIC.
One group of galaxy
clusters in the Virgo
supercluster is the
Local Group.

This grid shows one

This grid shows just supercluster, the Virgo
the clusters of galaxies supercluster.
known as the Local Group,
including the Milky Way.

250,000 light-years

10 million light-years

Superclusters—clusters
of clusters— including the
Virgo supercluster, extend
throughout the universe.

100 million light-years

THE OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE 3

When astronomers look through a telescope, they
aren’t just seeing across great distances—they
are looking back through time. The most distant
objects in the observable universe—everything
we can see—are about 13 billion light-years away.
Working from that figure, scientists calculate
that the universe is approximately 156 billion
light-years wide. It’s getting bigger, because
observations show that galaxies are moving away
from us and the universe is expanding. And
suppose there were observers on a distant planet.
The edge of their observable universe might be
tens of billions of light-years away from them,
with only a small overlap between our observable
universe and theirs.

255
 EARTH THE WATERY PLANET 3
Water exists in three forms,
or states, on Earth and in the
It’s the only home you know, but is it the only home out atmosphere: solid, liquid, and gas.
You can see evidence of all three
there? Earth has many things in common with the other in this picture. The blue oceans
planets in our solar system. It is a sphere. It follows an oval are water in its liquid state. The
mountains are covered with
path around the sun. It rotates on an axis, which causes day water in its solid state—ice—
making mountaintops snowy-
and night. However, in one important way, Earth is unique. white. When water becomes a
It is the only planet that we know of that is home to living gas—water vapor—it returns to the
atmosphere, forming clouds.
things. No other planet has the conditions needed for life.
Earth is near enough to the sun to keep living things warm,
but not so near that living things are cooked by its heat. Earth
is the only planet whose surface has lots of liquid water, which
is necessary for all life as we know it. Surrounding Earth is
Clouds of tiny water
a blanket of gases called the atmosphere. Nitrogen, oxygen, droplets swirl as if they
were wisps of cotton in the
and carbon dioxide are the atmospheric gases that provide atmosphere. When clouds
build up and become
living things with the tools they need to harvest energy from saturated, the drops fall to
Earth as rain.
sunlight and other materials on Earth’s surface.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM 2

Eight planets orbit the sun. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are
rocky, and Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are giant balls
of gas. Moons, dwarf planets, asteroids, meteoroids, and comets
also inhabit the solar system. Moons are balls of rock that orbit
planets, while asteroids are chunks of rock that orbit the sun.
Scientists call Pluto a dwarf
Comets are chunks of dust and ice that orbit the sun. Meteoroids planet. Its orbit is at an
are pieces that break off from asteroids and comets. angle to the orbits of Earth
and the other planets.

Venus
Mercury
Sun

Mars
Neptune

Saturn
Jupiter

Earth

Uranus

Asteroid belt

did you
know?
GEOSCIENTISTS CALCULATE THAT THE
TEMPERATURE AT THE CENTER OF EARTH’S
CORE IS BETWEEN 8,000ºF AND 10,000ºF
(ABOUT 4,427ºC–5,538ºC)!

256
BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

257
 EARTH’S CORE
Science fiction stories tell of journeys to Earth’s core, but you really don’t
want to go there. We live on top of a thin, cool crust. Beneath it are
layers that get hotter and hotter the closer you get to the center of Earth.
To get to the center, you would have to travel about 3,958 miles (about
6,370 km). It’s not too far, really—about the flying distance between
Miami, Florida, and Anchorage, Alaska. There in the center, you would
find a solid ball of iron and nickel—the inner core. The temperature
would be close to 10,000°F (about 5,500°C). Surrounding the inner
core is a layer of molten metals—the outer core. Here hot liquid metals
rise, cool off, and sink, creating convection currents. Heat from the core
causes similar currents in the layer between the core and the crust, called
the mantle. It is rock, but under such intense pressure and heat, the rock
can flow like a slow-moving liquid.

2 EARTH’S SPACE SHIELD

Geophysicists believe that the currents within Earth’s outer core
control Earth’s magnetic field, called the magnetosphere. The
magnetosphere protects Earth by deflecting particles. A constant
stream of charged particles blows outward from the sun at more
than 1 million miles per hour. This solar wind would be deadly if we Hot magma in the
upper mantle is less
did not have the protection of a giant magnetic field. dense than the rock
The magnetic around it, so it rises into
The sun’s particles are field stretches any cracks in the rock
deflected away from on the side away above it.
The sun produces hot
the magnetosphere. from the sun.
gas that carries particles
toward Earth.
The crust is the
thinnest layer.

Earth

Solar winds
radiate from the sun.

Solar winds squash the

magnetic field on the sun side.

258
 did you

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

know?
EARTH’S INNER CORE ROTATES FASTER THAN THE REST OF
THE PLANET. ABOUT EVERY 120 YEARS, THE CORE GAINS
AN EXTRA DAY COMPARED WITH THE SURFACE.

The inner core is

as hot as the sun’s
surface.

Swirling currents in the

molten metal of the outer
core generate Earth’s
magnetic field.

The rocky lower mantle is heated

to 6,332°F (3,500°C) at its base. Heat
rising from the core keeps the hot
rock moving slowly.

4 BIG MAGNET
We know that Earth is
magnetic because compasses
point to the place on Earth known
as Earth’s magnetic north pole.
Radiating out from this imaginary line
through the center of Earth are lines of
magnetic force. Scientists think that the
movement of molten metals taking place in
Earth’s core creates a circulating electric current
that maintains Earth’s magnetism.

259
 MOON
Just like most of the other planets, Earth has a sidekick—the moon. A moon is
a natural satellite, an object that orbits a planet. Earth is nearly 4 times as wide
and about 81 times as heavy as its moon. The moon may not be very big, but
it has a big effect on Earth. It reflects the sun’s light as moonlight during most
nights each month. It also affects the Earth’s oceans. The moon’s gravity, along
with that of the sun, causes tides by pulling on Earth’s ocean water, causing
it to rise up. Throughout history, telescopes and spacecraft have let scientists
study the moon from Earth. In the last century, 12 people actually got to visit
the moon. Between July of 1969 and December of 1972, American astronauts
made 6 successful landings on the moon. On these Apollo missions, astronauts
explored the moon’s surface, took photographs, collected rock and dust
samples, and set up equipment to monitor moon conditions.

4 SCARRED SURFACE
The moon is covered in craters. Craters are the
round dents that form when meteors impact,
or hit, the moon’s dusty surface. The moon
has no atmosphere. This means there is
no wind or weather to erode these
features after they form. The only
things that change craters are
geologic activity and newer
impacts. Scientists can study
the craters to figure out the
order in which different
moon features formed.

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 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
The lunar rover, called
a “moon buggy” by During a moon landing, the
some, was a small lunar module would carry two
electric car that let astronauts from a spacecraft in
astronauts explore orbit around the moon to the
the moon. moon’s surface and back.

In April of 1972, astronaut

John Young jumps up as
he salutes the American
flag during the fifth moon
landing.

1 APOLLO 16 MOON LANDING

The force of gravity is related to how much an object weighs.
Because the moon weighs much less than Earth, its gravity
is only one sixth that of Earth. Astronauts visiting the moon
during the Apollo missions experienced firsthand its reduced
gravity. They found it easier to jump and bounce, even while
wearing very heavy spacesuits.
2 MOON OVER EARTH
This photo taken from the International Space Station
makes it look as if the moon is in Earth’s atmosphere, but did you
it is really only a trick of the light. The moon is actually
238,900 miles (about 384,500 km) away from Earth. know?
WITH NO WIND, WEATHER, OR LIVING THINGS TO DISTURB THEM, THE
During visits to the moon, astronauts have left mirrors
there. By bouncing laser light from Earth off these mirrors, EQUIPMENT, DISCARDED VEHICLES, AND EVEN FOOTPRINTS LEFT BY
scientists can measure exactly how far away the moon is
ASTRONAUTS MORE THAN 40 YEARS AGO REMAIN UNCHANGED ON THE
MOON’S SURFACE.
from Earth’s surface.

Earth’s moon Earth

261
 SOLAR ECLIPSE
Have you ever observed a solar eclipse? A solar eclipse occurs when the
moon passes in front of the sun and casts a shadow on Earth. Imagine the
sky getting dark on an otherwise sunny afternoon. For several minutes, it is
dark enough to see some of the brightest stars and planets shining in the
sky. Moments later, the sky begins to brighten. Within the next hour, it is
broad daylight again, as if the brief period of darkness never happened.
Because the sun’s rays can damage your eyes, you cannot safely view
a solar eclipse without specially designed eye protection. With
this protection, you can see the dark disk of the moon slowly
move in front of the sun, sometimes completely covering
it. After several minutes, you can see the moon slowly
move past the sun.

2 THE MOON’S PATH

Several factors determine how long an eclipse will take.
The orbits of the moon and Earth and their distances from
both each other and the sun are key. Partial phases, during
which the moon gradually covers and uncovers the sun,
can each take about an hour. A total eclipse can last up
to about 7 minutes. This image combines many photos
of the stages of the eclipse into one photo. It shows
the path of the moon as it passes in front of the
sun, as seen from Zambia in Southern Africa.

262
 4 AN ECLIPSE IS POSSIBLE WHEN . . .

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

A solar eclipse can happen only during the
new moon phase, when the moon passes
The sun illuminates
the side of the moon between the sun and Earth and the three are
that we cannot see. in near-perfect alignment. We don’t usually
see a solar eclipse, because the moon’s path is
generally above or below the position of the
sun. For a solar eclipse to occur, the moon’s
The darkest part of The less dark part path must cross directly in front of the sun.
the moon’s shadow of the moon’s Earth
is called the umbra. shadow is called the
Where the umbra penumbra. Where
falls, a total eclipse is the penumbra falls,
visible from Earth. a partial eclipse is
visible from Earth.

did you
know?
THE NEXT TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE THAT WILL BE VISIBLE FROM THE
UNITED STATES WILL TAKE PLACE ON AUGUST 21, 2017.

