Acta 2019 1 PDF

ISSN: 2067-3809
ACTA TECHNICA
CORVINIENSIS
– Bulletin of
Engineering
Tome XII [2019]

Fascicule 1
[January – March]
Edited by:
UNIVERSITY POLITEHNICA TIMISOARA
with kindly supported by:
THE GENERAL ASSOCIATION OF ROMANIAN ENGINEERS (AGIR)

– branch of HUNEDOARA
Editor / Technical preparation / Cover design:
Assoc. Prof. Eng. KISS Imre, PhD.

UNIVERSITY POLITEHNICA TIMISOARA,
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING HUNEDOARA
Commenced publication year:

2008
ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin of Engineering
Tome XII [2019] | Fascicule 1 [January – March]
ASSOCIATE EDITORS and

REGIONAL COLLABORATORS
MANAGER & CHAIRMAN
ROMANIA Imre KISS, University Politehnica TIMISOARA, Faculty of Engineering HUNEDOARA, Department of Engineering &
Management, General Association of Romanian Engineers (AGIR) – branch HUNEDOARA
EDITORS from:
ROMANIA Dragoș UȚU, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Vasile ALEXA, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – HUNEDOARA
Sorin Aurel RAŢIU, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – HUNEDOARA
Vasile George CIOATĂ, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – HUNEDOARA
Simona DZIŢAC, University of Oradea – ORADEA
Valentin VLĂDUŢ, Institute of Research-Development for Machines & Installations – BUCUREŞTI
Dan Ludovic LEMLE, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – HUNEDOARA
Emanoil LINUL, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Virgil STOICA, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Cristian POP, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Sorin Ștefan BIRIȘ, University Politehnica BUCURESTI – BUCURESTI
Mihai G. MATACHE, Institute of Research-Development for Machines & Installations – BUCUREŞTI
Adrian DĂNILĂ, “Transilvania” University of BRASOV – BRASOV
REGIONAL EDITORS from:
SLOVAKIA Juraj ŠPALEK, University of ŽILINA – ŽILINA
Peter KOŠTÁL, Slovak University of Technology in BRATISLAVA – TRNAVA
Otakav BOKŮVKA, University of ŽILINA – ŽILINA
Tibor KRENICKÝ, Technical University of KOŠICE – PREŠOV
Beata HRICOVÁ, Technical University of KOŠICE – KOŠICE
Peter KRIŽAN, Slovak University of Technology in BRATISLAVA – BRATISLAVA
HUNGARY Tamás HARTVÁNYI, Széchenyi István University in GYŐR – GYŐR
Arpád FERENCZ, Pallasz Athéné University – KECSKEMÉT
József SÁROSI, University of SZEGED – SZEGED
Attila BARCZI, Szent István University – GÖDÖLLÓ
György KOVÁCS, University of MISKOLC – MISKOLC
Zsolt Csaba JOHANYÁK, Pallasz Athéné University – KECSKEMÉT
Gergely DEZSŐ, College of NYÍREGYHÁZA – NYÍREGYHÁZA
Krisztián LAMÁR, Óbuda University BUDAPEST – BUDAPEST
Loránt KOVÁCS, Pallasz Athéné University – KECSKEMÉT
Valeria NAGY, University of SZEGED – SZEGED
Sándor BESZÉDES, University of SZEGED – SZEGED
SERBIA Zoran ANIŠIC, University of NOVI SAD – NOVI SAD
Milan RACKOV, University of NOVI SAD – NOVI SAD
Igor FÜRSTNER, SUBOTICA Tech – SUBOTICA
Eleonora DESNICA, University of NOVI SAD – ZRENJANIN
Blaža STOJANOVIĆ, University of KRAGUJEVAC – KRAGUJEVAC
Aleksander MILTENOVIC, University of NIŠ – NIŠ
Milan BANIC, University of NIŠ – NIŠ
Slobodan STEFANOVIĆ, Graduate School of Applied Professional Studies – VRANJE
Sinisa BIKIĆ, University of NOVI SAD – NOVI SAD
Masa BUKUROV, University of NOVI SAD – NOVI SAD
László GOGOLÁK, SUBOTICA Tech – SUBOTICA
Ana LANGOVIC MILICEVIC, University of KRAGUJEVAC – VRNJAČKA BANJA
Imre NEMEDI, SUBOTICA Tech – SUBOTICA
Živko PAVLOVIĆ, University of NOVI SAD – NOVI SAD
BULGARIA Krasimir Ivanov TUJAROV, “Angel Kanchev” University of ROUSSE – ROUSSE
Ognyan ALIPIEV, “Angel Kanchev” University of ROUSSE – ROUSSE
Ivanka ZHELEVA, “Angel Kanchev” University of ROUSSE – ROUSSE
Atanas ATANASOV, “Angel Kanchev” University of ROUSSE – ROUSSE
3|F a s c i c u l e 1
CROATIA Gordana BARIC, University of ZAGREB – ZAGREB

Goran DUKIC, University of ZAGREB – ZAGREB
BOSNIA & Tihomir LATINOVIC, University in BANJA LUKA – BANJA LUKA

HERZEGOVINA Sabahudin JASAREVIC, University of ZENICA – ZENICA
Šefket GOLETIĆ, University of ZENICA – ZENICA
POLAND Jarosław ZUBRZYCKI, LUBLIN University of Technology – LUBLIN

Maciej BIELECKI, Technical University of LODZ – LODZ
Bożena GAJDZIK, The Silesian University of Technology – KATOWICE
TURKEY Önder KABAŞ, Akdeniz University – KONYAAALTI/Antalya
CHINA Yiwen JIANG, Military Economic Academy – WUHAN
SPAIN César GARCÍA HERNÁNDEZ, University of ZARAGOZA – ZARAGOZA
GREECE Apostolos TSAGARIS, Alexander Technological Educational Institute of THESSALONIKI – THESSALONIKI

Panagiotis KYRATSIS, Western Macedonia University of Applied Sciences – KOZANI
The Editor and editorial board members do not receive any

remuneration. These positions are voluntary. The members of
the Editorial Board may serve as scientific reviewers.
We are very pleased to inform that our journal ACTA TECHNICA

CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin of Engineering is going to complete
its ten years of publication successfully. In a very short period it
has acquired global presence and scholars from all over the
world have taken it with great enthusiasm. We are extremely
grateful and heartily acknowledge the kind of support and
encouragement from you.

seeking qualified researchers as members of the editorial team.
Like our other journals, ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS –
Bulletin of Engineering will serve as a great resource for ISSN: 2067-3809
researchers and students across the globe. We ask you to copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
support this initiative by joining our editorial team. If you are Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
interested in serving as a member of the editorial team, kindly
http://acta.fih.upt.ro
send us your resume to redactie@fih.upt.ro.
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE MEMBERS

and SCIENTIFIC REVIEWERS
MANAGER & CHAIRMAN
ROMANIA Imre KISS, University Politehnica TIMISOARA, Faculty of Engineering HUNEDOARA, Department of Engineering &
Management, General Association of Romanian Engineers (AGIR) – branch HUNEDOARA
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE MEMBERS & SCIENTIFIC REVIEWERS from:

ROMANIA Viorel–Aurel ȘERBAN, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Teodor HEPUŢ, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – HUNEDOARA
Caius PĂNOIU, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – HUNEDOARA
Mircea BEJAN, Tehnical University of CLUJ-NAPOCA – CLUJ-NAPOCA
Liviu MIHON, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Ilare BORDEAȘU, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Corneliu CRĂCIUNESCU, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Liviu MARȘAVIA, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Nicolae HERIȘANU, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Dumitru TUCU, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Valer DOLGA, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Ioan VIDA-SIMITI, Technical University of CLUJ-NAPOCA – CLUJ-NAPOCA
Csaba GYENGE, Technical University of CLUJ-NAPOCA – CLUJ-NAPOCA
Sava IANICI, “Eftimie Murgu” University of REŞIŢA – REŞIŢA
Ioan SZÁVA, “Transilvania” University of BRASOV – BRASOV
Liviu NISTOR, Technical University of CLUJ-NAPOCA – CLUJ-NAPOCA
Sorin VLASE, “Transilvania” University of BRASOV – BRASOV
Horatiu TEODORESCU DRĂGHICESCU, “Transilvania” University of BRASOV – BRASOV
Maria Luminița SCUTARU,“Transilvania” University of BRASOV – BRASOV
Iulian RIPOŞAN, University Politehnica BUCUREŞTI – BUCUREŞTI
Ioan DZITAC, Agora University of ORADEA – ORADEA
Daniel STAN, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Adrian STUPARU, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Corina GRUESCU, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – TIMIŞOARA
Carmen ALIC, University Politehnica TIMIŞOARA – HUNEDOARA
SLOVAKIA Štefan NIZNIK, Technical University of KOŠICE – KOŠICE
Karol VELIŠEK, Slovak University of Technology BRATISLAVA – TRNAVA
Juraj ŠPALEK, University of ŽILINA – ŽILINA
Ervin LUMNITZER, Technical University of KOŠICE – KOŠICE
Miroslav BADIDA, Technical University of KOŠICE – KOŠICE
Milan DADO, University of ŽILINA – ŽILINA
Ladislav GULAN, Slovak University of Technology – BRATISLAVA
Ľubomir ŠOOŠ, Slovak University of Technology in BRATISLAVA – BRATISLAVA
Miroslav VEREŠ, Slovak University of Technology in BRATISLAVA – BRATISLAVA
Milan SAGA, University of ŽILINA – ŽILINA
Imrich KISS, Institute of Economic & Environmental Security – KOŠICE
Michal CEHLÁR, Technical University KOSICE – KOSICE
Pavel NEČAS, Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Stefanik – LIPTOVSKÝ MIKULÁŠ
Vladimir MODRAK, Technical University of KOSICE – PRESOV
Michal HAVRILA, Technical University of KOSICE – PRESOV
CROATIA Drazan KOZAK, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of OSIJEK – SLAVONKI BROD
Predrag COSIC, University of ZAGREB – ZAGREB
Milan KLJAJIN, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of OSIJEK – SLAVONKI BROD
Miroslav CAR, University of ZAGREB – ZAGREB
Antun STOIĆ, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of OSIJEK – SLAVONKI BROD
Ivo ALFIREVIĆ, University of ZAGREB – ZAGREB
GREECE Nicolaos VAXEVANIDIS, University of THESSALY – VOLOS
HUNGARY Imre DEKÁNY, University of SZEGED – SZEGED

Béla ILLÉS, University of MISKOLC – MISKOLC
Imre RUDAS, Óbuda University of BUDAPEST – BUDAPEST
Tamás KISS, University of SZEGED – SZEGED
Cecilia HODÚR, University of SZEGED – SZEGED
Arpád FERENCZ, Pallasz Athéné University – KECSKEMÉT
Imre TIMÁR, University of Pannonia – VESZPRÉM
Kristóf KOVÁCS, University of Pannonia – VESZPRÉM
Károly JÁRMAI, University of MISKOLC – MISKOLC
Gyula MESTER, University of SZEGED – SZEGED
Ádám DÖBRÖCZÖNI, University of MISKOLC – MISKOLC
György SZEIDL, University of MISKOLC – MISKOLC
István PÁCZELT, University of Miskolc – MISKOLC – BUDAPEST
István JÓRI, BUDAPEST University of Technology & Economics – BUDAPEST
Miklós TISZA, University of MISKOLC – MISKOLC
Attila BARCZI, Szent István University – GÖDÖLLÓ
István BIRÓ, University of SZEGED – SZEGED
Gyula VARGA, University of MISKOLC – MISKOLC
József GÁL, University of SZEGED – SZEGED
Ferenc FARKAS, University of SZEGED – SZEGED
Géza HUSI, University of DEBRECEN– DEBRECEN
Ferenc SZIGETI, College of NYÍREGYHÁZA – NYÍREGYHÁZA
Zoltán KOVÁCS, College of NYÍREGYHÁZA – NYÍREGYHÁZA
BULGARIA Kliment Blagoev HADJOV, University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy – SOFIA
Nikolay MIHAILOV, “Anghel Kanchev” University of ROUSSE – ROUSSE
Krassimir GEORGIEV, Institute of Mechanics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences – SOFIA
Stefan STEFANOV, University of Food Technologies – PLOVDIV
SERBIA Sinisa KUZMANOVIC, University of NOVI SAD – NOVI SAD
Zoran ANIŠIC, University of NOVI SAD – NOVI SAD
Mirjana VOJINOVIĆ MILORADOV, University of NOVI SAD – NOVI SAD
Miroslav PLANČAK, University of NOVI SAD – NOVI SAD
Milosav GEORGIJEVIC, University of NOVI SAD – NOVI SAD
Vojislav MILTENOVIC, University of NIŠ – NIŠ
Aleksandar RODIĆ, “Mihajlo Pupin” Institute – BELGRADE
Milan PAVLOVIC, University of NOVI SAD – ZRENJANIN
Radomir SLAVKOVIĆ, University of KRAGUJEVAC, Technical Faculty – CACAK
Zvonimir JUGOVIĆ, University of KRAGUJEVAC, Technical Faculty – CACAK
Branimir JUGOVIĆ, Institute of Technical Science of Serbian Academy of Science & Arts – BELGRAD
Miomir JOVANOVIC, University of NIŠ – NIŠ
Vidosav MAJSTOROVIC, University of BELGRADE – BELGRAD
Predrag DAŠIĆ, Production Engineering and Computer Science – TRSTENIK
Lidija MANČIĆ, Institute of Technical Sciences of Serbian Academy of Sciences & Arts – BELGRAD
Vlastimir NIKOLIĆ, University of NIŠ – NIŠ
Nenad PAVLOVIĆ, University of NIŠ – NIŠ
ITALY Alessandro GASPARETTO, University of UDINE – UDINE
Alessandro RUGGIERO, University of SALERNO– SALERNO
Adolfo SENATORE, University of SALERNO– SALERNO
Enrico LORENZINI, University of BOLOGNA – BOLOGNA
BOSNIA & Tihomir LATINOVIC, University of BANJA LUKA – BANJA LUKA
HERZEGOVINA Safet BRDAREVIĆ, University of ZENICA – ZENICA
Ranko ANTUNOVIC, University of EAST SARAJEVO – East SARAJEVO
Isak KARABEGOVIĆ, University of BIHAĆ – BIHAĆ
MACEDONIA Valentina GECEVSKA, University “St. Cyril and Methodius” SKOPJE – SKOPJE
Zoran PANDILOV, University “St. Cyril and Methodius” SKOPJE – SKOPJE
Robert MINOVSKI, University “St. Cyril and Methodius” SKOPJE – SKOPJE
PORTUGAL João Paulo DAVIM, University of AVEIRO – AVEIRO
Paulo BÁRTOLO, Polytechnique Institute – LEIRIA
José MENDES MACHADO, University of MINHO – GUIMARÃES
SLOVENIA Janez GRUM, University of LJUBLJANA – LJUBLJANA
Štefan BOJNEC, University of Primorska – KOPER
POLAND Leszek DOBRZANSKI, Silesian University of Technology – GLIWICE