4 SHOWTIME
Normally the corona—the sun’s extended outer
atmosphere—is not visible, because the sun’s surface,
or photosphere, is so bright. The corona can be seen
only during a total eclipse, when the moon covers
the sun completely. The corona glows around the
edges of the moon and can reach temperatures
of up to 3.5 million degrees Fahrenheit
(2 million degrees Celsius).

The corona extends

more than 621,370
miles (1 million km)
from the sun’s surface.
The solar wind
originates here.

During a total
solar eclipse,
prominences—arcs
of flaming gases
erupting from the
sun’s surface—can be
seen flaring out from
behind the moon.

1 THE PATH OF TOTALITY

Total solar eclipses happen once every year and
a half, but the chances of seeing one are slim.
The umbra moves across Earth’s surface. Its path,
called the path of totality, is about 167 miles
(269 km) in diameter. The shadow travels at
about 1,242 miles (2,000 km) per hour—and
often crosses the ocean and remote places.

263
 MERCURY
If you could stand on the planet Mercury and look up at the sky,
the sun would appear almost three times larger than it does
on Earth. However, you would need a specially made
spacesuit to protect you. Mercury is so close to the
sun that it receives much more heat, light, and
dangerous radiation than other planets in
our solar system. Its surface temperatures
are as high as 806°F (almost 430°C)
when the sun is shining and as low
as –274°F (almost –170°C) at night.
These extraordinary temperatures
occur because Mercury has almost
no atmosphere. There are not
enough gases to trap the sun’s
heat near the planet’s surface at
night or to shield it during the
day, the way Earth’s atmosphere
does. Current evidence even
suggests that Mercury, the planet
closest to the sun, has icy poles.
The deep craters at the poles are
in permanent shade. Thus, water
at the bottom of these craters is
always frozen.

did you
know?
MERCURY ZIPS AROUND THE SUN IN 88 EARTH DAYS, BUT
IT ROTATES SO SLOWLY THAT ONE MERCURY DAY IS TWO
THIRDS OF ITS YEAR!

Jupiter Saturn

Mercury Earth Uranus Neptune

Venus Mars

Sun This chart shows the order of the planets.

Mercury is closest to the sun.

264
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
A sunshade shields the
delicate instruments from
the sun’s extreme heat.

A magnetometer
can measure the
planet’s magnetic
field and detect
magnetic rocks on
the planet’s surface.

Solar panels will help

power the spacecraft and
its many instruments.
1 MESSENGER
Launched from Earth in 2004, the
4 A CRATERED SURFACE MESSENGER spacecraft is designed to orbit
With no apparent atmosphere surrounding Mercury starting in 2011. Scientists hope
Mercury to create friction, even small the data it sends back will help them better
meteors fall to the planet without burning understand the shapes on Mercury’s surface,
up the way they would passing through the composition of the planet’s rocks and
Earth’s atmosphere. Also, there is no wind to atmosphere, and how its magnetic field works.
erode, or blow away, the marks the meteors
make when they land on Mercury’s surface.
Thus, Mercury looks like Earth’s moon—
covered with craters, the round depressions
that form when objects hit its surface.

2 MERCURY’S TRANSIT OF THE SUN

A transit is similar to a solar eclipse. It happens when a planet
passes in front of our view of the sun. To see a transit, you need
Hot gas surrounds the sun Mercury crosses the a telescope that filters out most of the sun’s light. In this image,
at its surface. face of the sun. Mercury looks like a marble against the massive sun. The most
recent transit of Mercury took place in 2006. The next ones
happen in 2016 and 2019.

265
 VENUS
Venus may seem similar to Earth in size and mass, but don’t plan to spend
your next vacation there. Its poisonous clouds of sulfuric acid, metal-melting
heat, crushing atmospheric pressure (almost 90 times greater than Earth’s),
hurricane-like winds, and suffocating atmosphere of carbon dioxide make
the second planet from the sun an unwelcoming place. The clouds of Venus
trap the baking heat near the planet’s surface, causing temperatures of more
than 870°F (about 466°C). These same clouds also reflect lots of sunlight,
making Venus one of the brightest objects that we see in the night sky. Venus
has retrograde rotation, meaning it spins in the opposite direction from the
direction in which it travels around the sun. This means that the sun rises in
the west and sets in the east—the opposite of Earth. However, it spins very
slowly, taking 244 Earth days for one complete spin. On the other hand, it
takes Venus only about 225 Earth days to circle the sun. So a Venusian day is
actually longer than a Venusian year!

VENUS EXPRESS 3
Because Venus is so hot and its atmospheric
pressure so great, studies of the planet are
made from unmanned orbiting spacecraft. In
2005, the European Space Agency launched
the Venus Express spacecraft to study Venus.
Equipped with infrared and ultraviolet cameras
to map the surface, the spacecraft has gathered
important information about the composition
of the atmosphere and the nature of the
planet’s magnetic field. Venus Express will send
information to scientists on Earth through
December 2012.

did you
know?
ALTHOUGH IT IS ALMOST TWICE AS FAR FROM THE SUN AS MERCURY,
VENUS IS THE HOTTEST PLANET IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM. ITS THICK
ATMOSPHERE TRAPS HEAT NEAR THE SURFACE.

Solar System
Jupiter Saturn

Mercury Earth Uranus Neptune

Venus Mars
During its orbit around the sun, Venus comes
Sun closer to Earth than any other planet, about
23.7 million miles (38.2 million km).

266
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
This image of Venus is a composite Bright areas are places
made from detailed maps of the where the landscape is higher
surface of Venus. The mapping than the surroundings.
data were sent by NASA’s Magellan Mountains in these areas are
spacecraft, which orbited Venus as high as or higher than
from 1990 to 1994. those on Earth.

LANDSCAPE OF VENUS 1
Venus’s landscape is hard to see
from an orbiting satellite because of its
thick atmosphere. Using radar and other
electromagnetic wave technology, scientists have
discovered that Venus has mountains, valleys,
canyons, and volcanoes. One mountain range is
about 7 miles (about 11 km) high. That’s almost
1.5 miles (about 2 km) higher than Earth’s highest
peak, Mount Everest!

MYSTERIOUS MARKINGS 3
Giant spiders on Venus? Not really! These markings
on the surface of Venus resemble spider webs and
are called arachnoids—a term used to classify
spiders. Each is about 30 to 140 miles (about 48 to
225 km) wide. Scientists don’t know exactly how
they formed but they think the markings came about
when melted rock called magma pushed up from
underground, causing cracks in the surface rocks.

267
 MARS
Mars has always captured people’s imaginations. In the nineteenth
century, an Italian astronomer described what he called “canalis ”
on the surface of Mars. Later, an American scientist translated the
term as “canals,” implying that they had been made by “ intelligent
beings.” Although some people still believe Martians exist, none of
the missions to Mars has returned any evidence to support this
theory. In truth, Mars is a small planet whose surface has been
shaped by volcanoes, quakes, dust storms, and impacts from
meteors. It is very cold, on average between –135°F and 26°F
(about –93°C and –3°C). Its atmosphere is about 95 percent
carbon dioxide, making it unsuitable for human life. Mars
exploration began in the 1960s and continues to this day
using unpiloted machines called space probes. In 2008,
NASA’s Mars lander, Phoenix, reached the surface
of the planet and transmitted information about its
climate and geology to Earth for 5 months. Phoenix
confirmed the presence of water ice on Mars, and
not just a little ice. There is enough frozen water to
fill Lake Michigan twice!
did you THE LENGTH OF ONE MARTIAN YEAR IS
know? APPROXIMATELY EQUAL TO 687 EARTH DAYS.

GIANT DUST STORMS 3

Huge dust storms have been known to envelop Mars in
a matter of weeks. For example, in 2001, Hubble Space
Telescope images showed the beginning of one such dust
storm. For more than 3 months, scientists observed as the
dust storm grew until it blanketed the whole planet. During
this time, the air temperature on Mars rose 54°F (30°C).

Mars is often called the

Red Planet because its
soil has iron oxide in it.

Solar System
Jupiter Saturn

Mercury Earth Uranus Neptune

Venus Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. This
Sun image shows the order of the planets and their
approximate sizes relative to one another.

268
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Olympus Mons is
about as wide as the
state of New Mexico,
and is about 15 miles
(25 km) tall. That’s
almost three times as
tall as Mt. Everest!

1 THE BIGGEST
VOLCANO
Mars is about half the
size of Earth, but it has
perhaps the largest
volcano in our solar
system—Olympus
Mons. Most volcanoes
on Mars are 10 to 100
times larger than those
on Earth.

Gullies possibly made

by flowing water

1 IS THERE LIQUID WATER ON MARS?

The Martian temperature is too cold for liquid water to exist
Polar ice cap on the surface. However, scientists think that liquid water
may have flowed on the surface of Mars hundreds of billions
of years ago when the planet was warmer than it is today.

269
 JUPITER’S MOONS
Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system, has at least 63 known moons.
That is more than any other planet! All but four moons are very tiny—not
even a hundredth of the size of Earth’s moon. Most of the moons are simply
referred to as Jupiter’s natural satellites. More than half of them travel in the
opposite, or retrograde, direction of the planet’s spin. Astronomers believe
this motion indicates that these satellites were once asteroids fragmented by
collisions and captured by Jupiter’s tremendous pull long after its four larger
moons were formed. Today, we know more about Jupiter’s moons thanks to
the information obtained by a NASA spacecraft called Galileo. Equipped with
many scientific instruments, it orbited Jupiter between 1995 and 2003. During
that time, Galileo transmitted to Earth thousands of images and readings of
the planet and its four largest moons: Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa.

Io is the hottest of Jupiter’s Europa is a little smaller Ganymede is the largest

four large moons. It is than Earth’s moon. Its moon in the solar system.
covered with erupting surface is an ocean of frozen It is larger than the planet
volcanoes and lakes of salt water. Mercury.
melted rock.

GALILEO’S MOONS 3
In 1610, Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei
peered through a telescope and saw what
appeared to be four bright stars circling the
planet Jupiter. He had discovered the four
largest moons of Jupiter: Ganymede, Callisto,
Io, and Europa. These four moons are known
as the Galilean satellites in honor of the man Callisto is almost as large as
the planet Mercury. It has
who first viewed them. Galileo’s discovery was more craters than any other
an important event in the field of astronomy. object in the solar system.
Previously, only one natural satellite was
known to exist, and that was Earth’s moon.
Finding natural satellites that circled a planet
other than Earth lent significant support to
Copernicus’s heliocentric model of the universe,
which said that the sun, not Earth, sat at the
center of the solar system.

270
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus Neptune
Mercury Earth

Venus Mars

Sun Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun. This

image shows the order of the planets and their
approximate size relative to one another.

Beneath Jupiter’s stormy

atmosphere, the pressure
is so great that hydrogen
gas is compressed to a
liquid state.

1 JUPITER THE GIANT

Ganymede is the solar
system’s largest moon. It
Jupiter is a giant ball with a gaseous surface, not a
is larger than the planet solid surface like Earth’s. It is so huge that about
Mercury. 1,300 Earths would fill its volume! Jupiter appears
to be covered with stripes of different colors.
These alternating dark belts and light zones are
created by strong winds in the planet’s upper
atmosphere. Storms rage within these belts
and zones.

did you IO’S VOLCANIC ACTIVITY IS 100 TIMES GREATER THAN EARTH’S! IT
know? IS THE MOST VOLCANICALLY ACTIVE BODY IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM.

271
 SATURN
About 700 B.C., the ancient Assyrians thought Saturn was a very brilliant
star. For several centuries, people thought the object was a wandering
star. In 1610, Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei viewed Saturn through
a telescope. He was the first person to see Saturn’s rings. The second-
largest planet in our solar system, Saturn has a diameter of about 74,900
miles (about 120,540 km). That is almost ten times Earth’s diameter.
However, the planet is not solid like Earth. It is a large ball of gas with
a solid inner core that is very hot—nearly 21,140°F (about 11,730°C).
And, Saturn’s atmosphere is very cold—close to −288°F (about −178°C).
Saturn also has more than 61 moons. Some are very tiny, like
Aegaeon, which measures about 0.3 miles (about 0.5 km).
Others are huge, like Titan, which is bigger than
the planet Mercury!

THE RINGS 3
Saturn’s most spectacular feature is
its rings. These are made of billions
of pieces of ice and rock that circle
around the planet at different speeds
and span about 175,000 miles (almost
282,000 km). Astronomers have now
identified seven sets of rings, although
not all are visible in this photo. Each
set of rings is composed of many
ringlets. Astronomers also think
that these rings are the remnants
of comets, asteroids, and moons
that broke up and were captured by
Saturn’s gravitational pull.

did you
know?
SATURN IS ONE OF THE WINDIEST PLANETS IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM. WINDS
THERE CAN REACH 1,100 MILES PER HOUR (ABOUT 1,800 KM/H)!

Solar System
Jupiter Saturn

Mercury Earth Uranus Neptune

Venus Mars

Sun Saturn takes 29 Earth years to complete

one orbit around the sun.

272
 MOONS AND PROBES 3

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

Scientists continue discovering
more moons orbiting Saturn. Before
NASA’s Cassini-Huygens space
probe was sent to Saturn in 1997, Promethius Telesto Helene
only 18 moons orbiting the planet Janus Calypso Hyperion Phoebe
Pan Atlas
had been identified, as shown here.
Today, more than 61 have been Epimethius Enceladus
discovered! NASA has sent four Pandora Mimas Tethys Dione Rhea Titan Lapetus
space probes to Saturn: Pioneer 11,
Voyager 1, Voyager 2, and Cassini- Saturn
Huygens, which arrived in 2004 and
is still sending data back to Earth.
Encke division Pan, Atlas, Promethius, Pandora

Cassini division Mimas Tethys Dione Rhea

C ring Enceladus
D ring

G ring

Titan
A ring Hyperion
E ring lapetus
F ring B ring
Phoebe
Janus, Epimethius

The Cassini division is

a space that separates
Saturn’s B and A rings.

Saturn’s seven rings are

named with the letters A
through G in the order they
were discovered. Looking
outward from the planet,
the rings are D, C, B, A, F, G,
and E.

Saturn spins on its

axis much faster than
Earth does. A day
on Saturn averages
10 Earth hours, 14
minutes.

273
 URANUS
Imagine the distance from the sun to Saturn: 941,070,000 miles
(1,514,505,358 km) at its farthest point. Now double it. That’s about where
you’ll find the seventh planet from the sun, Uranus. Like Jupiter, Saturn, and
Neptune, Uranus is a giant ball of gas and liquid, primarily hydrogen and
helium, with small amounts of ammonia, water, and methane ice crystals.
Beneath the visible clouds is a layer of liquid—under exteme pressure—
made up mostly of water, ammonia, and methane. At the center of the
planet, scientists think there may be a rocky core about the size of Earth.
Like all of the other planets, Uranus makes an oval-shaped orbit around
the sun, which it completes in 30,685 Earth days
(84 Earth years). What makes this planet
different from all the other planets in
our solar system? It spins almost on
its side, like a slightly tilted Ferris
wheel. Scientists hypothesize Umbriel is a very old moon
that has many large craters
that, soon after it formed, an on its unusually dark surface.
Astronomers do not know why
Earth-sized object struck Uranus, Umbriel is so dark.

pushing it over.

A layer of methane gas

covers the clouds in the
outer atmosphere of
Uranus, giving the planet its
blue-green color.

Ariel is Uranus’s brightest

moon, with perhaps the
youngest surface. Its many
valleys are marked with
numerous small craters.

274
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you IF THE SUN STOPPED SHINING, IT WOULD TAKE OVER
know? 2.5 HOURS FOR URANUS TO BE IN DARKNESS.

2 MANY MOONS
Scientists have so far discovered 27 moons of Uranus—most
of them named after characters from the plays of William
Shakespeare. Uranus’s five largest moons, the first two of
which were discovered in 1787, are each less than 1,000 miles
(1,600 km) in diameter. Ten of its smaller moons were first
identified from pictures taken by the Voyager 2 spacecraft during
its flyby of Uranus in 1985 and 1986. The smallest known moons Titania is Uranus’s
circling Uranus are only 8–10 miles (12–16 km) across. largest moon
and one of the
first two moons
discovered.

Like Umbriel, Oberon is

covered with large craters. It
contains equal parts of rock
and ice, similar to Uranus’s
other large moons.

Uranus ring system

1 RINGS AROUND THE PLANET

In 1977, scientists first observed the presence of
the rings of Uranus when the planet passed in
front of a star. With the help of Voyager 2 and
the Hubble Space Telescope, scientists have
identified 13 rings so far. One of the last 2
rings to be discovered is about
60,708 miles (97,700 km) from the
planet’s center.

The surface of Miranda is an

unusual jumble of features,
including both parallel and
crisscrossing canyons and
ridges.

Solar System
Jupiter Saturn

Mercury Earth Uranus Neptune

Venus Mars
Uranus is one of the Jovian, or Jupiter-like,
Sun planets. It has the third-largest diameter of
all the planets in the solar system.

275
 NEPTUNE
In the early 1800s, astronomers knew of only 7 planets in our solar system.
Although Galileo had seen a bright “star” through his telescope in 1613, he
didn’t realize that it was a planet. In 1845, the French mathematician Urbain
Le Verrier realized that the orbit of Uranus—the seventh known planet—
was very different from what his calculations predicted it should be. He
reasoned that the only way Uranus could move the way it did along
its orbit was if another large planet’s gravity was pulling on it. In
1846, German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle used Le Verrier’s
prediction and found that large planet was Neptune! Neptune is
Planet Neptune is one of
about 4 times as wide as Earth and 17 times more massive. the four gas giants in our
solar system. Its solid core
is about the size of Earth.
Surrounding its icy, rocky
core is a layer of liquids,
including water, and a
thick, cloudy atmosphere.

A STORMY SURFACE 3
Neptune’s thick layer of gases
and clouds has winds that
blow faster than 1,000 miles
per hour (about 1,600 km/h).
The clouds on the surface are
made up of methane—the
same gas you burn in a gas
stove. Methane gives the
planet its blue color. Darker
clouds that lie beneath the
methane are probably made
of hydrogen sulfide—the
chemical that gives rotten eggs
their yucky smell.

GREAT DARK SPOT 1

In 1989, an NASA spacecraft named Voyager 2 took pictures of
a dark storm on Neptune’s surface. This swirling, hurricane-like
storm was almost the size of Earth! Scientists called it the Great
Dark Spot. Five years later, it was nowhere to be found, but
another huge storm, seen in 1994, lasted 3 years. Imagine what
would happen to Earth if a hurricane lasted for 3 years!

Solar System
Jupiter Saturn

Mercury Earth Uranus Neptune

Venus Mars This chart shows the order of the planets

from the sun. Neptune is the eighth planet
Sun from the sun.

276
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
1 NOT A CANTALOUPE
At an average 2.8 billion …A MOON!
miles (about 4.5 billion km) Neptune has 13 known
from the sun, Neptune takes natural satellites, or moons,
165 Earth years to make 1
complete revolution around
of which the moon Triton
the sun. is the largest. Its surface
resembles a cantaloupe and
has temperatures of about
–400°F (–240°C). Triton is
one of the coldest places
in the solar system! It is so
cold that, instead of lava,
volcanoes spew icy mixtures
that freeze like snow as
they fall back to the ground.
Triton also orbits Neptune
in the opposite direction of
the planet’s rotation, leading
scientists to believe that this
moon was captured by the
planet’s gravity long after the
two had formed.

did you
know?
NEPTUNE IS SO FAR AWAY FROM EARTH THAT IT IS THE ONLY PLANET IN
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM THAT CANNOT BE SEEN WITHOUT A TELESCOPE.