Stanisław LEGUTKO, Polytechnic University – POZNAN
Andrzej WYCISLIK, Silesian University of Technology – KATOWICE
Antoni ŚWIĆ, University of Technology – LUBLIN
Marian Marek JANCZAREK, University of Technology – LUBLIN
Michał WIECZOROWSKI, POZNAN University of Technology – POZNAN
Jarosław ZUBRZYCKI, LUBLIN University of Technology – LUBLIN
Aleksander SŁADKOWSKI, Silesian University of Technology – KATOWICE
Tadeusz SAWIK, Akademia Górniczo–Hutnicza University of Science & Technology – CRACOW
AUSTRIA Branko KATALINIC, VIENNA University of Technology – VIENNA
FRANCE Bernard GRUZZA, Universite Blaise Pascal – CLERMONT-FERRAND

Abdelhamid BOUCHAIR, Universite Blaise Pascal – CLERMONT-FERRAND
Khalil EL KHAMLICHI DRISSI, Universite Blaise Pascal – CLERMONT-FERRAND
Mohamed GUEDDA, Université de Picardie Jules Verne – AMIENS
Ahmed RACHID, Université de Picardie Jules Verne – AMIENS
Yves DELMAS, University of REIMS – REIMS
Jean GRENIER GODARD, L’ecole Superieure des Technologies et des Affaires – BELFORT
Jean–Jacques WAGNER, Universite de Franche-Comte – BELFORT
ARGENTINA Gregorio PERICHINSKY, University of BUENOS AIRES – BUENOS AIRES
Atilio GALLITELLI, Institute of Technology – BUENOS AIRES
Carlos F. MOSQUERA, University of BUENOS AIRES – BUENOS AIRES
Elizabeth Myriam JIMENEZ REY, University of BUENOS AIRES – BUENOS AIRES
Arturo Carlos SERVETTO, University of BUENOS AIRES – BUENOS AIRES
SPAIN Patricio FRANCO, Universidad Politecnica of CARTAGENA – CARTAGENA
Luis Norberto LOPEZ De LACALLE, University of Basque Country – BILBAO
Aitzol Lamikiz MENTXAKA, University of Basque Country – BILBAO
Carolina Senabre BLANES, Universidad Miguel Hernández – ELCHE
CUBA Norge I. COELLO MACHADO, Universidad Central “Marta Abreu” LAS VILLAS – SANTA CLARA
José Roberto Marty DELGADO, Universidad Central “Marta Abreu” LAS VILLAS – SANTA CLARA
INDIA Sugata SANYAL, Tata Consultancy Services – MUMBAI

Siby ABRAHAM, University of MUMBAI – MUMBAI
Anjan KUMAR KUNDU, University of CALCUTTA – KOLKATA
TURKEY Ali Naci CELIK, Abant Izzet Baysal University – BOLU
Önder KABAŞ, Akdeniz University –KONYAAALTI/Antalya
CZECH Ivo SCHINDLER, Technical University of OSTRAVA – OSTRAVA

REPUBLIC Jan VIMMR, University of West Bohemia – PILSEN
Vladimir ZEMAN, University of West Bohemia – PILSEN
ISRAEL Abraham TAL, University TEL-AVIV, Space & Remote Sensing Division – TEL-AVIV
Amnon EINAV, University TEL-AVIV, Space & Remote Sensing Division – TEL-AVIV
LITHUANIA Egidijus ŠARAUSKIS, Aleksandras Stulginskis University – KAUNAS

Zita KRIAUČIŪNIENĖ, Experimental Station of Aleksandras Stulginskis University – KAUNAS
FINLAND Antti Samuli KORHONEN, University of Technology – HELSINKI

Pentti KARJALAINEN, University of OULU – OULU
NORWAY Trygve THOMESSEN, Norwegian University of Science and Technology – TRONDHEIM

Gábor SZIEBIG, Narvik University College – NARVIK
Terje Kristofer LIEN, Norwegian University of Science and Technology – TRONDHEIM
Bjoern SOLVANG, Narvik University College – NARVIK
UKRAINE Sergiy G. DZHURA, Donetsk National Technical University – DONETSK
Alexander N. MIKHAILOV, DONETSK National Technical University – DONETSK
Heorhiy SULYM, Ivan Franko National University of LVIV – LVIV
Yevhen CHAPLYA, Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences – LVIV
SWEEDEN Ingvar L. SVENSSON, JÖNKÖPING University – JÖNKÖPING
BRAZIL Alexandro Mendes ABRÃO, Universidade Federal de MINAS GERAIS – BELO HORIZONTE
Márcio Bacci da SILVA, Universidade Federal de UBERLÂNDIA – UBERLÂNDIA
Sergio Tonini BUTTON, Universidade Estadual de CAMPINAS – CAMPINAS
Leonardo Roberto da SILVA,Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica – BELO HORIZONTE
Juan Campos RUBIO, Universidade Federal de MINAS GERAIS – BELO HORIZONTE
USA David HUI, University of NEW ORLEANS – NEW ORLEANS
CHINA Wenjing LI, Military Economic Academy – WUHAN

Zhonghou GUO, Military Economic Academy – WUHAN
The Scientific Committee members and Reviewers do not  Acceptance without any changes – in that case the
receive any remuneration. These positions are voluntary. authors will be asked to send the paper electronically in the
We are extremely grateful and heartily acknowledge the kind of required .doc format according to authors’ instructions;
support and encouragement from all contributors and all  Acceptance with minor changes – if the authors follow the
collaborators! conditions imposed by referees the paper will be sent in the
ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin of Engineering is required .doc format;
dedicated to publishing material of the highest engineering  Acceptance with major changes – if the authors follow
interest, and to this end we have assembled a distinguished completely the conditions imposed by referees the paper
Editorial Board and Scientific Committee of academics, will be sent in the required .doc format;
professors and researchers.  Rejection – in that case the reasons for rejection will be
ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin of Engineering transmitted to authors along with some suggestions for
publishes invited review papers covering the full spectrum of future improvements (if that will be considered necessary).
engineering. The reviews, both experimental and theoretical, The manuscript accepted for publication will be published in the
provide general background information as well as a critical next issue of ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin of
assessment on topics in a state of flux. We are primarily Engineering after the acceptance date.
interested in those contributions which bring new insights, and All rights are reserved by ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS –
papers will be selected on the basis of the importance of the Bulletin of Engineering. The publication, reproduction or
new knowledge they provide. dissemination of the published paper is permitted only be
ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin of Engineering written consent of one of the Managing Editors.
encourages the submission of comments on papers published All the authors and the corresponding author in particular take
particularly in our journal. The journal publishes articles focused the responsibility to ensure that the text of the article does not
on topics of current interest within the scope of the journal and contain portions copied from any other published material
coordinated by invited guest editors. Interested authors are which amounts to plagiarism. We also request the authors to
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ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin of Engineering principles before finalizing their manuscripts
accept for publication unpublished manuscripts on the
understanding that the same manuscript is not under
simultaneous consideration of other journals. Publication of a
part of the data as the abstract of conference proceedings is
exempted.
Manuscripts submitted (original articles, technical notes, brief
communications and case studies) will be subject to peer review
by the members of the Editorial Board or by qualified outside ISSN: 2067-3809
reviewers. Only papers of high scientific quality will be accepted copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
for publication. Manuscripts are accepted for review only when Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
they report unpublished work that is not being considered for 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
publication elsewhere. The evaluated paper may be http://acta.fih.upt.ro
recommended for:
TABLE of CONTENTS
1. Mike GOVERNMENT RABBONI, Onyekachi Stanley AGU, John Ariyo OLOWOKERE – NIGERIA
THE USE OF FLAME OF FOREST POD FLOUR IN HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITE 11
2. Lissette CONCEPCIÓN MAURE, Félix Abel GOYA VALDIVIA,

Norge Isaias COELLO MACHADO, Elke GLISTAU – CUBA/GERMANY
METHODOLOGY FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF RISK IN THE STORAGE AND TRANSPORT OF HAZARDOUS
SUBSTANCES 15
3. P. MANIKANDAN, Faheem Ahmed KHAN – INDIA

DETERMINATION OF STRESS ON TURBINE GENERATOR SHAFT DUE TO SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE USING
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 21
4. Habib BENBOUHENNI – ALGERIA

SIX SECTORS DTC CONTROL OF IM DRIVES BASED ON ANN WITH REGULATION SPEED USING ANFIS CONTROLLER 25
5. S.E. UWADIAE, O.M. EDOKPIAWE – NIGERIA

MODELLING AND OPTIMIZATION OF LEAD ADSORPTION FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTION USING GROUNDNUT SHELL 31
6. Flavius BUCUR – ROMANIA

RESEARCH ON THE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE QUALITY OF PHOSPHOROUS CAST IRONS 35
7. Oana LUPU – ROMANIA

PULVEROUS FERROUS WASTE PROCESSING BY PELLETIZATION 39
8. A.M. RAJESH, Mohamed KALEEMULLA, Saleemsab DODDAMANI – INDIA

EFFECT OF ADDITION OF SIC AND AL2O3 ON WEAR BEHAVIOR OF HYBRID ALUMINUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES 43
9. Anca-Elena IORDAN – ROMANIA

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF A GAME USING ANDROID API 53
10. Petinrin M. OMOLAYO, Adegbola A. ADEYINKA – NIGERIA

EFFECT OF VISCOUS DISSIPATION TERM ON A FLUID BETWEEN TWO MOVING PARALLEL PLATES 57
11. Ancuţa NEDELCU, Cristina COVALIU, Lucreţia POPA, Radu CIUPERCA,

Alexandra ANGHELET, Ana ZAICA, Mircea COSTIN – ROMANIA
MODERN TECHNOLOGIES AND INSTALLATIONS DESIGNED TO INDUSTRIAL SCALE CULTIVATION OF MICROALGAE
FOR OBTAINING ALGAL BIOMASS 61
12. Bianca Ștefania ZĂBAVĂ, Gheorghe VOICU, Nicoleta UNGUREANU, Mirela DINCĂ,
Gigel PARASCHIV, Mariana MUNTEANU, Mariana FERDES – ROMANIA
METHODS OF BIOGAS PURIFICATION – A REVIEW 65
13. Ruzena KRALIKOVA, Lydia SOBOTOVA – SLOVAKIA

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM - A WAY TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN UNIVERSITIES 69
14. Emeka Segun NNOCHIRI, Oluwaseun Adedapo ADETAYO – NIGERIA

GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF LATERITIC SOIL STABILIZED WITH CORN COB ASH 73
15. Eugen MARIN, Marinela MATEESCU, Dragoş MANEA, Gheorghe GHEORGHE – ROMANIA
TECHNICAL EQUIPMENT FOR WORKING THE SOIL IN THE ROW OF FRUIT TREES SIMULTANEOUSLY WITH ROOT
CUTTING TO MODERATE SHOOTS GROWTH AND PRECISION FOLIAR FERTILISATION 77
A CTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin of Engineering
16. Mihaela Elena NAGY, Constantin COȚA, Nicolae CIOICA,

Zoltán GYÖRGY, Lucian FECHETE-TUTUNARU – ROMANIA
INVESTIGATIONS REGARDING DEGRADATION BY HYDRATION-DRYING OF SOME BIOCOMPOSITES REINFORCED
WITH NATURAL FIBER 81
17. Gheorghe VOICU, Gabriel Alexandru CONSTANTIN, Elena-Mădălina STEFAN,

Paula TUDOR, Mariana Gabriela MUNTEANU, Tomasz ŻELAZIŃSKI – ROMANIA/POLAND
ASPECTS REGARDING THE ASEPTIC PACKAGING OF FOOD PRODUCTS 85
18. Gabriela Cristina SIMION, Mirela Nicoleta DINCĂ, Georgiana MOICEANU, Mihai CHITOIU – ROMANIA
RENEWABLE ENERGY IN CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 91
19. Loganathan PARASURAMAN, Deepa KRISHNAMURTHY – INDIA

PRANDTL BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW OF A CASSON NANOFLUID PAST A PERMEABLE VERTICAL PLATE 95
20. Oluwayomi Ife AKINYEMI, Titus Adeyemi ALONGE,

Olumuyiwa Idowu OJO, Oyetola OGUNKUNLE – NIGERIA/SOUTH AFRICA
GEO-SPATIAL TREND MAPPING OF SOME ANNUAL CLIMATE VARIABLE FOR SOUTH WEST NIGERIA 101
21. Galina PATAMANSKA, Elena GRANCHAROVA – BULGARIA

HYDRAULIC MODELING FOR BETTER OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF EXISTING IRRIGATION CANAL 107
22. Cosmin SPIRCHEZ, Alina LUNGULEASA, Maria PRUNĂ, Liviu GACEU,

Raluca FORFOTĂ, Irina DUMITRACHE – ROMANIA
RESEARCH ON THE CALORIFIC VALUE OF THE HARDWOOD SPECIES 111
23. Marius Remus OPRESCU, Sorin Ştefan BIRIŞ, Eugen MARIN, Cristian SORICĂ,
Nicoleta UNGUREANU, Elena SORICĂ, Iulian DUMITRU, Ion GRIGORE, Vică BĂLAN – ROMANIA
CONSIDERATIONS ON MECHANICALLY ACTIVE EQUIPMENT FOR OPENING INTERRUPTED FURROW USED IN
TECHNOLOGY OF HOEING PLANT CULTURES, FRUIT AND VINE PLANTATIONS 115
24. Mirela Nicoleta DINCĂ, Mariana FERDEȘ, Gigel PARASCHIV, Nicoleta UNGUREANU,
Bianca ZĂBAVĂ, Mariana IONESCU, Georgiana MOICEANU – ROMANIA
RECOVERY OF ORGANIC WASTE THROUGH COMPOSTING PROCESS 119
25. M.J. AMBALI, B.O. SHITTU, A.O. BAMBE – NIGERIA

IMPROVED PICTURE ARCHIVING AND COMMUNICATION MODEL FOR MEDICAL IMAGE MANAGEMENT 123
*** MANUSCRIPT PREPARATION – GENERAL GUIDELINES 127
The ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin of Engineering, Bucharest, ROMANIA, between 26–28 October, 2017. The
Tome XII [2019], Fascicule 1 [January–March], includes current identification number of the papers are the #11–12,
scientific papers presented in the sections of: #15–19 and #21–24, according to the present contents list.
— The ISB-INMA TEH' 2017 International Symposium Also, the ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin of
(Agricultural and Mechanical Engineering), organized by Engineering, Tome XII [2019], Fascicule 1 [January–March]
University “POLITEHNICA” of Bucharest – Faculty of includes original papers submitted to the Editorial Board, directly
Biotechnical Systems Engineering, National Institute of by authors or by the regional collaborators of the Journal.
Research-Development for Machines and Installations
Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry – INMA
Bucharest, Scientific Research and Technological
Development in Plant Protection Institute (ICDPP), National
Institute for Research and Development for Industrial
Ecology – INCD ECOIND, Research and Development ISSN: 2067-3809
Institute for Processing and Marketing of the Horticultural
Products “HORTING” and Hydraulics, Pneumatics Research copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
Institute INOE 2000 IHP, University of Agronomic Sciences Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest (UASVMB) – Faculty of 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
Horticulture and Romanian Society of Horticulture (SRH), in http://acta.fih.upt.ro
10 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Mike GOVERNMENT RABBONI, 2. Onyekachi Stanley AGU, 3John Ariyo OLOWOKERE
THE USE OF FLAME OF FOREST POD FLOUR IN HIGH DENSITY

POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITE
1.
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Awka, NIGERIA
2.
Enugu State University of Science & Technology, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Enugu, NIGERIA
3.
Federal University of Technology, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Minna, NIGERIA
Abstract: Polymer composites are known to have improved outstanding properties compared to pure materials. Polymeric
material based composite was compounded from flame of forest pod flour (FFPF) and high density polyethylene (HDPE). The
manufactured flame of forest pod flour-high density polyethylene (FFPF-HDPE) composite was studied based on the influence of
particle size and content of FFPF on its mechanical properties. The pure HDPE, FFPF and FFPF-HDPE composite was examined
using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) to know the functional group/bonds characteristics present. The results obtained from this
work shows that the particle size and mass content of FFPF influenced the properties of the FFPF-HDPE composite. With this
outcome, this composite can be applied for domestic purposes based on the limit of its properties.
Keywords: FFPF, FFPF-HDPE, mechanical properties, FTIR
INTRODUCTON the major parameters influencing plastic based composites.