277
 PLUTO
From the time of its discovery in 1930, Pluto was the ninth planet in our solar
system. But science changes, and some things are hard to let go. That’s what
happened in 2006 when astronomers decided to stop classifying Pluto as a
planet. Why? A celestial body must meet three characteristics to be called
a planet: it must orbit the sun, it must be round, and it must have cleared
away any other objects in its orbit. Pluto comes close, but it has other objects
occupying its orbit. Therefore, scientists now call Pluto a dwarf planet. Pluto
also has three small moons named Charon, Hydra, and Nix. The space
probe New Horizons, sent by NASA in 2006 to explore Pluto and
its moons, will arrive in 2015. It’s a long trip because the dwarf
planet is about 3.6 billion miles (about
5.8 billion km) away from the sun.
That’s about 39 times farther than
Earth is from the sun!

The distant sun

would look
much dimmer
from Pluto than it
would from Earth.

did you PLUTO IS SO SMALL ITS DIAMETER IS ONLY ABOUT PLUTO FROM CHARON
know? HALF THE WIDTH OF THE UNITED STATES. The background scene shows how the sun and Pluto would look
if you were standing on the surface of Charon (below). Just as
our moon shows only one side to Earth, Charon shows only one
Scientists think that Charon’s surface side to Pluto. Pluto also rotates so that it shows only one side to
is covered in frozen water, while
Pluto’s surface is probably a frozen
Charon at all times! This is called tidal locking. It happens because
mixture of methane, nitrogen, and Charon’s orbit around Pluto takes about 6.5 Earth days, and one
carbon monoxide. full rotation of Pluto also takes about 6.5 Earth days.

Solar System
Jupiter Saturn

Mercury Earth Uranus Neptune

Venus Mars Pluto

Sun The dwarf planet Pluto is compared with

the 8 planets of our solar system.

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 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
When Pluto is
farthest from the
sun, its atmosphere
freezes and falls to
the ground.

HOW BIG IS PLUTO? 3

When you look at a planet, you probably
think of something that is much larger than
Earth’s moon. Pluto’s diameter is about
1,441 miles (2,320 km), making it smaller
than Earth’s moon. Charon, Pluto’s largest Sedna
moon, has a diameter of about 790 miles (800–1,100 miles
(about 1, 270 km), about half the size of in diameter)
Pluto. Farther away than Pluto, astronomers
have discovered two small objects that
orbit our sun at the very fringe of the solar
system. They have named them Sedna, after
the Inuit goddess of sea creatures, and
Quaoar, the god of creation of the Tongva
people of California.

Quaoar Pluto Moon Earth

(800 miles) (1,400 miles) (2,100 miles) (8,000 miles)

279
 2 WHAT’S MISSING?
ASTEROIDS Notice something missing in this
picture? Unlike most asteroids,
which are covered with craters from
If you can imagine a rock the size of a city moving through their many collisions, Itokawa has no
space, you have a good idea of what an asteroid is. Asteroids craters. No one knows exactly why,
but one idea is that Itokawa’s rocks
are rocky objects that orbit the sun. Some are smaller than a are so loosely held together that
house, but the largest is almost as wide as Texas. Most asteroids collisions shake piles of rubble into
the craters, filling in the holes.
are in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
The millions of asteroids there are probably left over from when
the solar system formed. Some asteroids have orbits that extend
past Neptune, the farthest planet. Others have orbits that
bring them close to Earth. Astronomers watch
for these asteroids because of the damage
they could cause if they were to hit
Earth. Fortunately, asteroids large
enough to cause widespread
destruction hit Earth only
every thousand years or so.

2 EXPLODING FAMILIES
Families aren’t just for people.
Most asteroids in the asteroid
belt are members of families, too!
Families are groups of asteroids
with similar properties and orbits.
The steps below show how an
asteroid family forms.

2 Before the collision, the parent

asteroid is in orbit within the asteroid belt.
1 A stray asteroid or other
object moves through the 4 The parent asteroid explodes
solar system on a collision into smaller pieces. Each piece
course with an asteroid. The has the same chemical makeup
asteroid it hits is called the as the parent asteroid.
parent asteroid.

3 When the object

crashes into the
parent asteroid,
its energy is
transferred to
the spot where
the object hits.

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 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you A MASSIVE ASTEROID THAT CRASHED INTO EARTH MAY
know? HAVE CAUSED THE EXTINCTION OF DINOSAURS.

1 BAKED IN SPACE?
Ida was named for a Greek nymph, not for its
resemblance to an Idaho potato. Ida is about 37 miles
(60 km) wide. You can tell from the number of craters
that Ida is held together more strongly than Itokawa
is. Ida is different from most asteroids because it
has a moon! Ida’s moon is less than a mile (1.5 km)
wide. This moon, Dactyl, was the first ever discovered
orbiting an asteroid.

CERESA ROUND ASTEROID 2

Have you ever wondered why planets are round?
Ceres—the largest asteroid in the asteroid belt—reveals
the answer. In order for an object in space to be round,
it must have enough mass that its own gravity pulls it
into a round shape. Ceres is about 600 miles (960 km)
wide. Its mass is great enough to pull it into a ball. Also
like the planets, Ceres has layers—a core, a mantle, and
a crust.

Ceres has a thin, dusty crust The core of Ceres is

covered by many craters. solid rock.

The giant boulders

on Itokawa’s surface
may be meteorites
that crashed into the
asteroid.

The mantle of Ceres is

water and ice.

Over time, the gravitational pulls of

Mars and Jupiter cause the pieces of
the new asteroid family to settle into
orbits that are similar to one another.

281
 METEORITES
On a clear night, a bright streak shoots across the sky. A chunk of
metal or rock has just sped into Earth’s atmosphere from space. The
chunk slammed into the air, generating so much heat from friction
that it began to burn, leaving behind a trail of glowing gas called
a meteor or a shooting star. The upper atmosphere shatters most
meteors into tiny bits, but some large rocks may survive and crash
into Earth’s surface. The pieces that survive are called meteorites. In
all of human history, a meteorite has struck a person only once. In
Alabama in 1954, Ann Hodges was on her couch when an 8.5 pound
(3.8 kilogram) meteorite broke through her roof. A bit bigger—and
heavier—than a brick, it hit her hand and hip, creating large bruises.

did you
know?
THE LARGEST METEORITE EVER FOUND IS ABOUT
3 FEET (1 METER) HIGH AND 8 FEET (2.5 METERS)
WIDE. IT WEIGHS MORE THAN 60 TONS.

Why is an iron meteorite

red? The iron reacted
with oxygen after it The crater is
reached Earth. The red 570 feet (170
color is from rust. meters) deep.

1 IRON-NICKEL METEORITE FROM NAMIBIA

This meteorite was once part of the dense center of
a large asteroid. Now it is a small, heavy chunk of
iron with a tiny amount of nickel. Meteorites can
provide direct evidence of what our solar system
was like when it began about 4.6 billion years ago.

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 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
METEOR 3
Meteors fly into the atmosphere
at speeds as high as 100,000
miles per hour (160,000
kilometers per hour). During a
meteor shower, it is sometimes
possible to watch 100 meteors
bombard our planet each hour.
Meteor showers occur when
Earth travels through particles
left behind by a comet.
The crater rim rises 150 feet
(45 meters) above the
surrounding plains.

2 IMPACT CRATER IN ARIZONA, USA

The largest impacts from meteorites gouge craters out of
our planet. About 50,000 years ago, an iron-nickel meteorite
150 feet (45 meters) across smashed into northern Arizona. Within
seconds, the impact melted all the rock nearby and pushed out
the molten rock with enough explosive force to dig out
this crater, 4,000 feet (1,200 meters) in diameter. The
meteorite itself shattered into tiny bits of metal.
Crystals of the
These dense fragments sank in the lighter mineral olivine are
molten rock. Soon the rock above cooled embedded in iron.
and turned into a solid again. Today,
geologists believe small pieces of
the original meteorite are
trapped deep below
the crater floor.

1 STONY-IRON
METEORITE FROM ARGENTINA
The mixture of stone and metal in this meteorite provides
geologists with good evidence about its origins. It was once
part of the region where an asteroid’s core and crust met. The
stony parts came from the asteroid’s lighter crust and the iron
parts from the asteroid’s dense core.

283
 MILKY WAY
The Milky Way is a galaxy—a vast group of SPIRAL GALAXY 3
The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy, a galaxy shaped
stars, dust, gas, planets, and asteroids pulled like a pinwheel. A spiral galaxy’s arms coil
together by the force of gravity. It contains outward from the center and are regions
where stars form. Thousands of hot, young,
more than 100 billion stars and planets, blue and blue-white stars give the arms
including the sun and the rest of our solar a bright appearance. Like all spiral
galaxies, the Milky Way slowly
system. The Milky Way is more than 100,000 rotates—so slowly it takes about
light-years long! A light-year is the distance 250 million years for our sun to
circle the galaxy’s center!
light travels in one year (5.88 trillion miles, or
Young blue and blue-white
9.46 trillion km), so the Milky Way is enormous! stars shine much brighter
than older, redder stars.
The Milky Way formed more than 13 billion
years ago. To the naked eye, it looks like a
broad white band in the night sky. Ancient
people thought this white band looked like a
river of milk, so they named it the Milky Way.

did you OUR SUN IS LOCATED ABOUT 26,000 LIGHT-YEARS

know? AWAY FROM THE CENTER OF THE MILKY WAY!

BARRED SPIRAL GALAXY 1

Scientists believe there are more than
100 billion galaxies in the universe. The
common barred spiral galaxy has a band
of bright stars that emerges from the
center and extends across the middle of THE SOMBRERO GALAXY 1
the galaxy. About half of all spiral galaxies From Earth, we can see the Sombrero
are barred. Many scientists believe the galaxy only edge-on. Its flat disk and bulging
Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy. center, formed by billions of old glowing stars, give
the galaxy its hatlike appearance. Bands of dust form the
disk’s dark rings. Scientists do not fully understand them,
but believe the rings contain younger and brighter stars. They
also believe the center of the galaxy holds a large black hole.

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 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
THE MILKY ROAD 2
This image was created from different photos, to
make the Milky Way look as though it extended out
from the end of a road. From Earth, the Milky Way
does not look this colorful. Also, it is difficult to see,
especially in cities where the night sky is filled with
light from cars, buildings, and streetlights.

At the center of the

Milky Way may be a
black hole a million
times larger than
the sun.

285
 BIG BANG THEORY
We know that the universe is huge . . . and old . . . but how huge and
old is it? And, how did it form? Scientists use mathematics to test
ideas about just how the universe came to be what it is today. The
idea that is accepted by most scientists is called the Big Bang theory.
The Big Bang theory states that the universe began as an infinitely
small point. This point contained all of the matter and energy in the
universe today. Suddenly, a huge expansion occurred, called the Big
Bang. As it expanded, the universe cooled and its matter spread far
apart. It is still enlarging today. Scientists have found evidence of the
Big Bang theory by studying galaxies. They found that the farther a
galaxy is from Earth, the faster it is moving away from Earth. This can
be true only if the universe is expanding in all directions.

TIMELINE OF THE UNIVERSE

This model shows how the universe
formed 13.7 billion years ago. It shows
the development from a tiny point
to the 93-billion-light-years-wide
observable cosmos that it is today. Keep
in mind that the sizes, distances, and
times shown here are not to scale. The
universe is so large and so old that it
would be impossible to fit its history
onto the pages of a book.

At the Big Bang, the

universe is extremely small,
bright, dense, and hot.

Radiation fills the universe.

Less than a second after the Big

Bang, the temperature is
10 million trillion degrees
Celsius. Simple particles form.
did you
know?
ASTRONOMERS ONCE THOUGHT THAT WHEN THE
UNIVERSE WAS DONE EXPANDING, IT WOULD START TO Not quite 2 minutes after
SHRINK. THEY CALL THIS SHRINKING THE “BIG CRUNCH.” the Big Bang, the
temperature is ten billion
degrees Celsius. Nuclei of
hydrogen and helium form.

286
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
It’s 380,000 years after the Big One billion years after the
Bang, and the temperature Big Bang, the temperature
is almost 5,000°F (3,000°C). is -450°F (-255°C). The first
Clumps of gas form. galaxies begin to form.

Three billion
years after the
Big Bang, the
temperature of
space reaches what
it is today, about
-454°F (-270°C).

About nine billion

years after the
Big Bang, the sun
forms inside the
Milky Way galaxy.
Earth forms from
leftover material
at about the
same time.

287
 BLACK HOLES
Start with a star 10 times more massive than the sun.
When the star dies, its center, or core, collapses, and its
outer layers fly out in a spectacular explosion called a
supernova. The core continues to shrink, becoming a black
hole that might be only 20 miles (about 32 km) wide and
incredibly dense. Once anything, including a light wave,
enters a black hole, it can never leave. All of the mass of a
black hole is at its center in a point called a singularity.
In a sense, the singularity is a hole in the universe
that soaks up matter and energy.

Matter spiraling around the black

hole is called its accretion disk.
Until it gets very close, this matter
does not act any differently than
matter around a large star.

As the matter gets very close to

the black hole, it gains energy and
heats to several million degrees.

STAR POWER 2
Gravity pulls a star’s mass toward its core. This inward
pressure balances the outward pressure from the energy
that is created when stars combine lighter elements, such
as helium and carbon, into heavier ones, such as oxygen.
This process of combining elements is called fusion.
Big stars can produce enough heat to continue fusing
elements—until they get to iron. Fusing iron with other
elements uses energy rather than creating it, so fusion
stops. Then gravity wins, and the star collapses.
The mass collapses
The heat from When fusion stops, the inward.
Supergiant star fusion inside the layers of heavy elements
star is so high that it begin to cool.
makes the star glow.

Core

288
2 A COSMIC WHIRLPOOL

BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE

If black holes don’t let light out, how can we find them? When a
black hole is near some other stuff—say, gas or rocks—its gravity
gives a tug and the matter begins to spiral toward the black hole.
The matter moves faster and faster, picking up energy. High-energy did you A BLACK HOLE WITH THE MASS OF EARTH WOULD
matter sends out high-energy radiation. Back home in the solar
system, we use space telescopes to grab photos of the X-rays that
know? FIT IN A SPHERE THE SIZE OF A MARBLE.
come from really, really hot, high-energy matter.

Some of the matter around the

rapidly spinning black hole flies off
at speeds near the speed of light.
The X-ray energy emitted by these
jets of matter is evidence of the
black hole.

If you could watch as the

astronaut moved toward the
hole, she would appear to move
more and more slowly. You would
never see the astronaut cross the
event horizon.

The boundary beyond which

light cannot escape is called
the event horizon. This is the
black hole’s diameter as viewed
from the outside. At the event horizon, the light
takes almost forever to get away
DOWN THE HOLE 3 from the black hole, so an image
What would you see if you watched of the astronaut remains long
after the astronaut has passed.
someone fall into a black hole? The term
“spaghettification” was coined after physicist
Stephen Hawking said the astronaut in the
illustration resembled a piece of spaghetti No one knows what
being pulled long and thin. The fantastic happens beyond the
event horizon because
mass of the black hole exerts a great no information ever
gravitational force on objects when they are comes back out to us.
very close. The force is much stronger on the
astronaut’s head than on her feet, causing
her body to stretch longer and longer.

289
 QUASARS
Quasars, first detected by radio signals in the late 1950s, look like stars but
are gigantic, bright celestial objects that are really very far away. In fact,
they can be 10 billion light-years away, close to the edge of the observable
universe. The name quasar is an abbreviation for “quasi-stellar radio source.”
Quasi means “a resemblance to” and stellar means “star.” They are called
“quasi-stellar radio source” because they were first thought to be stars that
were emitting radio waves. But as research advanced and telescopes became
more powerful, astronomers discovered that quasars are actually active
young galaxies with huge black holes at their centers. The amount of energy
in quasars is hard to imagine. One quasar emits energy that is equivalent
to 10 trillion suns! Astronomers think that black holes at the center of
quasars swallow great amounts of matter, giving off enormous quantities of
energy. That’s why we can see their light. Studying quasars is essential for
understanding how the universe was formed.
did you
know?
BECAUSE QUASARS ARE BILLIONS OF LIGHT-YEARS AWAY, WHAT
WE SEE TODAY THROUGH OUR TELESCOPES IS WHAT ACTUALLY
HAPPENED IN THE UNIVERSE BILLIONS OF YEARS AGO.

THE BIRTH OF QUASARS 3

Forming a quasar takes an incredible amount of mass and
energy. Some quasars are formed when two or more galaxies
merge. As they approach each other, their immense gravity
pulls them toward each other. When they collide, a titanic
explosion triggers the formation of new stars and materials.
One result of two merging galaxies is that huge amounts of
gases are pulled toward the central region, providing fuel for
the black hole. The energy produced by the inflow of gases is
so great that a quasar is formed. After this cataclysmic event,
hundreds of millions of years will pass before the new quasar
settles into a relatively quiet existence.

Many galaxies, including

our own, have a black hole
at the center.

290
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
When these two galaxies
merge, a quasar will form.
The energy produced
by such a collision is
extraordinary.

Matter gets pulled in toward a

galaxy by the gravity of a super
massive black hole.

A galaxy that gives off

energy has an active
galactic nucleus powered
by a black hole.

2 EVIDENCE OF COLLISIONS
The bright quasar in the center is 5 billion light-years away from
Earth. But it has no host galaxy, which is a galaxy within which a
quasar is embedded. Astronomers think the quasar is the result of
a collision between a normal galaxy—one that is not active the way
a quasar is—and an object that had a giant black hole. The cloudlike
object above is probably a disturbed galaxy—one that has undergone
a recent collision. The bright star below is nowhere near the quasar.

Galaxy

Quasar

Star

1 QUASAR IN HOST GALAXY

A normal quasar like this one is surrounded
by a host galaxy—in this case a spiral galaxy.

291
 ASTRONAUTS
Drinking balls of floating fruit juice may be fun, but astronauts can also have it
tough, especially when they suffer from “puffy-head bird-leg syndrome”! Living
in microgravity—that is, almost no gravity—the fluid that is usually pulled down
into the astronauts’ legs stays in their face, chest, and arms. That gives them a puffy
face and skinny legs, at least until the flight is done. In space, human bodies have
to adjust to microgravity so that they can maintain homeostasis.
Homeostasis is the condition in which the human
body’s internal environment is kept stable in spite
of change in the outside environment. Our bodies
have systems that help us stay in balance by
taking in nutrients and getting rid of wastes.
We breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon
dioxide. On a space shuttle or space station,
maintaining homeostasis can be tricky, but
training and technology have made it possible.

Sweet and sour beef

FOOD GOES IN 3
Astronauts begin their meals with
a pair of scissors, to cut open their
airtight packages of food. Meals must, of
course, contain all the nutrients that the
astronauts need. But the meals also must Trail mix
be tidy. Food cannot be crumbly and
create a mess that floats in the air—a
danger to lungs and to equipment. And
trash is carefully cleaned up, so there are
no stray wrappers floating around. Granola
Pineapple
Chunky chicken stew

292
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
did you
know?
LIQUID WASTES EJECTED INTO SPACE BECOME
CLOUDS OF TINY ICE CRYSTALS, WHICH ONE
ASTRONAUT CALLED A “BEAUTIFUL SIGHT.”