Studies have shown that, different natural local fibres which Lately, some scholars have carried out tremendous works on
have been neglected over time, are becoming perfect how these factors determine the final properties of
substitute for inorganic fillers for use as reinforcement in composite using other natural fibres. Some of them include
composite [1], [2], [3], [4]. Bearing this in mind, it seems most oil palm [16], walnut shell [17], saw-dust [18], coconut shell
Africa countries are not doing much in following the western [19], corn cob flour [20], raphia palm [21], and peanut shell
world in the drive of converting local resources in their [22] have been researched into by these researchers in
domain into source of wealth. Moreover, the availability of relation to plastic composites. Interestingly, flame of forest
organic fibers in nature will help to reduce the cost of plant is found in some residential areas and in the forest as
composite production as they also help in complementing well, but its prospect and potentials has been ignored over
the properties of polymer composite [5], [6], [7], [8]. This the years. It is on this basis that the use of flame of forest pod
means that the search for suitable fibers is pivotal to flour (FFPF) as reinforcement in polymer based composite is
upgrading the performance of fiber-plastic composites which researched into as a novel initiative that has not been worked
is one of the qualities of a good researcher in solving societal on to the best of my knowledge.
problems. Ultimately, qualities of fiber to be use as an additive MATERIALS AND METHODS
are function of internal characterization of the filler [9]. — FFPF PREPARATION AND SOURCING
Presently, there are thousands of low cost fibres/fillers found The flame of forest pod (FFP) was obtained at Park Avenue
in nature that are wasting away as composite manure and G.R.A Enugu. The FFP was dried for 18 hours in the sun. The
being burnt as a means of fuel for heating and cooking FFP was subjected to grinding and sieving, respectively. The
purposes. The burning process discharges emission and FFPF was sieved into a particle size distribution of 425 µm, 850
pollutants to the environment. It is on this note that the world µm and 2000 µm.
health organization (WHO) and other environmental — PURCHASING OF HDPE
agencies are looking for ways to curb this menace. There is HDPE was bought in Owada, Onitsha Anambra State.
much emphasis to utilize these organic fillers as a constituent — COMPOSITE PREPARATION AND TESTING
in polymer composite to create wealth and to reduce The HDPE was reinforced by FFPF at 10, 20, 30, 40 percentage
environmental challenges. Recently, some of the natural by weight and compounded through injection molding
fillers have been explored in polymeric based composites to machine (HUICHON/5SON10/500×1000 model no.6241
produce light product at lowest cost which displays 1990/6) at the above three variation particle sizes. The
comparable specific strength and minimal density than composites manufactured were tested by the aid of universal
metallic components for domestic and industrial products tensile (BSS1610 model no. 8889) and simple Charpy impact
[10], [11], [12], [13]. A good Plastic composite is a function of equipments (LOS LOSENHAUSENWERK DUSSELDORFER
filler/fibre composition, aspect ratio of the filler, polymer MASCHINENBAU AG. DUSSELLDORF, model no.17562/1963).
matrix, chemical modification and the process technology The properties determined were ultimate tensile strength,
employed [14], [15]. Therefore, particle size distribution and elongation, Young’s modulus, Brinell’s hardness and impact
mass content of lignocellulose as presented in this work are
11 | F a s c i c u l e 1
strength. These mechanical properties were evaluated based There are crests of the wavelength from 2923.32-2663.97 cm-
ASTM procedure [23]. 1
that distribute COOH active group for HDPE, FFPF and the
— FOURIER INFRA RED TEST (FTIR) composite. The peaks from 2415.79-2145.79 represented P-
The analysis for FFPF, HDPE and FFPF-HDPE composite was OH stretching compounds as shown in Figure 1-3.
determined using Shimazdu FTIR machine (model no 8400S). The Figure 2-3 gives the attribute of C=O stretching aliphatic
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION which transmits from the wavelength of 1732.46 to 1732.86
— FTIR CHARACTERIZATION cm-1 at 4.458 to 5.567% during the inclusion of FFPF into HDPE
The FTIR of raw HDPE, FFPF and FFPF-HDPE composite were for production of FFPF-HDPE but invisible in Figure 1. The
captured in Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, respectively. availability for C=O stretching aromatic is discovered at peak
There are many display of OH group found in 3878.73-3362.51 of 1698.26-1682.82 cm-1 from 10.833 to 5.496% in Figure 1 to
cm-1, 3868.08-3390.34 cm-1, 3616.84-3362.64 cm-1, for Figure 1, Figure 3. The NH2 bending was domiciled in FFPF to FFPF-
Figure 2 and Figure 3, respectively. For the HDPE, FFPF and HDPE at 1651.63 to 1622.34 cm-1 with a displacement in the
FFPF-HDPE composite, the transmittance took a shift from intensity of transmission, this is totally unavailable in the raw
9.589 to 10.38 %, 8.403 to 3.519% and 5.579 to 5.506%, HDPE. The features of the crests dormant at 1645.83-
respectively. This is the conditions of the peaks when HDPE 1607.74cm-1 formed C=H stretching found in the Figure 1-3.
and FFPF are in their raw state, and both combinations also The influence of C-Cl radicals was dominating in the peaks of
leads to the reduction of intensity during the formation of 592.07-402.3 cm-1 in Figure 3 was completely absence in
composite as shown in the Figure 1-3. Figure 2 and 1.
— MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE
12 COMPOSITE
10 Figure 4 (a) shows a graphical description of the impact of the
Transmittance (%)
8 FFPF content and particle size distribution on the tensile

6 strength of FFPF-HDPE composite. The tensile strength of
FFPF-HDPE depreciated from the crude HDPE when the FFPF
4
content is added. A similar situation occurred when the FFPF
2 particle size is increased. This reason may be due to the
0 influencing increasing large particle size of FFPF resulting to
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 non-uniform distribution of FFPF and HDPE phase.
Wavenumbers (cm-1) Similar report was presented by the following researchers [2],
Figure 1. FTIR FOR HDPE [9], [11]. The elongation of FFPF-HDPE composite variation
with FFPF content was also highlighted in Figure 4(b). The
12 incorporation of FFPF content in HDPE thoroughly reduced
10 elongation of the crude polymer. The elongation at breaks of
Transmittance (%)
8 FFPF-HDPE composite was lowest at 2000 µm, followed by

6 850 µm and 450 µm. This was firmly attributed to bigger size
4 of FFPF particles which will generate more spaces at the
union of FFPF and HDPE, thereby reducing the ductility of the
2
composite. This trend was also previously reported by these
0 researches in their works [2], [9], [24].
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Wavenumbers (cm-1)
Figure 4(c) expresses the graphical changes between the
tensile modulus of FFPF-HDPE composite and FFPF content.
Figure 2. FTIR FOR FFPF The modulus of elasticity of FFPF-HDPE composite rises as the
FFPF content was infused in HDPE. This occurrence is due to
7
the amalgamation of FFPF content into HDPE, causing the
Transmittance (%)
6 FFPF–HDPE composite ductile ability to cutback, leading to

5 the enhancement of the stiffness nature of the composite.
4 Nevertheless, the utmost young’s modulus was attained at
3 FFPF size of 850 µm. These were reported as follows [2], [9],
2 [18].
1 Figure 4(d) describes the impact strength of FFPF-HDPE
0 composite versus the FFPF content. The impact strength of
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Wavenumbers (cm-1) FFPF-HDPE composite absolutely increased as the FFPF
content was continuously added in the HDPE matrix with the
Figure 3. FTIR FOR FFPF-HDPE COMPOSITE lessening of the size of FFPF. This attribution is in association
of adding FFPF content into polymeric substances, triggering
12 | F a s c i c u l e 1
more energy to formalize cracks promulgation at lower sizes

of FFPF. Though, the most Impact strength occurred at 80
HDPE composite (KJ/m2)

Impact Strength of FFPF-
minimal size of FFPF. These were related to the trend as 70
reported by previous studies [16], [18], [25], [26]. Figure 4 (e) 60
features Brinell hardness number of FFPF-HDPE composite as 50
a function of FFPF content. It was obviously observed that the 40
insertion of FFPF content in the HDPE generally swells Brinell 30
20 425 µm 850 µm
hardness number of FFPF-HDPE composite by 1107 %, 718 %
and 292% as the size of FFPF increases from 425-2000 µm. 10 2000 µm HDPE
Conversely, reducing FFPF size favoured the Brinell hardness 0
of FFPF-HDPE composite. The motivation for this trend of 0 10 20 30 40 50
results is absolutely due to introduction of FFPF content into FFPF content (%)
HDPE matrix completely resisting the possibility of (d)
indentation. Previously, these researchers also discussed this
pattern of report [24], [27]. 600 425 µm 850 µm
Brinell Hardness Number

500 2000 µm HDPE
30
425 µm 850 µm 400
Tensile Strength of FFPF-
25
HDPE compsite (MPa)
2000 µm HDPE
300
20
200
15
100
10
0
5 0 10 20 30 40 50
0 FFPF Content (%)
0 10 20 30 40 50 (e)
FFPF Content (%)
Figure 4. FFPF content on the (a) tensile strength (b) elongation
(a) (c) Young’s modulus (d) impact strength (e) Brinell hardness
number of FFPF-HDPE composite.
14 CONCLUSIONS
425 µm 850 µm
FFPF-HDPE composite (%)
12 This novel filler from FFPF was used as a reinforcing agent for
Elongation at break of
2000 µm HDPE
10 the development of FFPF-HDPE composite, and the FFPF was
8
fully exploited in this research. The FTIR analysis of the crude
FFPF, HDPE and FFPF-HDPE composite presents
6 distinguishing structural properties for the raw fiber,
4 thermoplastic and the composite, with displaying evidence
2 of changes in transmittances percentage, disappearances of
0 radicals and visible presence of additional new bonds in the
0 10 20 30 40 50 output product which is totally absence in the input. The FFPF
FFPF Content (%) content and size had a great influence on the mechanical
properties of the FFPF-HDPE composite. Specifically, the
(b)
introduction of FFPF into HDPE polymer has tremendously
0.8 improved the mechanical-characteristics of FFPF-HDPE
composite with exception of elongation and tensile strength.
Tensile modulus of FFPF-
0.7
HDPE Composite (GPa)
0.6 The data and information realized in this work indicates that
0.5 the composite can be recommended for domestic use.
0.4 References
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0.2 425µm 850µm particle size, coupling agent and DDGS additions on
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Reinforced Plastics and Composites, Vol.33,( No.14), 1279-
0
1293, 2014,
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[2] Obidiegwu, MU.; Nwanonenyi, SC; Eze, IO and Egbuna, IC:
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The effect of filler content and size on the mechanical ISSN: 2067-3809
properties of polypropylene/oil palm wood flour copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
composites, Polymer International, 0959-8103/96 (Great Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
Britain), 1995. 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
[17] Obidiegwu, MU; Nwanonenyi, SC; Eze, IO and Egbuna, IC: http://acta.fih.upt.ro
The effect of walnut shell powder on the properties of
14 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Lissette CONCEPCIÓN MAURE, 2.Félix Abel GOYA VALDIVIA,
3.
Norge Isaias COELLO MACHADO, 4.Elke GLISTAU
METHODOLOGY FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF RISK IN THE STORAGE

AND TRANSPORT OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
Central University “Marta Abreu” from Las Villas, CUBA
1-3.
Institute of Materials Flow and Logistics, Otto Von Guericke University, GERMANY
4.
Abstract: The decision making has great importance in the formulation of prevention and recovery policies against technological
accidents in the chemical process industry and companies that handle hazardous substances. The main objective of management
of technological risks in storage and transport activities along the supply chain, is the search of alternatives to reduce or mitigate
the major hazards without eliminating the obtaining of benefits. The objective of this research is to develop a general procedure
and its methodological instruments for the management of risks of major accidents in activities of storage and distribution of
hazardous substances. It includes multicriteria analysis, risk measurement methods and control tools to identify, characterize and
hierarchize the storage areas and distribution routes of greater danger. The application of the procedure enables the reorientation
of organizational efforts supported by information technologies and ensures a continuous improvement approach. This research
takes as case of practical study the logistics network of Fuel Trading Company of Villa Clara and uses the strategy of multiple
explanatory cases in different companies that operate with hazardous substances in the province. As a result, a ranking was
obtained of the activities where dangerous substances are manipulated, for the execution of evaluation and mitigation actions.
Keywords: risk management; hazardous substances; multicriteria analysis; control tools
INTRODUCTION possible aggravation of the impact according to social,