Instead of drinking out of a

Any liquid that escapes in microgravity will cup, astronauts sip beverages
form a free-floating ball shape. from a bag with a straw.

2
1

5 4 WASTE GOES OUT

3 When there is no gravity to help guide body wastes
to a safe storage place, vacuums and fans must do
the dirty work. After the waste is collected, getting
rid of it often means tossing it out of the space
4
station. It will eventually fall toward Earth and burn
up in the atmosphere.

The toilet seat is similar to those on Earth.

Bars swing over the thighs to hold the astronaut in place.
A vacuum sucks up solid waste and stores it in sealed bags.
6
A tube attached to a funnel collects liquid waste.
Air filters kill bacteria and absorb odors.
Foot rests can have straps that hold the astronaut’s feet.

293
 INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION
In the early 1970s, the United States and Russia were each sending space stations
into Earth’s orbit. Eventually they decided to join forces to build a space station
together. Eleven European countries, Canada, Brazil, and Japan joined in. The
result is the International Space Station (ISS)—a laboratory orbiting about
200–250 miles (about 322–402 km) above Earth. Scientists from geologists to
doctors to physicists perform experiments in the ISS, many of which have to do
with the challenges of living and working in space. Cells, plants, insects,
and mice have been studied in order to learn how
their reproduction, growth, and health
are affected by microgravity
conditions.

SPECIAL DELIVERY 2
Russian Soyuz (shown below), the U.S. Space Shuttle, and European
spacecraft can dock at the ISS. They carry astronauts from all cooperating
countries to and from the station. Between piloted missions, pilotless Canadarm2, a
delivery vehicles, such as Russian Progress vehicles, also deliver supplies. robotic arm to
These vehicles are computer-controlled. They may be programmed to handle large objects
and assist astronauts
dock with the ISS, or astronauts aboard the ISS can use a robot arm to working in space
grab a supply vehicle. While there, supply vehicles use their engine power
to help keep the station in its orbit by raising its altitude and controlling
its orientation. They also bring the trash back to Earth.

294
 BIG IDEA OF SCIENCE
Beta gimbals, one
on each “wing” of an
array, turn the solar
panels to keep them
facing the sun.

Solar arrays convert

sunlight into
electrical power for
the ISS.

A large frame supports

the electrical and thermal
systems. The robotic arm
also moves along the
frame.
4 A SPACE LAB ABOVE EARTH
The first module of the ISS, launched in
1998, is about as long as a school bus. The
finished length of the whole ISS will be
longer than a football field. Every part of
the ISS has been built on Earth, boosted
Radiators use a
circulating fluid to
into orbit, and then attached. The laboratory
The “door” for most
spacewalks is called cool parts of the equipment for many different types of
an airlock. space station. experiments had to be launched up to the
ISS. Research on board the ISS
is focused on how humans can best
meet the challenge of living in space
for long periods of time. For example,
some experiments will test the growth
of drought-resistant tomatoes, to help
Zarya Control Module was the scientists learn more about space agriculture
first piece launched into orbit.
for long voyages. Other experiments have
tested the behavior of bacteria and viruses
Pirs Docking Compartment is an U.S., Japanese, and in space, as well as the effects of space on
airlock for visiting spacecraft— European modules
the piloted Russian Soyuz and the human immune system.
the automated Progress.

Zvezda Service Module, the

second piece added to the
station, provided the first living
quarters for crew.

The ISS keeps growing larger.

This photo shows solar
panels that have been added.

did you
A Soyuz space capsule is
always docked at the space
station to serve as a lifeboat
know?
ALL FLUIDS, INCLUDING URINE AND SWEAT, ARE COLLECTED,
should the crew need to PURIFIED, AND REUSED ON THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION.
make an emergency escape.

295
 GLOSSARY
alloys Big Bang theory
Two metal elements combined to produce a stronger whole. The scientific theory of how the galaxies were formed. The
Alloys can have different properties depending on which two universe was once a small, focused point but after a huge
elements are mixed together. burst of energy began to expand, spreading matter across
space.
antigens
Chemical molecules within red blood cells that determine bilaterally symmetrical
blood types. There are four different blood types: A, B, AB, Organisms where the left and right sides of the body are
or O. mirror images of one another. A spider or butterfly is
bilaterally symmetrical.
arthropods
Arthropods are bilaterally symmetrical and have an
biodiversity
exoskeleton. They include insects and arachnids (spiders).
The various different life forms that exist within a biome or
ecosystem.
asteroid
Lumps of rock and metal clustered together in space. The
biome
asteroid belt (high concentration of asteroids) can be found
A category for a huge zone on Earth. The rainforest is one
between Mars and Jupiter.
biome and the desert is another. Ecosystems exist within
biomes.
atmosphere
Layers of gas (decreasing in density the further they are from
Earth) that surround and protect the planet. The different brainstem
layers are called the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, The stem joining the brain and spinal cord. It relays
thermosphere, and exosphere. messages, from nerves running through the body and up the
spinal cord, into the brain.
aurora
A colored glow in the sky resulting from a reaction between celestial body
cosmic rays (charged particles deflected by the Earth) and Any naturally occurring object in space. The planets,
atoms in the atmosphere. asteroids, and meteorites are all celestial bodies.

bacteria Cenozoic
Single-celled organisms that grow and survive in almost every A term to describe the period of history spanning the last 65
habitat on Earth. Bacteria are called ‘extremophiles’ because million years. The Paleozoic and the Mesozoic eras precede
of their ability to survive in extreme conditions. the Cenozoic.

chemosynthesis
The process by which deep-sea organisms convert chemicals
from hydrothermal vents on the seabed into energy, as
opposed to photosynthesis when sunlight is converted into
energy.

digestive system
The organs in the body, such as the intestine and stomach,
that break down food, process nutrients, and get rid of any
waste products.

296
 GLOSSARY
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) greenhouse gases
A molecule, existing in the nucleus of a cell, The name given to gases such
that contains all the information that an organism needs to as carbon dioxide and
grow and develop. methane that trap heat within
the Earth’s atmosphere. An increase in greenhouse
ectotherms gases can lead to global warming.
Organisms that are unable to regulate their own body
temperature. Unlike humans whose body temperatures are homeostasis
constant, ectotherms must adapt their behavior to alter the The process by which a human’s internal environment
amount of heat they lose or gain. remains stable when subjected to varying external
environments. The human body achieves this in a number of
enzymes ways, including getting rid of waste products and regulating
Molecules that speed up chemical reactions within an body temperature.
organism; for example, enzymes have been genetically
removed from crops to slow down the rate at which they rot. hypothalamus
A cluster of cells that regulate body functions associated with
equator the nervous and endocrine systems; these include breathing,
The imagined line dividing the Northern and Southern the release of the growth hormone, and sleep cycles.
hemispheres.
immunoglobulin E (IgE)
exoskeleton Antibodies produced by white blood cells to combat allergen
The hard casing, or shell, that protects an animal’s soft tissue attacks. Immunoglobulin joins to mast cells and triggers the
from predators and regulates water loss. production of white blood cells when allergens are present.

fetus ions
An embryo develops into a fetus after 8 weeks inside Oppositely charged particles that bond atoms together. Ions
a woman’s uterus. The fetus will develop and after are formed when there’s a change in the number of electrons
approximately 40 weeks will become a baby with the ability in any substance.
to survive outside the womb.
kidneys
galaxy Organs in the body that remove waste and control water and
A group of many stars. The sun is a star in the Milky Way salt levels. If the kidneys fail a person can have dialysis or a
Galaxy. There are millions of galaxies in the universe. transplant.

geothermal energy kinetic energy

Heat from within the Earth. Heated water from underground The energy of an object when it is in motion. Inertia is a
can be converted into energy above ground. Geysers are resistance to a change in motion and potential energy is the
natural eruptions of geothermal water and steam. energy of a stationary object in relation to its position and
size.
gravity
A force that pulls two objects towards each other. The higher lava
the mass of an object, the stronger the gravitational pull will Formed when molten rock, called magma, reaches the Earth’s
be. Microgravity occurs when the gravitational pull is less surface. Lava erupts either in the form of rock and ash or as a
strong. thick substance that flows along the ground.

297
 leptons and quarks quasar
The tiniest pieces of matter that scientists believe make up the A naturally occurring object in space that can emit radio
universe. The building blocks of atoms are either leptons or waves and other types of energy.
quarks. An electron is a type of lepton and a proton is a type
of quark. radioactive decay
The central part of an atom holding most of the genetic
mammal material is called the nucleus. Nuclei can emit particles in a
A group of animals that have hair and that usually give birth process called radioactive decay, causing an atom to change
to live offspring. Mothers feed their young from mammary type.
glands on their bodies.
refraction
melanin Wavelengths travel through one medium to another at
The pigment that determines certain characteristics such as different speeds. Light wavelengths travel more slowly
skin and eye color. Melanin protects the skin from ultraviolet through water than air, causing light hitting water to be
rays from the sun. refracted at a slightly different angle.

meteorite respiration
A fragment of rock or metal that has broken away from a larger The chemical reactions that take place when oxygen enters
celestial body, often when two asteroids collide. Meteorites fall cells in the body and is converted into energy for the cells to
to Earth, attracted by the Earth’s gravitational pull. use.

molecule retrograde rotation

Small particles made up of a group of atoms held together by An object that spins around in the opposite direction from its
strong chemical bonds. A group of just two atoms can make trajectory. For example, Venus rotates (spins around) in the
up a molecule. opposite direction from which it orbits the sun.

momentum saltation
Every moving object has momentum. It is the calculation of the The process by which sand-sized particles are picked up, and
mass of an object times its velocity (its speed with direction). then dropped, by the wind, forming dunes.

nuclear fusion sedimentary rock

Nuclear reactions change atoms from one element to another. Sediments such as sand and mud settle on river and seabeds.
Nuclear fusion takes place when two atoms join to make a More layers settle on top and they are compounded over time
heavier element. A by-product of nuclear fusion is energy. to form sedimentary rock.

photosynthesis solar system

The process by which plants convert energy from the sun, Part of the universe made up of the sun, eight planets
combining it with carbon dioxide and water, into food. (including Earth), dwarf planets, moons, comets, and
Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis. asteroids. The gravity of the sun keeps the planets in orbit.

pollination sonic boom

A means of reproduction in plants where pollen is transferred The result of an object traveling through air faster than the
from one plant to another. Pollen can be transferred on speed of sound. The object causes a sudden increase in
the wind or by animals called pollinators, such as bees or pressure that forces molecules in the air to bunch together,
hummingbirds. causing a sonic boom.

298
 GLOSSARY
source region universe
An area where an air mass and the land or water below share All existing matter within space. The Earth and solar system
similar characteristics. For example, a cold air mass over a are all part of the universe.
polar region. When two air masses meet it is called a weather
front. vaccine
Contains weakened virus antigens that stimulate active
specialization immunity (the production of antibodies to kill a disease)
The process by which stem cells change into different types ensuring the body will be able to fight off any further attacks.
of cell within the body, specialized to perform a particular
function. virus
Chemical packages (smaller than bacteria) that reproduce
stalagmite their genetic material by invading other cells. They cause
Formations of minerals extending from cave ceilings. illnesses such as smallpox and the common cold.
Water from a stalagmite can drip to the cave-floor, forming
stalactites that grow upwards. voltage
The force exerted to charge an electrical circuit, measured in
volts.
stem cells
Embryonic stem cells differentiate (change into) different
wavelength
types of specialized cells. Adult stem cells change and divide
The distance between one wave peak, or trough, and the next.
to replace old cells.
Radio, sound, and light waves all have different wavelengths,
and can change speed from one medium to another.
supernova
A star that is dying (running out of hydrogen) swells to form
red giant or supergiant stars which eventually explode. The
exploding star is called a supernova.

tectonic plates
The blocks of rock that make up the Earth’s surface. The
edges of the plates are called faults. Pressure builds along
these faults and this can cause earthquakes.

thermal energy
Energy created from heat. Thermal energy can be
transferred by conduction, convection, or by radiation via
electromagnetic waves.

tsunami
A surge of seawater, resulting in a massive rolling wave,
caused by eruptions between Earth plates on the sea floor.

tumor
Caused by the rapid growth and division of cancer cells.
These abnormal growths can be surgically removed or treated
with chemotherapy or radiation therapy.

299
 INDEX
beaks 101 cicadas 94–95

A
accretion disks 288
bees
beetles
Big Bang
76, 91
91
232, 286–287
climate
climbing
clones
131, 136
203
113
acid rain 184–185 binomial nomenclature 44 clouds 168, 172, 180–181, 256
acoustic guitars 224 biodiversity 66–67 clownfish 67
Acropolis 184–185 biofuels 80–81 coal 128–129, 183, 186
adaptations 68–69, 70, 78–79 biomimetics 72–73 cold fronts 172
aerogels 244–245 bird flu 55 collisions 214–215
aerosols 187 bird skeletons 33 color 220–221, 242, 243
Afar Triangle 152–153 birds 98–101, 117, 120 comets 211, 256
Age of Mammals 124–125 birds of prey 100–101 common cold 58–59
air plants 79 black holes 288–289, 290, 291 Concorde 227
air pollution 182–183 blood 14, 18–19, 34–35, 36, 134 conservation 112–113
airbags 215 blubber 108 continental shelves 139, 162
airplanes 73, 226–227 bones 30, 31, 32–33, 100 Conveyor Belt 136
algae 44, 102–103, 127, 142 brain 24–28, 42 coral reefs 142–143, 162
allergies 48, 52–53, 59 bridges 208–209 core of the Earth 258–259
alloys 241, 246 broadcasting 223 corn 23, 80
ALS 30–31 bromeliads 79 corona 263
Amazon River 196–197 bubble netting 108 Corythosaurus 122
amethyst 146, 147 bumper boats 214 cotton 23
amphibians 96–97 burdock 72 covalent crystals 236
amygdala 26, 27 butterflies 90 crabs 79, 94–95
animal bodies 84–87 crash test dummies 214–215
Antarctica
antibodies
antigens
132
56
35, 56
C
cables 208, 246–247
craters
crime investigation
cryopreservation
260, 264, 282–283
14–15
112–113
antihistamines 53 cactuses 195 crystals 146–147, 236–239, 246
ants 90–91, 201 calcites 145, 147, 238–239 currents 136–137
apes 110 calving glaciers 132
Apollo missions
arachnids
armadillos
260, 261
45, 92
84
Cambrian explosion
camouflage
cancer
116
68, 70, 71, 105
62–63, 64, 65
D
dandelions 76
Arsinotheriums 125 candles 240 David (Michelangelo) 148, 149
arteries 36 cantilevers 209 deep sea vents 140–141
asteroids 122–123, 214, carbon atoms 235, 237 deforestation 200
270, 280–281 carbon dioxide 80, 168, 182, 183, 186 deserts 67, 152–153, 188–189,
asthma 52, 53 carnival rides 210–213, 214 190–195
astronauts 207, 260, 261, carnivorous plants 78–79 desmids 103
292–293, 294 cars 81, 214–215, 228–231 dialysis 40
Atacama Desert 194–195 catapults 216–217 diatoms 102
Atlantic Ocean 136, 138–139 caterpillars 70, 71, 90 diesel 80, 81
atmosphere 168–169, 256 cave paintings 126 digestion 38–39
atolls 142–143 caves 144–145, 159 dinosaurs 44, 117, 120–121,
atomic numbers 232–233 cells 18–19, 32, 47, 86, 122, 123
atoms 232, 234, 235, 236, 237 234–235, 252 dissolving 134, 144
atria 36 Cenozoic 117, 124–125 DNA 12–17, 18, 47, 86,
aurora borealis 170–171 centripetal force 210, 211 112, 113
autonomic nervous system 28 Ceratops 122 domains 44
cerebellum 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 downforce 228

B
babies 42–43
Ceres
chemosynthesis
chemotherapy
281
140
62, 63
dunes
dust mites
190–191
52–53

bacteria

baseball
46–47, 54, 127, 252, 295
baleen whales 108
214
chimpanzees
chlorophyll
chocolate
12
103, 221
240
E
eagles 98
batholiths 148 cholera 54, 55 ears 19, 88
bats 88, 89 chromosomes 16, 20 Earth 116, 134, 256–259, 287

300
 INDEX
earthquakes 150–151, 152, Forth Bridge 209 half-lives 127
154, 164, 165 fossil fuels 80, 129, 186–187 Hawaii 156–157, 158, 162, 189, 191
East African Rift System 152 fossils 74, 118–119, 123, hay fever 53
echolocation 88–89 126–127, 130, 131 heart 36–37, 42
eclipses 262–263 fractals 250–251 helicopters 73
ecosystems 66, 67 Freeplay radio 222–223 helium 232, 233
ectotherms 96–97 frogs 44, 84, 96–97, 199 hemispheres of the brain 24, 26–27
egg sacs 93 Frozen Zoo 112–113 Himalayas 202–203
Eiffel Tower 246 fruiting bodies 50 hippocampus 26, 27
El Niño 137 fuel cell cars 230–231 homeostasis 292
electric guitars 224–225 fuels 80–81 hormones 28, 29
electricity 231 fulcrums 217 hornbills 101
electrocardiograms 36 functional magnetic hot springs 46–47
electromagnets 218–219 resonance imaging 25 hummingbirds 98, 101
electron microscopes 252 fundamental particles 234, 235 hurricanes 137, 166, 178–179
electrons 234, 235, 239, 250 fungi 44, 48–51, 54, 70, 78 hybrids 22, 23
electroreception 106 fusion 232, 288 hydrogen 230–231, 232, 233
elements 232–233 hydrologic cycle 135
embryos
emotions
emus
18, 42
25, 26
98
G
galaxies 254–255, 284–285,
hydrothermal vents
hypothalamus
139
27, 28–29

endocrine system
enzymes
epicentres
28–29
38
150
Galileo
gall bladder
286, 287, 290–291
270, 272
38
I
ice 135
epidemics 54, 56 gamma rays 64, 65 ice ages 130–131
equator 188–189 gas 186 icebergs 132
erosion 133 geckos 69, 72 igneous rocks 146, 148, 158
eruptions 156–157 genes 16–17, 20, 82, 112 immune system 41, 52, 53,
esophagus 38, 39 genetic modification 22–23 56–57, 58, 295
ethanol 80, 81 genome 16–17 immunization 56
event horizons 289 genus 44 Indricotheriums 124
exoskeletons 45, 92, 94–95, 118 geodes 146–147 induction 174
exosphere 169 geologic time 116–117 inertia 211, 212
extinctions 116, 117, 122–123, 124 geothermal energy 160 infectious diseases 54–59
extremophiles 46 geysers 160–161 influenza 54, 55
eyes 93 giant sloths 125 insects 76, 77, 90–91, 94–95
Giganotosaurus 120–121 insulators 244–245