Modern industry is characterized by continuous growth of economic and environmental conditions.
the unitary power on its plants, to obtain better Reference [2, 13] consider that the main objective of the
performance[6]. Regardless of the scientific technical management of technological risks within the logistics
development, the increase in the complexity`s degree of process is the search of alternatives to reduce or mitigate the
technological processes generates risk conditions in society major hazards without eliminating the obtaining of benefits.
and natural environment that acts as support for it [1, 7]. In this regard, a multicriteria analysis is necessary to manage
Given this reality, the paradigm of technological risk the uncertainty regarding a threat and the vulnerability of the
management and the conceptual approach (social, system. This must be done through a sequence of activities
economic and environmental) that underlies it, have evolved that include the identification of triggering events,
from the theoretical point-of-view in a remarkable way [10]. prevention and mitigation actions, levels of acceptability,
The importance of risks management in the handling of disaster management, governance and transfer.
hazardous substances is given by the following aspects: Despite the importance given by the government, the
production increase on products of high added value, which academic circles and the business sector, Cuba recognizes
require industrialized processes with narrow safety margins the lack of a framework that analyzes the complexity of the
[11]; increase of inventories [5]; diversity of distribution routes, major technological risks in the supply chains. The absence of
change in risk profiles of the supply chain as a result of a holistic conception and a systemic and continuous
changes in their business models [9]; population growth that improvement approach, which addresses all dimensions of
leads to an unplanned urbanization near the industrial sector risk management, limits a modification of the situation
[12]; the inclusion in the organizational performance of the reflected.
sustainable development concept [3]; the need to ensure the The present research shows a procedure for the management
efficient and optimal allocation of limited resources in of technological risks in activities of storage and distribution
processes of evaluation and risk management [12]. of hazardous substances as support for the decision making
On the literature review, the research problem was defined as process. This document is structured in five sections. In the
the lack of a prescriptive theory for analysis of major hazards next section, a research background of the models and
in logistic activities of storage, processing and distribution of indices of evaluation of technological risk, and a discussion
dangerous substances. about its advantages and limitations is presented. Section 3
The decision making in the logistic processes when proposes a methodology for management of technological
hazardous substances are handled requires that the risk is risks in logistics processes where hazardous substances are
measured and represented by models, maps and indices. handled. Results and conclusions are presented in section 4
These should consider the existing dangers, the vulnerability and 5.
of the system, the expected physical damage and the
15 | F a s c i c u l e 1
RESEARCH BACKGROUND
Several methodologies have been developed to study
technological risks in logistics processes. According to
different probable risk scenarios and their interaction with the
environment, those methodologies have progressed towards
a dynamic direction [8].
Technological risk management depends on the
measurement of the level of risk associated with the identified
hazards. It also depends on the degree of precision with
which the variables that condition it and its synergy are
determined [11]. The risk profiles should show the existing
Figure 1. Methodology to determine
situation and allow the classification and prioritization of the level of technological risk
activities. ⧉ Identify activities of logistics process
The choice of risk metrics is critical since it selects the type of This step constitutes the basis to determinate the scenarios of
information included in the study and legitimizes the results major accident occurrence considering the hazard of
[9]. Consequently, the assessment of risk level must be technological risk. All activities and relations between
deployed by various levels of analysis: risk activities, logistics different organizations belonging to the supply chain are
processes and supply chains. Some advantages reported in delimited. Once the flows of existing materials have been
the reference [3, 4, 11, 13] of use of risk indexes in security analyzed, a unique inventory of hazardous substances is
management systems are: made. This inventory relates all substances with potential to
— Reducing the complexity of risk management at the trigger a major accident, causing damage to people (workers
company level and make it possible to measure their and surrounding communities), industrial or public property
social and environmental performance. The information is and environmental components.
synthesized and expressed by a numerical value including The experts will assess the physical-chemical nature of
parameters and/or variables of risk management. inventoried substances and type of potential damage
— Evaluate and support decisions regarding environmental (explosives, flammable-toxic liquids, and flammable-toxic
and social impact allowing the observation of evolution in gases), forms of containment, associated activities (storage,
the time and study trends about disaster situation. processing, and distribution), possible initiating events,
— Fulfillment of accomplish with social and environmental disasters events that can be triggered and routes of
laws. propagation.
— Operability of the strategies. It shows the limits for ⧉ Characterize probable scenarios of major accident
acceptable operations that can lead to better efficiency of In this step, the group of experts must establish a sequence
process and serve as basis for planning inspections and of accidents that can be triggered considering the
establishing prevention measures. occurrence of an initiating event:
— Improvement of performance. It facilitates internal — Spillage of toxic liquids: due to loss of fluid containment, it
communication and helps to maintain a high degree of can generate toxic effects, fires and/or explosions,
awareness about prevention of major accidents. depending on the nature of the substances.
Facilitates the efficient and optimal allocation of limited — Exhaust of gases: due to loss of fluid containment, it can
resources for risk assessment around the classification and generate toxic effects, fires and/or explosions, depending
prioritization of different scenarios. on the nature of the substances.
Reference [2] states that determining the level of risk requires — Fire: combustion of multiple forms of the contained or
the use of different mathematical and empirical models. emitted fluids generates harmful thermal radiation, when
Reference [8] provides an explanatory overview of risk metrics the substances are flammable.
related to the study of major accidents. — Explosion: prior to the emission or after the fire, generates
At the same time, it shows in most cases these are pressure or overpressure waves, and the propagation of
conditioned to estimate certain variable within the risk projectiles.
assessment process, making it difficult to prioritize the The process is supported by the software ALOHA (Areal
sources of technological risks within a supply chain. Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres). This computer
METHODOLOGY TO DETERMINE THE LEVEL OF program designed for models key hazards-toxicity,
TECHNOLOGICAL RISK IN LOGISTICS PROCESSES flammability, thermal radiation (heat), and overpressure
In this section we will show how to determine the current risk (explosion blast force) - related to chemical releases that
level in the logistics processes. To achieve this goal we will result in toxic gas dispersions, fires, and/or explosions. Its
follow the procedure shown in figure 1. chemical library contains information about the physical
properties of approximately 1 000 common hazardous
chemicals.
16 | F a s c i c u l e 1
ALOHA allows to determinate the radius of affectation in the The descriptors proposal was made based on a bibliographic
event of a major accident taking into account: type of compilation of risk indicators proposed by other
substance, form of containment and description of how the methodologies to assess physical risk, socioeconomic
chemical is escaping from containment, and weather fragilities and resilience lack (table 1).
conditions. The software will display the threat zones in red,
Table 1. Descriptors of socioeconomic fragility
orange, and yellow. The red threat zone represents the worst and lack of resilience
hazard and the orange and yellow threat zones represent Perspective Descriptors Criteria
areas of decreasing hazard. Population density XFS
⧉ Estimate level of technological risk Presence of community areas XFS
In this step, the level of technological risk will be assessed in Social Level of human development XFR
logistics activities. The risk level estimation must quantify the Reaction capacity XFR
damage caused within the affected radius, delimited in the Perception of risk XFS
previous step. A holistic assessment of risk takes into account: Vulnerable environmental receptors XFS
Ecological
1) the physical damage: number of victims and economic and Reversibility of damage – recovery XFR
environmental losses (first-order effects) 2) the conditions Potential losses XFS
related to the social fragility and the resilience lack of Financial resilience XFR
Economic
communities that favor the occurrence of accident or Institutions within the radius of
XFS
aggravate the impact of these (second-order effects). affectation
The analytical structure of indicators systems for holistic Physical condition of constructions XFS
Nearby facilities that handle
evaluation of technological risk (IRT) in an activity i is XFS
hazardous substances
expressed as the sum for each possible event e (fire, Structural
Protection of facilities XFS
explosion, spill, escape), considering their occurrence Evacuation system XFR
probability 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 and probable physical consequences 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 within Structural reconstruction XFR
the radius of affectation. It is affected by a coefficient of Presence of aggravating non-
aggravation of the impact 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶, which depends on conditions XFS
Not structural units
of socioeconomic fragility and lack of resilience of the structural High density traffic routes XFS
community (equation 1). Non-structural reconstruction XFR
Security practice XFR
IRTi = (1 + Caii ) ∑(pei ∗ Cei ) (1) Emergency plans (internal and
XFR
The consequences respond to the determination of the external)
Functional
physical damage before an event e in activity i. This is Operability the emergency XFR
evaluated using the equation 2. Firefighting brigades XFR
Hospital services XFR
p
Cei = ∑n=1 wXCne ∗ X Cne (2)
These descriptors used in holistic risk assessment have
where X Cne represents the physical risk factors, wXCne the different units. To standardize the gross value of the
weights of these factors and p is the total number of factors descriptors, transforming them into commensurable values,
to be considered in the calculation. We propose the must be used transformation functions with the pattern
quantification of victim’s number, economic losses and shown is Figure 2.
environmental damage, with an equivalent weight.
The coefficient of aggravation Caii depends on the weighted
sum of a set of aggravating factors in the social, economic,
ecological, structural, nonstructural and functional
perspective; associated with the fragility of community X FSi
and the resilience lack of context X FRj, being wXFSi and
wXFRj the weights of each factors.
Cai = ∑m n
i=1(wXFSi ∗ X FSi ) + ∑j=1�wXFRj ∗ X FRj � (3)
The evaluation results of analysis units are presented in terms

of relative indexes of physical risk, socioeconomic fragility,
Figure 2: Sigmoidal transformation function
resilience lack of and total risk. The set of descriptors used in for the normalization of risk indicators
the multicriteria evaluation corresponds to qualitative or The previous function responds to the equation 4.
quantitative data that are derived from previous studies,
1
damage scenarios and socio-economic information of the X´ = X−m (4)
−β( −µ)
context to be analyzed. 1+ e M−m
17 | F a s c i c u l e 1
where, Table 2: Weight`s coefficients network of socioeconomic fragility

X: Initial value of the indicator descriptors and resilience lack descriptors
X': Normalized value of the indicator Weighting Equivalent
e: Base of natural logarithm coefficient Weighting Weighting
Perspective
from the coefficient coefficient
β: Parameter - slope of the curve
perspective WI
M: Maximum value of parameters (table 1)
S1 0.326 0.078
m: Minimum value of parameters (table 1) S2 0.246 0.059
μ: Point of inflection of the curve S3 0.108 0.026
The parameters valuesused for the transformation of each Social 0.240
S4 0.160 0.038
descriptors are obtained from the reference values S5 0.160 0.038
established by experts, bibliographic review, observations ∑ 1.000
made in major accidents and examination of descriptor E1 0.660 0.082
statistics along the chain. Ecological 0.124 E2 0.324 0.042
The weights of the descriptors represent the relationships of ∑ 1.000
hierarchy (relative importance) in the aggregation process Ec1 0.493 0.098
through a multicriteria evaluation. The evaluation of these Economic 0.196
Ec2 0.196 0.039
coefficients is carried out through the analytical hierarchical Ec3 0.311 0.062
process (AHP). This is based on the comparison between pairs ∑ 1.000
of descriptors to establish the relative importance Es1 0.215 0.031
(quantitatively). These comparisons generate a matrix that Es2 0.140 0.020
allows to calculate the weight factors and verify the exercise Es3 0.287 0.041
Structural 0.144
Es4 0.252 0.036
consistency. As a result, we obtain a set of weight factors that
Es5 0.106 0.015
are less sensitive to judgment errors.
∑ 1.000
A network can be generated from a hierarchy by gradually
Ne1 0.493 0.039
increasing the interconnections. This allows to generate a Ne2 0.311 0.024
network, taking into account all existing relationships Not structural 0.078
Ne3 0.196 0.015
between levels (perspectives) and between alternatives ∑ 1.000
(descriptors) without assuming the axiom of dependence. At F1 0.326 0.070
the same time, it generates maps of causal relationships, with F2 0.143 0.031
a solid mathematical foundation. The figure 3 shows the F3 0.212 0.046
analytical network modeled in the SuperDecisions software. Functional 0.216
F4 0.108 0.023
F5 0.212 0.046
∑ 1.000
∑ 1.000 1.000
RESULTS
In this section the results will be shown according the
methodology established in the previous section. This model
uses the strategy of multiple explanatory cases in different
companies that operate with hazardous substances in the
province of Villa Clara. The provincial is subdivided into 13
municipalities, with a total of 124 evaluated facilities.
The inventory of hazardous substances in the province and
the evaluation of the activities carried out (storage,
processing and distribution) allowed the analysis of 240
potential hazards. The total risk is evaluated in each analysis
units as a function of exposure factor, (social, economic and
environmental consequences) and the aggravating factor
through Equation 1.
The figure 4 shows the results of the evaluation carried out in
companies located in Villa Clara, divided by municipalities. In
this the possible radio of affectation is delimited, and the
Figure 3: Weight`s network of socioeconomic fragility descriptors evaluation of the level of risk is expressed in low, medium and
and resilience lack descriptors high scale (green, yellow and red). When comparing the
results of technological risk in four possible scenarios of major
The table 2 presents the results of application of AHP method.
accident, it is observed that Santa Clara municipalities have
18 | F a s c i c u l e 1
the highest technological risk index. On the other hand, the This research takes as case study the logistics network in Fuel
municipalities of Quemado de Güines, Camajuaní and Trading Company of Villa Clara. This logistics network
Ranchuelo are those exposed to a lower level of technological includes the Fuel Trading Company and the technological
risk. The figure 4-7 shows the affectation radio of different warehouse of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 53 gas station,
possible accident. 11 stores the sell gas (LPG). These analyzed entities constitute
fuel storage and sale centers. This logistics network includes
a total of 22 routes by highways and 2 routes by railways.
The highest risk index in storage activities is in the storage
area from the Fuel Trading Company, and the most
dangerous route is the RFC-02 route corresponding to the
transportation of fuel by trains from the Camilo Cienfuegos
Refinery in Cienfuegos, to warehouse of the Fuel Trading
Company in Santa Clara. This route crosses the center of the
town of Cruces, which increases the index of associated
vulnerability factor. These results are shown in figure 8 and 9
of technological risk level.
Figure 4: Radio of affectation and level risk. Exhaust of toxic
gases[4]
Figure 8: Technological risk index in storage activities [4]
Figure 5: Radio of affectation and level risk. Fire [4]
Figure 6: Radio of affectation and level risk. Explosion [4]
Figure 9: Technological risk index by distribution route [4]

This analysis allows us to index those logistic activities that
Figure 7: Radio of affectation and level risk. Spillage [4] constitute a major danger in their execution, being necessary
to establish disaster prevention and mitigation measures.
19 | F a s c i c u l e 1
CONCLUSIONS [12] Sujan, M: How can health care organizations make and
The proposed technological risk index considers the effect of justify decisions about risk reduction? Lessons from a cross-
existing physical risk given the occurrence of a destabilizing industry review and a health care stakeholder consensus
event, as well as the worsening of the impact due to development process. Reliability Engineering and System
socioeconomic conditions and the resilience lack of the Safety, 161, 1–11, 2017
involved area. It provides a scientific basis for risk-based [13] Tixier, J.; Dusserre, G.; Salvi, O.; Gaston, D: Review of 62 risk
approach and the development of a proactive culture of analysis methodologies of industrial plants. Journal. Loss
prevention, improvement and protection. Prevention Process Industries, 15,291–303, 2002
The indexing of the technological areas and plants depends
on existing risk level in the occurrence of major technological
accidents. At same time, facilitates the documentation of
involved processes in risk management and decision making
for the planning of preventive actions.
The analysis of technological risk level in storage and
transport activities supports the decision making process.
This analysis is based on the characterization and
hierarchization of storage areas and distribution routes of
greater danger. The application of the procedure allows the
reorientation of the organizational efforts and guarantees an
approach of continuous improvement.
References
[1] Abrahamsen, E; Milazzo, M; Selvik, J: Using the ALARP
principle for safety management in the energy production
sector of chemical industry. Reliability Engineering and
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holistic seis-mic risk evaluation in urban centers using the ISSN: 2067-3809
USRi. Journal International Society for the Prevention of copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
Hazards, 49, 501–516, 2009 Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
[11] Meel, A.; Seider, W: Real-time risk analysis of safety systems. 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
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20 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
P. MANIKANDAN, 2. Faheem Ahmed KHAN
DETERMINATION OF STRESS ON TURBINE GENERATOR SHAFT DUE TO

SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE USING FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Christ (Deemed to be University), Department of EEE, Bangalore, INDIA
1.
Ghousia College of engineering, Department of EEE, Ramanagaram, INDIA

2.
Abstract: Power Capacitors plays a vital role in reactive power compensation. When the capacitors are connected to the
transmission line, it improves the reactive power. Although the reactive power is improved, there is a possibility for sub
synchronous resonance created by this capacitors in the transmission line can travel to the generator side. The sub synchronous
resonance causes electro-mechanical stress in the generator shaft which ultimately leads to malfunction of the entire system. It is
necessary to find out operating modes of the generator and turbine when the line is compensated with capacitors. Once the
operating modes are clear, torsion analysis will give the weak points in the turbine generator shaft which is encountered
immediately when sub synchronous resonance arises. It is possible to damp the sub synchronous resonance when the weak points
are monitored continuously. In this paper, three phase generator is coupled with a prime mover and the line is compensated with
the series capacitors. The stress on the turbine is analyzed based on the torque of two rotating machines. Finite element method
gives the weak points in the turbine generator shaft system.
Keywords: finite element method, ANSYS, Capacitors, fatigue, MATLAB, shaft, series compensation
INTRODUCTION the transmission line which can be either sub synchronous

Misalignment of shafts in the turbine generator system is one frequency or super synchronous frequency.
among the most common trouble of any drives in a power Several literature survey have recorded that sub synchronous
generating station. Alignment of shaft without any deviation resonances arises in both the generator terminal and also at
is not practical to achieve since it handles a several tons of substation. The main objective of this research is focused on
mass on it. Couplings connected to the shaft creates parallel determining the weak points in the shaft which connects
and angular misalignment, in several cases it may also create turbine generator system when it has pulsating torque due to
axial and lateral misalignment. the addition of series capacitors. Experiments are carried over
Cost of operating a turbine during the tenure is compared on two rotating mass having electrical load and series
with the power generation. Most of the industry follows capacitors.
reactive maintenance where they fix the system when it SIMPLIFIED SHAFT ASSEMBLY MODEL
breaks and preventive maintenance where the operator In a large-scale machine, there is a coupler connected
follows the manual. In order to operate the power generating between the generator and the turbine. In case of thermal
unit, predictive maintenance is preferred [1]. Natural power plants, the turbines are separated based on the load
frequency of the rotating machine with mechanical load is that takes from the system. High pressure turbine, low
not constant and the frequency which is calculated is not pressure turbine and intermediate pressure turbine are
accurate [2]. When the pulsating torque arises in the system, involved in the power generation. Including the generator
it leads to increasing stress in the shaft of the turbine and exciter, there are six masses in the total turbine shaft
generator. system.
Weak points in the shafts get damages first and further torque When the shaft is loaded with external torque, decoupled
will result in permanent damage. It is ideal to have a method Newton’s law can be applied to explain the system and
which offers a technical and logical solution to monitor the circumstances [7]. So even for a small torque, the amplitude
operation of the turbine which will focus on the alignment. will increase over time. Figure 1 represents a simplified shaft
Misalignment arises in the system due to several reasons, one model and Figure 2 represents the experimental set up which
such reason is sub synchronous resonance which comes in to is analogous to the same model represented in figure 1.
the system due to the series compensation which is essential If there is no damping or enough protection, the shaft will be
to have the reactive power under control. stressed more and it gets damaged. It can be extended when
Series capacitors connected in the power transmission line to the system has multiple masses especially in thermal power
compensate the reactive power requirement. The high- plants and hydro power plants. Figure 2 represents two
power capacitors are rated up to 100MVAR till 132kV rotating mass in the experimental set up.
transmission line [3]. When these high rated capacitors are
connected to the transmission line, it injects a frequency into
21 | F a s c i c u l e 1
The two rotating machines are connected through the same

shaft using a coupler. The shaft is made of stainless steel and
the coupler is made with galvanized iron.
The coupler ensures that misalignments in the machines are
minimum. It also helps in transmission of mechanical power
and torque between the two rotating shafts. DC motor in the
Figure 1. Simplified flexible shaft with two rotors system drives the three-phase synchronous generator. When
the dc excitation is given to the synchronous generator, it
starts generating power. The electric power is transferred to
the load. Capacitors are connected to the system to improve
the reactive power requirement [6].
The experimental results are tabulated in table 2. The
experimental results show that the torque produced in the
machine keeps increasing when the compensation increases.
Increase in torque causes more stress on the shaft which leads
to misalignment.
Table 2. Output parameters –i
Figure 2. Experimental set up for stress determination Results
Torque
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP Speed
Degree of Voltage Current induced
In this research paper, experimental set up denotes of the
compensation induced generated in the
generation of power using a turbine. The generated power is shaft
(%) (volts) (amps) machine
(rpm)
transferred the load. Capacitors are added to the system to (Nm)
compensate the reactive power. It is clear from the 10% 448 2.1 1543 3821
experimental set up, Generation, Transmission, Distribution 20% 481 3.4 1560 7643
and Reactive power compensation is covered in the 30% 514 3.8 1597 9461
experiment. The machines are not high power machines Predicted results (ratio method)
which are used in the power plants and it is not possible to 40% 547 4.2 1627 10981
test in the machine which is online in the power system. To 50% 607 4.5 1786 12234
overcome the problem, a prototype is made in the laboratory As the compensation increases, torque produced by the
using low power machines. Setup consists of a two rotating machine increases. Since the machine is given F class
machines, resistive load and capacitors the ratings of the insulation [4], the temperature rise must not go beyond 155
machines are given in table 1. degree Celsius. The compensation in any transmission line
will be in the range of 10%-70%. Line current increases by 42%
for every 10% increase in the compensation. The synchronous
generator in the experimental setup is rated till 4 amperes. It
was not possible to increase the compensation by more than
30%. Based on the linear range of increase the torque, current
and speed was predicted.
During the operation, it was identified that the illumination of
the lamp increases as well as the vibration in the machine
mounts increases when the compensation increases. Since
the work of the turbine is done by the DC Motor, the stress on
the motor increases even for 10% compensation. Brush in the
Dc motor started giving sparks when the compensation
increases beyond 30%.
Figure 3. Experimental set up SIMULATION RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Finite element method started with analyzing static,
Table 1: Machine Parameters
deformation and elastic problems. Technology has improved
Machine 1 Machine 2
Source AC Source DC
which made finite element method to analyze the dynamic
Output power 2.2kW Output power 3.7kW problems where both vibration and transient condition are
Max speed 1500rpm Max speed 1500rpm studied in the system. It is used to study the fluid flow and
Voltage (Max) 415V AC Voltage (Max) 220V DC heat transfer in various non-structures. In finite element
Current (Max) 4A Current (Max) 19A method, the simulation is carried on large structures which
Insulation class F Insulation class F have complex geometry.
22 | F a s c i c u l e 1
The simulation software breaks the complex structure into Figure 6 shows the equivalent stress happening between the
tiny parts that interacts which each other. Modelling of the rotating mass and the point which connects the shaft and
static or dynamic structure is the first step in the analysis. rotating mass. The stress originates from the center of the
Boundary conditions are marked and the equilibrium circular rotating mass and flows circularly towards the edge.
equations are solved. From the values of the nodal The shaft which connects the rotating mass gets more
displacement, the stress and strain are analyzed. In this stresses when compared to the rotating mass.
research paper ANSYS software package is used for modelling
and analysis for the parameters identified in the experimental
set up. The shaft which connects the two machines in the
experimental set up is modelled in SOLID WORKS with the
exact dimension. The coupler is designed in such a way it
improves mechanical strength and also it automatically
adjust the misalignment.
Figure 6. Equivalent stress on the rotating shaft

of the generator
Table 3. Output parameters –II
Total deformation Equivalent elastic strain
Torque
Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
3821 1.772e-5 1.4493e-15 .00742 6.424e-13
Figure 4. Meshing of the coupler 7643 3.546e -5
2.899e-15
.01484 1.285e-12
Material property of stainless steel is given as input while 9461 4.389e -5
3.588e-15
.01838 1.590e-12
modelling in the SOLIDWORKS. The model is tested for the 10981 5.094e-5 4.165e-15 .02133 1.843e-12
12234 5.676e -5
4.640e-15
.02376 2.057e-12
total deformation, equivalent elastic strain, equivalent stress
& strain energy. It is clear from the results, the stress and the Table 4. Output parameters –III
strain in increasing when the torque is increasing. Equivalent stress Strain energy
Torque
Experimental results shows that when the compensation Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
increases, torque between the two running machine 3821 1.427e9 .04112 2.5129 4.79e-21
increases. Minimum deformation occurs in the coupler as it 7643 2.855e 9
.08226 10.054 1.91e-20
enhances the mechanical strength and it damps the 9461 3.535e 9
.10183 15.406 2.94e-20
misalignment when the rotating shaft deviates from the 10981 4.103e 9
.11819 20.754 3.96e-20
equilibrium. Figure 5 shows that the equivalent stress on the 12234 4.571e 9
.13168 25.761 4.91e-20
coupler is minimum when compared to the shaft and CONCLUSION
damage caused by series compensation directly impact the Capacitors are used in transmission lines for reactive power
shaft more when compared to coupler. The weak points in compensation. When capacitors are connected along the
the entire set up will have more stress when compared to line, it leads to resonance. Resonance in the line may create
others. sub synchronous frequency or super synchronous frequency
which leads to fatigue in the turbine generator shaft system.
In this research paper, an experimental set up which
demonstrates generation, transmission and distribution with
low power rated machine is experimented. Capacitors are
connected for reactive power management.
It is observed that the capacitors improve the reactive power
and at the same time it causes stress in the turbine generator
shaft system due to the frequency change in between the
turbine and generator. The vibration caused in the turbine
generator mount increases when the capacitors are added to
the line. These vibrations are the result of the frequency
mismatch.
Figure 5. Equivalent stress on the coupler The torque which is obtained in the experimental set up is
when torque 12234 N.m analysed using finite element method. It shows that the
23 | F a s c i c u l e 1
coupler in the machine helps in improving the misalignment Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-104, no. 5, 1985, pp. 1057-
and continuous operation may lead to severe damage in the 1066.
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Acknowledgement definitions and symbols for sub synchronous resonance
The authors are grateful to Christ (Deemed to be) University – oscillations" IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Department of EEE, Faculty of engineering for providing the Systems, vol. PAS-104, no. 6, 1985, pp. 1326-1334.
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engineering Ramanagaram (Affiliated to Visvesvaraya guide to sub synchronous resonance oscillations" IEEE
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ISSN: 2067-3809
copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
[10] IEEE Sub synchronous resonance working group, "Second
Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
benchmark model for computer simulation of sub 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
synchronous resonance," IEEE Transactions on Power http://acta.fih.upt.ro
24 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Habib BENBOUHENNI
SIX SECTORS DTC CONTROL OF IM DRIVES BASED ON ANN WITH

REGULATION SPEED USING ANFIS CONTROLLER
Ecole Nationale Polytechnique d’Oran Maurice Audin, Oran, ALGERIA
1.
Abstract: In this paper, an adaptive neuro fuzzy inference (ANFIS) based neural direct torque control (DTC-ANN) controlling of an
induction machine (IM) is proposed. In this method control the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) used to replace the switching table
and the speed of the IM is controlled by using the ANFIS controller. The entire proposed system is implemented in
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. And simulation results are also presented to demonstrate the attractive performance of the
proposed ANFIS based DTC-ANN speed control of the induction machine. The comparison between proposed scheme control
and classical DTC, show the proposed control reduced the torque ripple, stator flux ripple and Total Harmonic Distortion value
(THD) of stator current of IM drives.
Keywords: IM, DTC, ANFIS, ANN, THD
INTRODUCTION DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL SCHEMA

Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) is the It is well recognized that DTC command operators to
grouping of artificial neural network (ANN) and fuzzy logic command the stator flux and the torque directly by selecting
regulator (FLC). This mixture combination enables to the parallel inverter switching situation [7]. The DTC
decrease the difficulty of power intelligent structure [1]. In the command consisted of torque and flux controllers (hysteresis
designed ANFIS system, ANN techniques are used to choose controllers), electromagnetic torque and flux estimator and
a proper rule base, which is achieved by the back propagation switching table. It is very much simpler than the vector
algorithm. command system due to the existence of synchronize
This incorporated approach improves the classification conversion between immobile frame and synchronous frame
performance. Cost-effectiveness, efficiency, dynamism, and PI regulators [8]. Figure 1 shows a simple structure of the
reliability of the designed regulator [2]. classical DTC for IM drives.
Since, the IM has been widely used in industry due to its
relative cheapness, low maintenance and high reliability [3].
The apparition of the field oriented control (FOC) made IM
drives a most important candidate in high performance
motion command applications. However, the difficulty of
FOC algorithms led to the development in recent years of
many studies to find out diverse solutions for the IM
command having the features of exact and rapid torque
response. The DTC command proposed by I. Takahashi and
M. Depenbrock in the mid-eighties has been standard to be a
viable solution to attain these requirements [4].
DTC command is characterized by its simple realization and a Figure 1. Basic DTC control scheme for IM.
quick dynamic response. In addition, the inverter is directly
regulated by the algorithm, i.e. a modulation method for the The flux can be evaluated by integrating from the stator
inverter is not needed. The major advantages of DTC electrical energy equation [9]:
command are absence of coordinate conversion and current t
controller, absence of divide voltage modulation block [5]. Φ s = ∫ ( v s − R s i s)dt (1)
Though, DTC has high dynamic performance, it has few 0
drawbacks such as high undulation in torque, flux, current The electromagnetic torque is expected from the stator flux
and variant in switching frequency of the inverter [6]. and stator current information as:
This paper is presented a neural direct torque command of IM 3
[
Te = p Φ sα isβ − Φ sβ isα
2
] (2)
using PI controller based on ANFIS regulator. ANFIS neural
direct torque control is used to improve dynamic response The flux angle θs is calculated by:
performance and decrease the ripples of stator flux, torque Φ βs
θs = arctg( ) (3)
and THD value of stator current. Φ αs
25 | F a s c i c u l e 1
A two-level conventional electrical energy inverter can attain (-1, 0, 1) and the output of stator flux hysteresis comparator
7 divide positions in the phase corresponding to the 8 are (0, 1).
sequences of the electrical energy inverter. These positions DTC-ANN CONTROL WITH ANFIS SPEED CONTROLLER
are illustrated in Figure 2. In the accumulation, Table. 1 shows The essential of DTC-ANN command with ANFIS speed
the sequences for each situation, such as: Si= 1,…,6, Si are the regulator for IM drives is shown in Figure 5. ANN have self-
areas of localization of stator flux vector [10]. adapting compatibilities which makes them well suited to
handle non-linarites, uncertainness and parameter
modifications. A multilayer feed forward ANN constructs a
global expertises to nonlinear input-output mapping. ANN
are capable of generalization in regions of the input space,
where little or no training data are available [11]. The principle
of ANN techniques DTC command is similar to traditional DTC
command. However, the switching table is replaced by the
ANN controller.
The structure ANN has three layers. Input layer has 3 neuron,
output layer has only 3 neuron and hidden layer has 30
neurons.
Figure 2. Different vectors of stator voltages provided

by a two levels inverter, (100): (1: inverter switch is ON, 0: for OFF)
I(D) F: increase (decrease) of flux magnitude, I(D) T: increase
(decrease) of torque
TABLE 1. SWITCHING TABLE FOR CLASSICAL DTC WITH ZERO VOLTAGE
N
1 2 3 4 5 6
Cflx Ccpl
1 2 3 4 5 6 1
1 0 7 0 7 0 7 0
-1 6 1 2 3 4 5
1 3 4 5 6 1 2
0 0 0 7 0 7 0 7 Figure 5. DTC-ANN with ANFIS speed controller.
-1 5 6 1 2 3 4
The construction of the proposed ANN used in this
command, is shown in Figure 6.
Input Process Input 1 Layer 1 a{1}
Layer 2
a{1} Process Output 1 Output

Figure 3. Torque hysteresis comparator
Figure 6. Structure of proposed artificial neural networks
0 W
p{1} Delays 1 IW{1,1} +
b netsum tansig a{1}
b{1}
Figure 4. Flux hysteresis comparator.
Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the torque and stator flux controllers, Figure 7. Structure of layer 1
respectively. The output of torque hysteresis comparator are
26 | F a s c i c u l e 1
to obtain the table rules [14]. On possible initial rule base, that
can be used in drive systems for a fuzzy regulator, consist of
49 linguistic rules, as shown in Table 2 [15, 16], and gives the
0 W
a{1} change of the produit of fuzzy regulator in borne of two input:
Delays 1 LW{2,1} + the error (e= wref – w) and change of error (∆e).
SIMULATION RESULTS
b netsum purelin a{2} The simulations of the neural DTC with ANFIS regulator of IM
drive are compared with classical DTC command. A 3-phase,
b{2}
1MW, 3 pole, IM with parameters of Rs=0.228Ω, Rr=0.332Ω,
Figure 8. Structure of layer 2 Ls=0.0084H, Lr=0.0082H, Lm=0.0078H, J=20 Kg.m2 are
considered.
In this paper, the PI controller of speed is replaced by the
ANFIS regulator. The Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System
(ANFIS) controller is one of the popular neuro-fuzzy
techniques that is the mixture combination of ANN and is
based on Takagi–Sugeno fuzzy inference system (FIS) [12].
The ANFIS is urbanized using Matlab ANFIS editor [13]. The
block diagram for ANFIS based PI regulator is shown in Figure
9.
Then the designed ANFIS has 2 inputs namely, the reference
speed (w ref) and speed of motor (w) while the output is the
Cem ref. The construction of ANFIS PI regulator is shown in
Figure 10.
Figure 9. ANFIS control of PI regulator
1 K1
(w_ref -w)
Input NNET Output K3 1
Cem_ref
2 K2
d(w_ref- w)/dt
ANN controller
Figure 10. ANFIS construction for PI regulator.

Table 2. Fuzzy rules of speed regulator
e
NL NM NP EZ PS PM PL
∆e
NL NL NL NL NL NM NP EZ
NM NL NL NL NM NP EZ PS
NP NL NL NM NP EZ PS PM
EZ NL NM NP EZ PS PM PL
PS NM NP EZ PS PM PL PL
PM NP EZ PS PM PL PL PL
PL EZ PS PM PL PL PL PL
The fuzzy regulator design is based on connaissance and Figure 11. Performances of classical DTC command
simulation. These values compose a training set which is used
27 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Electromagnetic torque response comparing curves are

shown in Figure 13. See figure the electromagnetic torque
ripple is significantly reduced when the intelligent techniques
is in use.
a) Classical DTC
b) Neural DTC with ANFIS speed controller

Figure 13 Zoom in the torque.
Figure 14 shows that the DTC-ANN with the ANFIS PI
regulator significantly reduces the ripple of the stator flux
compared to that of the classical DTC command.
a) Classical DTC command
Figure 12. Performances of classical DTC-ANN

with ANFIS speed controller b) DTC-ANN with ANFIS speed regulator
Figures 11-12 shows the harmonic spectrum of one phase Figure 14 Zoom in the stator flux.
stator current (Ias) of the IM obtained using FFT technique for CONCLUSION
classical DTC command and DTC-ANN with ANFIS regulator In this paper, the DTC command of IM drives using intelligent
one respectively. It can be clear observed that the THD is techniques is presented. This intelligent technique (ANN and
reduced for DTC-ANN with ANFIS regulator (THD=10.73 %) ANFIS) determinates the desired amplitude of switching table
when compared to the classical DTC command one (THD = and classical PI regulator of speed.
22.51 %). In the other hand, the dynamics of the components The proposed DTC command schemes improve considerably
of the stator flux are not affected by the application of these the drive performance in terms of reduced electromagnetic
load guidelines. torque, stator flux pulsations and THD value of stator current.
28 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Therefore, proposed DTC command is an excellent solution motor drives using PI and intelligent controllers, »
for general purpose IM drives. International Journal of Advanced Research in Electrical,
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29 | F a s c i c u l e 1
XII
ISSN: 2067-3809
1.
S.E. UWADIAE, 2.O.M. EDOKPIAWE
MODELLING AND OPTIMIZATION OF LEAD ADSORPTION FROM

AQUEOUS SOLUTION USING GROUNDNUT SHELL
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, NIGERIA
1,2
Abstract: In this study, the design of experiment for response surface methodology (RSM) was used to analyse and optimise the
simultaneous effect of adsorbent dose, contact time and pH of solution during the removal of Pb(II) ion from aqueous solution
using activated carbon developed from groundnut shell as adsorbent. Groundnut shells were collected from a dust bins and
thoroughly washed with distilled water; sun-dried and pulverized. It was thereafter carbonated using a muffle furnace at 500oC for
1 hour, after which the carbonated groundnut shell was sieved to attain 0.425mm or less before activation using nitric acid. A
three-variable and three-level Box-Behnken factorial design was used to develop a statistical model to describe the relationship
between percentage removal of Pb2+ and the selected independent variables. The selected parameters were then optimised using
RSM. The model was statistically significant (p<0.0001) with a low standard deviation of 0.76 and did not show lack of fit (R2=0.9768).
The optimum values of adsorbent dose, contact time and pH of the solution obtained from RSM were 0.94 g, 5115.36 min and
5.42 respectively. The observed results indicate the viability of activated carbon from groundnut shell for removal of Pb2+ from
aqueous solution and industrial wastewater.
Keywords: Groundnut-shell, activation, Box-Behnken design, Response surface methodology, Optimization
INTRODUCTION Regular and classical techniques for concentrate a procedure