F
falcons 100–101
giraffes
glacials
glaciers
69
130
132–133, 186, 187, 202
interglacials
International Space Station
130
206,
210, 294–295
fangs 85, 92, 201 glass 242–243 intestines 38, 39
feathers 99, 100, 101 Global Conveyor Belt 136 ionic crystals 236
ferns 74–75, 117 global warming 186–187, 230 iridescence 221
fetuses 42–43 Golden Gate Bridge 208–209 iron 146, 218, 219, 232, 241, 246
Fibonacci numbers 70 golden lion tamarins 198 islands 162–163
fiddleheads 74 gomphotheres 119 isotopes 64
fiddler crabs 94 gorillas 110–111
finches
fins
fireworks
48, 98, 101
107
248–249
granite
grasslands
Gravitron
148, 184
67, 117
210–211
J
jaguars 196, 200
fish 33, 67, 68 gravity 206–207, 210, 211, Jenner, Edward 57
fishing rods 217 212, 232, 288–289 Jupiter 270–271, 280
flies 90 greenhouse gases 80, 131, 186, 230
floods
flowers
flu
166–167, 187
44, 76–77, 117, 201
54, 55
growth spurts
guitars
gunpowder
29
224–225
248
K
kangaroos 217
fluorescence 238–239 gypsum 237 karsts 145
fly agarics 50 gyroscopes 210 kidneys 40–41
fMRI 25 Kilauea 156–157, 158
fog
food for astronauts
food chains
180–181
292
102, 106
H
H1N1 virus (swine flu) 55, 56
kinetic energy
kingdoms
knees
212, 213
44
30, 31
Formula 1 cars 228–229 hair follicles 14 Kobe earthquake 151

301
 L
landslides 154–155, 164
Moon

moonbows
127, 137, 214,
260–261, 262–263
177
PET scanner
photosynthesis
phylums
64–65
44, 103, 140, 142
44
lateral lines 106 moons 256, 270, 272, 273, pine cones 70
latitude 188 274–275, 277, 278–279 piranhas 197
lattices 237 moraines 133 pitcher plants 79
lava 143, 156, 157, 158–159 mosquitoes 60 pituitary gland 28, 29
lead 126, 182, 233 moths 0, 71, 89, 90 placenta 42, 43
leopards 202 Mount Everest 202–203 planets 211, 233, 256–257, 264–279
leptons 234, 235 Mount St. Helens 154 plasma 34
levers 216, 217 muscles 33, 36, 234 platelets 19, 34, 35
Lichtenberg figures 250–251 mushrooms 50, 70 Pleistocene 130
ligaments 30 music 27, 42, 224–225 Pluto 278–279
light 176–177, 192–193, mutations 13, 20–21 polar bears 244
220–221 mycelium 50, 51 pole vaults 216–217
light years 254 pollen 53, 76, 130
lightning
limestone
174–175, 250–251
142, 143, 144–145, 148
limestone islands 162–163
N
naming 44–45
pollution
polyps
porcupine fish
113, 182–185
142, 143
68
lions 67 nanorobots 63 porcupines 84–85
liver 38 natural gas 186 positrons 65
lizards 33, 86 nebulas 232–233 potential energy 212, 213
lunar rover 261 nectar 76, 101 power plants 128, 160
lungs 62, 100 Neptune 276–277 Precambrian 116
lymphocytes 19, 56 nerves 18, 26, 28 pregnancy 42–43
neutrons 234, 235 primates 110

M
maglev trains 218–219
nitrogen
Northern Lights
nuclear fusion
168, 170, 175, 233
170–171
232
proteins
prothallia
protists
16, 20, 55
74
44, 54
magma 138, 139, 140, 148, nuclear medicine 64–65 protons 234, 235
156, 158, 258 nucleus 235 pterosaurs 120–121
magnetic fields 138, 170, 219, puberty 29

magnets
malaria
258, 259
218–219
60–61
O
ocean currents 136–137
puffballs
puffer fish
50–51
68

mammals
mammoths
mantle
117, 124–125
124, 130
153, 258, 259
oceans
octopuses
oil
134, 138–141, 187
104–105
186
Q
quarks 234, 235
marble 148–149, 184–185 Old Faithful 160–161 quarries 148–149
Mars 268–269, 280 Olympus Mons 269 quartz 146, 147, 238
mass extinctions 116, 117, 122–123 orang utans 12–13 quasars 290–291
mass spectrometers 127 orbits 210, 211, 256
Megatheriums
melting
memory
125
240–241, 242
25, 26
owls
oxygen
ozone
99, 201
34, 36, 116, 168, 170
175, 182
R
racing cars 81, 228–229
Mercury 264–265 radiation therapy 62, 63, 64
mesosphere
Mesozoic
metals
168, 169
117
246, 258, 259
P
pacemakers 36–37
radio
radioactive decay
radioactivity
222–223
126, 127
64–65
metamorphic rocks 148 Pacific Ocean 136, 137, 142–143 Rafflesia 76, 77
meteorites 282–283 Paleozoic 116, 119 rainforest 189, 198–201
meteors 260, 283 pancreas 38 rainbows 176–177
Michelangelo 148, 149 pandas 113 raptors 100–101
microgravity 206, 207, 292–293, 294 pandemics 54–55 rays 45
microscopes 252–253 parasites 60, 77 red blood cells 18, 34, 35, 134
mid-ocean ridges 138–139, 140 patterns 70–71 reefs 142–143, 162
Milky Way 254, 284–285, 287 peacocks 98–99, 100 reflection 176, 177
minerals 238–239 peas 45 reflex actions 24
mining 128–129, 200 peat 129 refraction 176, 177, 192, 193
mirages 192–193 penguins 98 regeneration 86–87
mold 44, 48–49, 52 penicillin 49 rhinoceroses 124
momentum 214 periodic table 232–233 rice 22, 82
monkeys 198, 199 Permian extinction 116, 122 Richter scale 150

302
 INDEX
rift valleys 152, 188 squalls 172–173 tungsten 240
RNA 55 stalactites 144, 145 Tyrannosaurus rex 123
robodoc 63 stalagmites 144
rock dating
roller coasters
126–127
212–213
stars
steel
stem cells
232, 233, 284–285, 288, 290
219, 241, 246–247
18, 19, 32, 86
U
ultraviolet light 170, 238, 239

S
saliva 38
stomach
storms
stratosphere
173, 174–175, 179
38

168, 169
umbilical cord
universe
uranium
42, 43
232, 254–255, 286–287
126, 127, 232, 239
salt 134, 135, 180, 206, 236–237 strawberries 23 Uranus 274–275
salt-pan lakes 167 stromatolites 127
saltation
satellites
Saturn
190
178, 179
272–273
sulfur dioxide
sulfuric acid
sun
156, 157, 182, 184
184
258, 262–263, 287
V
vaccines 55, 56–57, 60
savanna 67 sunflowers 81 vapor cones 226, 227
sea anemones 67 supercooling 96–97 Velcro 72–73
sea horses 113 supernovas 232, 233, 288 velocity 214
sea levels 187 supersonic flight 227 Venice 187
sea stars 86–87 surgeons 41 venom 85, 105
seafloor 138–139 Surtsey 163 ventricles 36
seals 135 suspension bridges 208–209 Venus 266–267
seaweeds 44 Svalbard Vault 82–83 Venus’ flytrap 69, 78–79
seed banks 82–83 swine flu (H1N1) 55, 56 villi 39
seeds 76 symmetry 70 viruses 47, 54, 55, 56–59, 295
seismic waves 150 visible light spectrum 220
seismographs
sharks
shells
150
106–107, 118
71, 84
T
tamarins 198
vitamins
volcanic islands
volcanoes
22, 34
162–163
116, 138, 142–143,
shock waves 226 tectonic plates 138, 140, 150, 153, 156–159, 269
shrews 88 152–153, 202 Vomit Comet 207
silica 244–245 teeth 107, 118, 130
silk
silverbacks
singularities
92, 93
110
288
thalamus
Thames Barrier
thermal expansion
24, 25, 26, 27, 28
167
187
W
warm fronts 172
skeletons 32–33 thermal insulators 244 water 134–135, 256
sloths 125 thermosphere 168, 169, 170 water contamination 54
smallpox 56, 57 theropods 121 water vapor 156, 168, 180–181
smokers 140–141 thunder 175 waterfalls 135, 176, 197
snails 95 thunderstorms 168, 173, wavelengths 176, 220
snakes 201 174–175, 250 weather 136, 172–173
snow leopards 202 tides 136, 137, 260 weather satellites 178, 179
solar eclipses 262–263 tigers 20–21, 112 weevils 252–253
solar panels 265, 294–295 toilets in space 293 welding 246–247
solar system 254, 256 tomatoes 23 whales 73, 108–109
solenoids 218, 219 toucans 99, 199 wheat 45
sonic booms 226–227 trains 218–219 white blood cells 18, 34, 53,
soybeans 23 transfusions 34 56, 59, 252
Soyuz 294 transplants 40–41 winds 172, 173, 190–191
Space Shuttle 210, 294 tree ferns 74–75, 117 woolly mammoths 124, 130
space stations 206, 210, 294–295 tree frogs 79, 97, 199
species
spiders
spinal cord
44, 66
45, 85, 92–93
24, 26, 28, 42
tree rings
trilobites
Troodons
131
118
120
Y
yaks 202
spines 84–85, 92 tropics 67, 188, 198, 199, 200, 201 Yellowstone National Park 160–161
spiral galaxies 284–285, 291 troposphere 168, 169
spores
sports injuries
spouting
48, 50, 51, 70, 74
30–31
109
tsunami
tube worms
tumors
164–165
141
62
Z
zebras 45

303
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107br, 114b, 118cl, 118-119, 119tr, 125l, 125tr, 127br, 130bc, 131tl, Jacket images: Front: Science Photo Library: Pasieka.
145tr, 146-147c, 158ftr, 158tr, 159ftl, 159tl, 237bc, 237br, 239tr;
Royal British Columbia Museum, Victoria, Canada 124-125; All other images © Dorling Kindersley
Royal Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh 74tr; Royal Tyrrell For further information see: www.dkimages.com

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