Because of advancement and industrialization in numerous by keeping up different elements required at determined
nations, the levels of modern contamination have been steady levels don't delineate the consolidated impact of the
relentlessly rising. Thusly, the treatment of dirtied mechanical considerable number of components included. This strategy
wastewater remains a point of worldwide worry since is likewise tedious and requires various tests to decide ideal
wastewater gathered from regions, groups, and enterprises levels (Chaisongkroh et al., 2012). Apart from being a tool that
should, at last, come back to getting water or to the land. In is employed to optimize and study interactions among
addition, sullying of groundwater is today a noteworthy worry factors, response surface methodology (RSM) likewise the
in the administration of water assets (Weber, 1991). Natural relative importance of different variables engaged with
contamination because of the release of substantial metals complex collaborations can be assessed (Saha et al., 2009 ).
from different businesses, including metal plating, mining, The general objective of the study was to investigate the
painting and horticultural sources, for example, manures and effectiveness of activated carbon formulated from locally
fungicidal showers are of noteworthy concern in view of their available groundnut shell for the removal of lead ions from
danger and risk to human life, particularly when resilience aqueous solution.
levels are surpassed (Gupta et al., 2009). Various treatment MATERIALS AND METHODS
techniques for the expulsion of metal particles from fluid — Preparation of Activated Carbon
arrangements have been accounted for. This incorporates The groundnut shells were collected from a dustbin in a local
diminishment, particle trade, electrodialysis, electrochemical market in Benin City, Nigeria. They were then thoroughly
precipitation, dissipation, solvent extraction, reverse osmosis, washed with distilled water so as to remove all adhering
substance precipitation and adsorption (Gupta et al., 2009). particles before sun-drying for 5 days. The dried samples were
Adsorption processes are not sophisticated and also not pulverized and weighed on a digital weighing balance. The
complicated hence it has found wide usage for treatment of measured groundnut shell was placed in the muffle furnace
wastewater (Mabrouk et al., 2009). Since it is highly efficient, at 500oC for 1 hour, after which the carbonated groundnut
commercial activated carbon (CAC) is a commonly used shell was sieved to attain 0.425 mm or less before activation.
adsorbent in the adsorption process for the treatment of The activation was done by soaking the sieved carbonated
wastewater but it is however expensive (Aksu, 2005). groundnut shell in the solution of nitric acid, at a ratio of 1:4
Because of the high cost of CAC and misfortune amid by mass of groundnut shell to nitric acid, for 24 hours for
recovery, alternative low-cost adsorbents have pulled in the activation purposes. Then the activated groundnut shells
consideration of a few researchers to give a contrasting were removed from the solution and placed in the oven for 2
option to the costly CAC. The low-cost adsorbents include hours, at 600C; it was then left to cool in a desiccator. After
banana and orange peels (Annadurai and Lee, 2002); Sheep cooling, the groundnut shell was washed with distilled water
Hoofs (Touaibia and Benayada, 2006); Luffa Cylindrica (Oboh and placed in a container, and dried in the oven for another
et al., 2011) and sawdust (Šćiban et al., 2006). 4.5 hours, at 1050C.
31 | F a s c i c u l e 1
— Preparation of Aqueous Solution where Yi is the predicted response, Xi and Xj are the
Stock solution of Pb (II) ion was prepared by dissolving independent variables, bo is offset term, bi and bij are the single
analytical grade Pb(NO3)2 in an appropriate amount of and interaction effect coefficients and E is the error term.
distilled water. From this stock solution a working solution of Based on RSM, this equation was used to evaluate the linear,
100 mg/L of Pb (II) ion was prepared which was used for the quadratic and interactive effects of independent variables on
batch adsorption process. the chosen response. For the model, the calculations from the
— Adsorption Experiment linear and cross regression were performed. The R2 value, the
Batch adsorption experiments were carried out for the residual error, the pure error calculated from the repeated
removal of Pb2+ from aqueous solutions onto the adsorbent measurements and the lack of fit were calculated. ANOVA
to study the effect of some specific process parameters. The was utilized to estimate the measurable attributes of the
effects of adsorbent dosage, contact time and pH were model fitting. The total test outline and results comprising of
investigated for the adsorption onto groundnut shell. coded levels, real factors, and responses are given in Table 2.
100mg/l of concentration of lead(II) ions was used as the Keeping in mind the end goal to guarantee a good model, a
working solution. The adsorption was carried out at ambient test for criticalness of the relapse model and individual model
temperature and shaking speed of 250 rpm in an orbital coefficients was performed together with the absence of-fit
shaker. After filtrations, the residual concentrations of Pb(II) test. Regularly, the huge components can be positioned in
were determined using atomic adsorption light of the F-value or p-value. The bigger the extent of the F-
spectrophotometer (AAS). value and correspondingly the smaller the p-esteem, the
The percentage removal of Pb2+ is defined as: more critical is the comparing coefficient (Yi et al., 2010).
Ci−Cf RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Re % = × 100 (1) The complete experimental design and results consisting of
Ci
where: Re (%) is percentage removal of Pb(II) ions, Ci is the coded levels, actual variables, predicted and experimental
concentration of Pb(II) ions before adsorption (mg/l); Cf is the responses are given in Table 2.
concentration of Pb(II) ions after adsorption (mg/l) Table 2: Box Behnken design matrix for the optimization of
— Experimental Design variables and the response values
Factors Response
A 3-stage-three-element Box-Behnken factorial layout was
Percentage Pb(II) ion
accomplished using design Expert, version 7.1.6 (Stat-Ease Run Coded values Actual values
removal
Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA) to determine the best No.
x1 x2 x3 X1 X2 X3 Experimental Predicted
combination of adsorption variables for the yields of Pb(II) 1 0 0 0 0.6 65 4 90 91.66
ions. 2 0 1 1 0.6 120 6 99.1 99.11
3 -1 -1 0 0.2 10 4 98 98.02
The variable input parameters were pH of the solution, 4 0 -1 1 0.6 10 6 98.8 98.88
contact time and adsorbent. As shown in Table 1, 5 1 -1 0 1 10 4 96.65 96.55
independent variables had three levels which were based on 6 0 0 0 0.6 65 4 91.5 91.66
preliminary experiments. 7 0 0 0 0.6 65 4 92 91.66
8 0 0 0 0.6 65 4 92.5 91.66
Table 1: Independent variables and their levels for BBD 9 0 -1 -1 0.6 10 2 97.75 97.74
experimental design 10 1 0 1 1 65 6 99.8 99.82
Independent Coded and Actual Levels 11 1 0 -1 1 65 2 98.4 98.5
Symbols
Variable -1 0 1 12 1 1 0 1 120 4 99.02 98.996
Adsorbent dose (g) X1 0.2 0.6 1 13 0 0 0 0.6 65 4 92.3 91.66
Contact time (min) X2 10 65 120 14 -1 1 0 0.2 120 4 96.79 96.89
Ph X3 2 4 6 15 -1 0 1 0.2 65 6 99 98.9
16 -1 0 -1 0.2 65 2 98.8 98.78
The response was percentage removal of Pb(II) ions. The 17 0 1 -1 0.6 120 2 98.9 98.82
relation between the coded values and actual values are
As appeared in Table 2, the entire plan comprised of 17 trial
described as follows:
X −X focuses, and five duplicates (run 13– 17) at the focal point of
xi = i∆X 0 (2) the outline were utilized for evaluating the trial blunder
entirety of squares.
where xi and Xi are the coded and actual values of the
Investigation of fluctuation (ANOVA) is a measurable strategy
independent variable respectively. Xo is the actual value of the
that subdivides the aggregate variety in an arrangement of
independent variable at the centre point and ΔXi is the step
information into segment parts related with particular
change in the actual value of the independent variable. The
wellsprings of variety to test speculations on the parameters
following generalized second order polynomial equation was
of the model (Francesc and Julia, 2014).The results of the
used to estimate the response of the dependent variables.
analysis of variance (ANOVA) which are given in Table 3.
Y = b0 + ∑ bi Xi + ∑ bii Xi 2 + ∑ ∑ bij Xi Xj + E (3)
32 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Table 3: ANOVA table for quadratic model According to the monomial coefficient value of regression
Sum of Degree of Mean F P value model Eq. (4), X1 = ´-27.4349; X2= ´-0.13092 and X3 = -8.28381
Sources
squares freedom square value prob>F
(pH), and the order of priority among the main effect of
Model 171.11 9 19.01 32.73 <0.0001
X1 0.2 1 0.2 0.35 0.5714 impact factors is X1 > X3 > X2
X2 0.85 1 0.85 1.47 0.2653 The created information was examined to decide the
X3 1.02 1 1.02 1.75 0.2277 connection between's the genuine and anticipated esteems
X1X2 3.2 1 3.2 5.52 0.0512 as appeared in Figure 1.
X1X3 0.36 1 0.36 0.62 0.457
X2X3 0.18 1 0.18 0.31 0.5945
X12 42.01 1 42.01 72.32 <0.0001
X22 32.92 1 32.92 56.67 0.0001
X32 73.61 1 73.61 126.71 <0.0001
Residual 4.07 7 0.58
Lack of fit 0.0055 3 0.018 0.018 0.9961
Pure Error 4.01 4 1
Cor Total 175.18 16
Std dev 0.76 R2 0.9768
Mean 96.43 Adjusted R2 0.9469
C.V (%) 0.79 Predicted R2 0.9592
PRESS 7.14 Adequate precision 13.952
ANOVA table proposes whether the condition is sufficient to
depict the connection amongst reaction and other Figure 1: Plot of predicted against actual lead ion percentage
autonomous factors. The model can be considered as removal.
factually noteworthy, if the estimation of p is lower than 0.05 From Figure 1 it is watched that the information focuses are
with a bigger F-value (Ravikumar et al., 2013. From the ANOVA conveyed close to the straight line showing that the
table it is observed that the model fitted well with the quadratic model could be utilized as the noteworthy model
information created and can be considered as factually for anticipating lead (II) ions removal over the autonomous
noteworthy since the F-value is large. (32.73) and p value is information factors.
lesser than 0.0001. The goodness of the model was assessed The effects of contact time and adsorbent dose, pH of
through the lack of fit test. The P-values for the lack of fit test solution and contact time, and pH of the solution and
was not significant (p>0.05) demonstrating that the model adsorbent dose on Pb(II) ions percentage are shown in the
was fit for predicting the adsorption of Pb(II) ions onto response surface plots presented in Figures 2- 4.
activated carbon planned from groundnut shell. A good fit
means that the generated models adequately explained the
data variation.
An R2 value of 0.9768 means that 97.68 % of the variations for
percent lead ion adsorption are explained by the
independent variables and this also means that model does
not explain only 2.32 % of the variation. Predicted R2 is a
measure of how good the model predicts a response value.
The predicted R2 value of 0.9592 is in reasonable agreement
with an adjusted R2 value of 0.9469. The coefficient of
variation, C.V. obtained was 0.79 %. . C.V is an indication of the
degree of precision with which the treatments were carried Figure 2: Response surface plots showing the effect of adsorbent
out. A low value of C.V suggests a high reliability of the dosage and time on Pb(II) ion removal
experiment (Montgomery, 2005; Mason et al., 1989). "Adeq
Precision" measures the signal to noise ratio. A ratio greater
than 4 is desirable (Cao et al., 2009 ), therefore the ratio of
13.952 indicates an adequate signal
Design Expert software was used to calculate the coefficients
of the second-order fitting equation and the model suitability
was tested using the ANOVA test. Therefore, the second order
polynomial equation should be expressed by Eq. (4`)
Re = 120.04394 − 27.43494X1 − 0.13092X2 −
8.28381X3 + 0.040682X1 X2 + 0.37500X1 X3 −
1.93182X10−3 X2 X3 + 19.7421X11 +
9.24380X10−4 X2 2 + 1.04531X3 2 (4.) Figure 3: Response surface plots showing the effect of time
and solution pH on Pb(II) ion removal
33 | F a s c i c u l e 1
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solution diminished. Network for Modeling and Optimization of Distillery Spent
Following the optimization step, corresponding optimum Wash Treatment Using Phormidium valderianum BDU
conditions for optimum values of Pb(II) ion removal were 140441, Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 22
(4),1143-1152, 2013.
obtained thus; adsorbent dosage (0.94 g), contact time [12] Saha, B.C.; Iten, L.B.; Cotta, M.A. and Wu, Y.V.:Dilute acid
(115.36 min), and pH (5.42). pretreatment, enzymatic saccharification and fermentation
CONCLUSION of wheat straw to ethanol, Process Biochemistry,
40(12),3693–3700, 2005.
The production of activated carbon from groundnut shell [13] Šćiban M., Klašnja, M. and Škrbić, B. Modified softwood
which is an agricultural waste/by-product is a value addition sawdust as adsorbent of heavy metal ions from water,
to the groundnut residue. The formulated activated carbon Journal of Hazardous materials, 136 (2), 266-271, 2006
[14] Touaibia, D. and Benayada, B.: Removal of mercury (II) from
from groundnut shell was used in the removal of Pb(II) ion aqueous solution by adsorption on keratin powder
from aqueous solution. The effects of adsorbent dose, contact prepared from Algerian sheep hooves, Desalination, 186,
time and pH of the solution on the sorption of Pb(II) onto the 75-80, 2006.
activated carbon was investigated, Furthermore, statistical [15] Weber J Jr: Physiochemical processes for water quality
control,. Adsorption Science and Technology, 28 (10), 913-
methodology, employing Box-Behnken Response Surface 921, 1991.
Design was used to determine the optimal conditions for the [16] Yi, S.; Su, Y.; Qi, B.; Su, Z. and Wan, Y. : Application of response
adsorption of Pb(II) ion onto the developed activated carbon surface methodology and central composite rotatable
design in optimization; the preparation condition of
from groundnut shell. The optimal conditions for Pb(II) ion vinyltriethoxysilane modified silicalite/
removal from aqueous solution is identified as adsorbent polydimethylsiloxane hybrid pervaporation membranes,
dose of 0.94 g, contact time of 115.36 min and pH value of Separation and Purification Technology, 71, 252-262, 2010.
5.42. It can be concluded that groundnut shell can serve as
ready raw material for the development of affordable and
effective activated carbon which can serve as a good
adsorbent for the removal of Pb(II) ion from wastewater.
References
[1] Aksu, Z: Application of biosorption for the removal of
organic pollutants: a Review, Process Biochemistry, 40,
997–1026, 2005
[2] Annadurai, G and Lee, J. F: Equilibrium studies on the
adsorption of acid dye into chitin, Environmental Chemistry
Letters, 6, 77–81, 2002.
[3] Cao, G.; Ren, N; Wang, A; Lee, D.J.; Guo, W.; Liu, B.; Feng, Y. ISSN: 2067-3809
and Zhao, Q.: Acid hydrolysis of corn stover for biohydrogen
production using Thermoanaerobacterium copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
thermosaccharolyticum W16, International Journal of Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
Hydrogen Energy, 34, 7182–7188, 2009. 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
[4] Chaisongkroh, N.; Chungsiriporn, J and Bunyakan, C.: http://acta.fih.upt.ro
Modeling and optimization of ammonia treatment by
34 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Flavius BUCUR
RESEARCH ON THE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE QUALITY OF

PHOSPHOROUS CAST IRONS
1.
University Politehnica Timisoara, Department of Engineering and Management, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
Abstract: This paper focuses on the influence of chemical composition upon the hardness mechanical characteristics of
phosphorous cast irons. The casting of the parts is done by meeting specific chemical and mechanical parameters. Data collected
from a cast iron foundry has been used for analysis, resulting in a series of graphic and analytical correlations created with the
Matlab application. The resulting regression areas and level curves allow the identification of the optimal areas of variation in
chemical composition of the cast irons with the purpose of obtaining an optimal hardness degree.
Keywords: phosphorous cast iron, hardness, brake block, quality
INTRODUCTION consequence of mass shift by short distance diffusion [5,6].

When manufacturing brake blocks intended for rolling stock, The sulphur also prevents graphitization, favouring the
phosphorous cast irons P10 are most widely used. These formation of cementite, leading to increased hardness and
brake blocks have limited usage as their friction coefficient fragility, increased contraction, decreased fluidity and a
decreases notably when braking at high speed, and the wear higher tendency to form cracks in the cast iron.
caused by the tendency to jam increases as the temperature Brake blocks are made by the casting of second–fusion cast
in the friction coupler rises [1,2]. iron. The process of obtaining cast iron is performed
The size of the eutectic particles and the distribution of the according to the requirements provided by the supplier of
phosphide network in the structure, the shape, size and brake blocks for motor and towed rolling stock, and also
distribution of the graphite network, as well as the quantity of needs to follow the tender specifications no.
graphite expelled during graphical crystallization, all play an 1/SFMR/SDT/2000 [7].
important part in the resulting quality of the cast iron used for Types of brake blocks for engines and freight/ passenger
producing brake blocks. wagons (figure 1) [8]:
The chemical elements found in the structure of the cast iron — S1 – brake blocks size 1 for freight/ passenger wagons;
from which brake blocks are made have a different influence — S2 – brake blocks size 2 for freight wagons;
on crystallization. The rise in manganese content favours — LDH – brake blocks for 1250 HP Diesel hydraulic engines;
cementitious crystallization. Manganese neutralises the — LDE – brake blocks for 2100 HP Diesel electric engines;
harmful influence of sulphur by forming manganese — LE – brake blocks for 5100 kW and 3400 kW electric
sulphide, which leads to increased hardness and tear engines.
resistance. On the other hand, as the manganese content
increases, the fluidity of the cast iron and its casting capacity
decreases. A rise in silicon content favourises the graphical
crystallization. By modifying the silicon content, the relation
between carbon, bound as cementite (Fe3C), and the free
carbon found as graphite, changes. In industrial practice, the
sum (C+Si) is taken into account, but it depends on the cast
iron structure required and the thickness of the part shell. The
silicon enhances cast iron fluidity, thus improving its casting
properties [3,4].
The sulphur and the iron form iron sulphide (FeS) which,
upon solidification, forms with the iron an easily fusible
eutectic (Fe–FeS) that melts at 9500 C. This eutectic has a
delayed solidification, thus favouring the production of
intercrystalline segregations which lead to decreased Figure 1. Types of brake blocks for engines
mechanical properties of cast irons. This effect is a and freight/ passenger wagons [8]
consequence of the redistribution of alloying elements in Phosphorous cast irons are frequently used in manufacturing
between the liquid and solid phases during the primary brake blocks for rolling stock [9]. It is required to determine
structure formation. The micro–segregation occurs as a the influence of different chemical elements found in the
35 | F a s c i c u l e 1
structure upon the hardness of the cast iron in order to avoid the melting pot are taken and checked with a spectrometer
obtaining a phosphorous cast iron which would be too hard (figure 3).
and which would prematurely wear the wheel dressing of the
train. However, a too soft phosphorous cast iron would lead
to increased consumption of brake blocks due to premature
wear [9,10].
DESCRIPTION OF MANUFACTURING AND CONTROL
PROCESSES
— Manufacturing Brake Blocks
In order to analyse the influence of chemical composition on
the hardness quality characteristics of brake blocks, a number
of 70 charges of cast iron have been observed in the industrial Figure 3: Determining the chemical composition
practice, which were produced by a company that of analysed samples [4]
manufactures cast iron parts. The brake blocks manufacturing Hardness checking [3] is done at both ends and through the
process involves obtaining phosphorous cast iron and then cross section, in three points, as shown in figure 4.
casting it. Scrap, cast iron waste and worn brake blocks are
used to obtain cast iron. The load at the charging points that
were analysed was: 10–20% first–fusion cast iron; 30–60% cast
iron waste (worn brake blocks); 20–30% steel waste. The
cutting–to–dimension of the load plays an important role in
its production in induction furnaces, which means that the
load needs to be cut according to the size and melting
capacity of the furnace. The recharging of the furnace is done
periodically, usually by bucket, ensuring a continuous melting
process, with a minimum energy consumption. When using
small waste metal parts (chips, splinters), these are briquetted
(pressed) or minced and a continuous line load is ensured.
The cast iron thus obtained is poured into casts on the
manual casting line, as shown in figure 2.
Figure 4. Areas of brake blocks hardness sampling [3].

Also, for each charge, a mechanical shock resistance test is
performed and the metallographic structure is checked.
SOLUTIONS AND APPROACHES
The data obtained from industrial practice has been
processed through Matlab and Excel software. Charts of
variation in hardness by carbon, manganese, phosphorus and
silicon have been created for all points in which hardness was
measured. By calculating an average, charts of variation in
average hardness for the outside and cross section of the part
have been created. These charts have been done using
Microsoft Excel and have been represented using second
Figure 2. Manual brake blocks casting line [4] degree polynomial functions. Then, using Matlab and a
The research has been done in order to determine the second degree equation, three–dimensional charts with
influence of the chemical composition of the cast iron on the regression areas and level curves for hardness variation by
hardness of brake blocks. The chemical composition, as well combination of two chemical elements have been created for
as the physical and mechanical characteristics have been analysis, for all the points. The equation is as follows:
analysed. z = a(1).x2 + a(2) .y2 + a(3) .x.y
— Brake Blocks Control + a(4) .x + a(5) .y + a(6) (1)
The quality control for brake blocks is done according to the RESULTS
tender specifications no.1/SFMR/SDT/2000 [3]. The first The following correlations obtained for the average hardness
parameters checked are the percentages of chemical in the cross section of the brake block are presented here as
elements found in the cast iron. For this check, samples from example – Hsm = (Hss+Hsc+Hsd)/3.
36 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Figures 5–7 show the variation in average hardness

calculated for the three cross section measurements by
carbon, manganese and phosphorus percentages.
Figures 8–9 show the regression areas and level curves for
average hardness variation in the cross section by carbon,
manganese and phosphorus content.
Figure 5. The variation of average hardness

in the cross section by carbon percentage
Figure 6: The variation of average hardness

in the cross section by manganese percentage
Figure 8: Hsm = f(C, Mn)

In case of the average hardness variation in the cross section
by carbon and manganese content, the equation becomes:
Hsm = – 80.75.C2 +165.42.Mn2
– 115.06.C.Mn + 539.02.C+168.92.Mn – 624.68 (2)
The correlation coefficient is R2=0.2912 and the coordinates
of the inflection point are: Hsm = 218.7914 HB; C = 2.9663%;
Mn = 0.5210%.
In case of the average hardness variation in the cross section
by carbon and phosphorus content, the equation becomes:
Hsm = – 67.20.C2 – 267.72.P2
+ 52.48 C P + 338.15.C+ 349.21.P – 427.99
. .
(3)
The correlation coefficient is R = 0.3294 and the calculation
2
reveals a point of local maximum for the following values: Hsm

Figure 7: The variation of average hardness
= 222.2430; C = 2.8807%; P = 0.9345%.
in the cross section by phosphorus percentage
37 | F a s c i c u l e 1
— there is a difference in hardness between the brake block

cross section extremities and its cross section centre, due
to solidifying conditions;
— the level curves presented in the charts allow choosing
independent parameters (C, Mn and P) so as to obtain a
desired hardness value.
Bibliography
[1] M. Stoica, Braking trains, ASAB House, Bucharest, 2002.
[2] Carlan, B., Constantinescu, D., Constantin, N., Study
regarding the thermal properties of the iron oxides and
their application in the process of the heat transfer from the
furnace hearth to the ingot, University Politehnica of
Bucharest Scientific Bulletin Series B–Chemistry and
Materials Science, 78(4), pp. 169–180, 2016
[3] Mincu, V., Negru, M., Constantin, N., Increase the ingots
quality cast in vacuum, Solid State Phenomena 188, pp.
339–345, 2012
[4] V. Cojocaru, C. Filipiu, Preparing for developing iron load in
induction furnaces, Samia Publishing, Science, 2006.
[5] Rucai, V., Constantin, N., Dobrescu, C., Experimental
research program regarding the influence of thermo–time
treatment of multicomponent Ni–base melting on their
properties in solid phase, University Politehnica of
Bucharest Scientific Bulletin Series B–Chemistry and
Materials Science, 77(4), pp. 359–364, 2015
[6] Butnariu, I., Constantin, N., Dobrescu, C., Heput, T., Research
on the recycling of pulverulent waste from the ferrous and
non–ferrous industry in order to reduce the pollution,
Revista de Chimie, 69(5), pp.1066–1070, 2018
[7] xxx, Specificication, no.1 /SFMR/SDT/2000, Brake shoes for
tractors and trailers rolling
[8] www.tef.ro.
[9] Pascu L., Socalici A., Popa E., Crisan E., Influence of chemical
composition on hardness of brake blocks for rolling stock,
Figure 9: Hsm = f(C, P) 12th International Conference of Numerical Analysis and
CONCLUSIONS Applied Mathematics, Mathematical Methods in
The rise in carbon concentration leads to negative outcomes Economics and Engineering, Rhodes, Greece, 22–28
due to graphitization increase and a decrease in tear September 2014.
resistance. The increase in hardness with manganese content [10] Pascu L., Researches on improving the quality of brake
shoes meant for use with the rolling stock, PhD Thesis,
addition is translated using a second degree polynomial
Politehnica, 2015.
equation. As the manganese content rises, so do the complex
carbides proportions, and a dissolution of iron in the solid
solution takes place (ferrite).
The phosphorus contributes to the formation of a
phosphorous eutectic. The increase in phosphorus content
leads to increased hardness, both at the surface and in the
cross section of the brake block.
After analysing the results of the experimental research
performed on a number of 70 phosphorous cast iron charges
produced in a brake block foundry, the following conclusions
can be drawn:
ISSN: 2067-3809
— the chemical composition of the cast iron used in copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
manufacturing brake blocks ensures the necessary Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
hardness to comply with standards; 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
— the correlations presented above reveal a clear influence http://acta.fih.upt.ro
of carbon and manganese content upon hardness;
38 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Oana LUPU
PULVEROUS FERROUS WASTE PROCESSING BY PELLETIZATION

1.
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Department of Engineering and Management, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
Abstract: From the iron and steel industry always results a series of waste that are not capitalized enough with the rest of them
being stored in stockpiles and ponds. Considering the fact that these waste contain iron and that – being unrecycled – they
represent a polluting factor to the environment, it is imperial to find solutions to process them in a manner that will make them
useful as raw or auxiliary material in manufacturing or other branches of the economy. The current paper presents the experimental
research made in laboratory regarding the processing of pulverous ferrous waste through pelletizing with the purposes of making
a new product that can be used as raw material in the iron and steel industry.
Keywords: waste, sludge, capitalizing, pellets
INTRODUCTION — the area occupied by the landfills now is considered a

The handling of industrial waste lies in capitalization, degraded area that cannot be used anymore in
stockage, final storage and incineration. In Romania, the agricultural purposes; currently, in Romania, more than
storage of waste on an open surface represents the most 12000ha of land are affected by the storage of domestic
important means to eliminate industrial waste. In this manner, and industrial waste.
over the years a huge quantity of waste has been reached All these lead to the conclusion that the waste management
[1,2]. sector needs to adopt certain specific measures that are
From the total amount of industrial waste landfills, a great fitting to each phase of waste elimination into the
deal do not have any facilities for protecting the environment environment. Following these specific measures must be the
and in most times, they are just cornered through fences. objective of environmental risk factor monitoring that are
Some of these landfills have one or more of the special related to wastes [8–10].
facilities (waterproofing, drainage, culvert, supervision In this sense, the pelletizing is a method of agglomeration, or
drilling), but very few can be deemed as benefiting from all particle size enlargement, in which material fines are
the conditions necessary to protect the environment. The processed into pellets or granules. Pelletizing is used
cinder waste dumps are the storages that have most facilities: throughout a multitude of industries to process thousands of
waterproofing with mineral layer, a drainage system that materials from difficult to handle powders and fines, into easy
collects leachate, stability terraces, supervision drilling for the to handle pellets. Unlike pressure methods of agglomeration,
phreatic waters, splutter systems for surfaces. such as compaction granulation or briquetting, pelletizing is
Generally, as a consequences of the lack of facilities and the considered a wet process, because moisture (in the form of a
lean exploitation, the landfills also count as risk and impact binding agent) is used to agglomerate the fines into larger
generators for the environment and public health. The main particles, as opposed to the extreme pressure used in
impact and risk forms are (in the order perceived by the compaction or briquetting. Pelletizing a material can offer a
population): number of benefits. Because of this, it has become a popular
— scenery modification and visual discomfort, method of improving product performance, easing handling
— the pollution of air and water, challenges, and even targeting desired product
— the decrease of soil fertility and characteristics. In fact, the pelletizing is an incredibly diverse
— the alteration of biocenosis composition in the and flexible process, lending itself to thousands of materials,
neighbouring terrains [3]. and nearly any material in powder or slurry form can be
The problems that waste management in Romania is dealing transformed into a dry, granular product.
with can be summarized in the following way [4–7]: Pelletizing, particularly on a disc pelletizer, is a highly flexible
— the storage on an open terrain being the most important process, allowing for a significant amount of product
way to eliminating waste; customization to occur. Additives can be included to improve
— the existing waste being stored in inappropriate locations product formulations, and a number of variables can be
(near housing units, surface waters and vacation land); adjusted to target specific end product parameters, such as
particle size distribution, crush strength, flowability, and
— the landfills are not facilitated properly for environmental
more. In essence, pelletizing allows producers to create a
protection and lead to the pollution of water and soil in
granular product that suits their exact needs.
that area;
39 | F a s c i c u l e 1
For the many reasons (reduced dust, reduced attrition, faster

product breakdown, and customization), products created
via pelletizing are considered a premium product. With many
benefits, and a highly customizable process, pelletizing has
become a staple in many industries, with new applications for
this valuable process constantly on the rise.
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
In this paper, there are presented the capitalization methods
of pulverous ferrous waste that are the result of water
depuration, this being: ferrous sludge (10.02.2018 – waste Figure 2. Technological flux of pelleting/micro–pelleting
from the cooling water depuration). It comes from a plant
that produces metallic powders. Choosing the procedure and
technology of capitalization must have in view the features of
the waste, the destination of the resulting product and the
existing processing facilities in the waste area [11].
The ferrous sludge samples have been put laboratory
research. The chemical composition presented in table 1 and
the granulometric composition have been determined.
Analysing the chemical and granulometric composition of
the pulverous ferrous waste we determined it can be
processed through classic technologies like: briquetting,
pelletizing and agglomeration.
Table 1. The chemical composition of ferrous sludge
Chemical composition [%] ASTM E 1479/2016
Al Cd Cu Cr Mg Mn Ni
0.003 0.003 0.70 0.54 0.003 0.079 0.046
Pb Fe Sn Sb Zn Other
0.008 84.40 0.016 0.003 0.003 14.196
Figure 1. Ferrous sludge granulometric classes

In this paper there are presented the processing through
pelletizing (micro–pelletizing). A processing method was
chosen that requires the addition of bonding materials in
order to capitalize the waste as pellets/micro–pellets and as
raw materials in the steel ovens [11,12].
There has been an experiment of 5 recipes and as bonding
materials bentonite 5–10% and slag LF 5–10%. The flow sheet
of processing the pellets/micro–pellets is presented in figure
2.
Figure 3. Aspects during laboratory experimentation
40 | F a s c i c u l e 1
The steps from the processing procedure and the procurence The laboratory experiments we performed lead to the
of sub–products are presented in figure 3. The experimental procurance of experimental by–products – pellets that can
pellets/micro–pellets were put under hot–tempering in the be used as raw material in the siderurgy.
oven according to figure 4. The chemical composition of the The main benefit of a granular product over raw fines is the
obtained pellets/micro–pellets is shown in table 2. improved product performance. In this sense, the pellets
performance can be improved in a variety of ways as a result
of agglomeration. Granular soil amendments, for example are
more likely to deliver targeted results over their powdered
form, because they do not become windblown and are much
easier to accurately apply. Also, the pelletized products are
much easier to handle and apply over raw material fines.
Pellets are easier to feed, due to improved and more
consistent flowability. Moreover, the pellet products are also
much less dusty. Some materials may even be pelletized prior
to landfilling in order to reduce dust loss during transport and
handling, as well as to avoid material becoming windblown.
Figure 4. The pellets hardening diagram The production of pellets from different wastes can be made
(T– hardening temperature, [0C]; t – hardening time,[min]) according to the range of recyclable waste available, the
Table 2. The chemical composition of the pellets
addition of binding substances, water and the granulometric
Chemical composition, [%] ASTM E 1479/2016 finesse of the waste. The values obtained at the test for
Al Ca Cu Cr Mg Mn Ni resistability at astriction for the raw and burnt pellets show
1.16 3.44 0.13 0.06 0.63 0.41 0.03 that the product has the necessary resistance for being
Si Fe W S Na Anothers manipulated and transported to the iron processing plant.
3.13 75.18 1.68 0.13 0.26 13.76 Reintroduction these ferrous materials in the economic circuit
represents an advantage from an economic and ecological
From each batch of pellets we chose pellets sized 12–15 mm point of view.
in diameter for which we tested compression strength of References
pellets. The result of the experiment are presented in table 3. [1] Costoiu, M., Ioana, A., Semenescu, A., Constantin, N., Florea,
Table 3. Compressive strength of pellets B., Rucai, V., Dobrescu, C., Polifroni, M., Păunescu, L.,
Compressive strength of pellets [daN/pellet] Environmental performance indicators for decision making
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 and stakeholder interests, Environmental Engineering And
178 172 167 157 175 Management Journal, Vol. 15, Nr. 10, pp. 2279–2284, 2016.
The results show that compressive strength of pellets for raw [2] Constantin, N., Stanasila, O., Stanasila, C., Alternative iron
making technologies, Metalurgia International, Vol. 14, Nr.
and burnt pellets confirm the fact that the waste can be
7, pp. 5–7, 2009.
capitalized through pelletizing since the obtained pellets
[3] Buzduga, R., Constantin, N., Ioana, A., Solutions to reduce
have the necessary astriction for manipulation and
the environmental pollution by the producers of
transportation from the manufacturing agent to the ovens at refractories, University Politehnica Of Bucharest Scientific
the steel plant. Bulletin Series B–Chemistry And Materials Science, Vol. 80,
FINAL RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Nr. 1, pp. 231–244, 2018.
This paper present the obtained by–products (pellets/micro– [4] Rucai, V., Constantin, N., Dobrescu, C., Experimental
pellets) while processing the analysed waste. After laboratory research program regarding the influence of thermo–time
experiments a balance pan device was used and as binding treatment of multicomponent ni–base melting on their
agent bentonite and slag LF (max 10%). properties in solid phase, University Politehnica Of
The pulverous, small sized waste can be capitalized in the Bucharest Scientific Bulletin Series B–Chemistry And
contemporary iron and steel industry and there is a need to Materials Science, Vol. 77, Nr. 4, pp. 359–364, 2015.
continue research in order to establish the most performing [5] Costoiu M, Ioana A, Semenescu A, Constantin N, Florea B,
procedures, capitalization methods that are good both from Rucai V, Dobrescu C, Polifroni M, Păunescu L 2016
an economical and an ecological point of view. Environmental performance indicators for decision making
The constant preoccupation to respect legal norms regarding and stakeholder interests, Environmental Engineering and
the environmental protection and the need to harmonize Management Journal, 15(10) 2279–2284
them with the requirements of economic progress, the [6] Buzduga R, Constantin N, Ioana A 2018 Solutions to reduce
reasonable segmentation of material and energetic resources the environmental pollution by the producers of
should lead to the capitalization of waste through refractories, University Politehnica Of Bucharest Scientific
technologies that can be deemed as the optimal solution Bulletin Series B–Chemistry And Materials Science, 80(1)
231–244
economically and ecologically.
41 | F a s c i c u l e 1
[7] Rucai V, Constantin N, Dobrescu C 2015Experimental

research program regarding the influence of thermo–time
treatment of multicomponent ni–base melting on their
properties in solid phase, University Politehnica Of
Bucharest Scientific Bulletin Series B–Chemistry And
Materials Science, 77(4) 359–364.
[8] Buzduga R V, Constantin N and Lazar E A 2015 Research on
uses plant ashes in processing powders for classical
moulding of steel, IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 85 012008
[9] Andrei V, Hritac M and Constantin N 2017 Experimental
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012004
[11] Project no. 31–098/2007 Prevention and fighting pollution
in the steel making, energetic and mining industrial areas
through the recycling of small–size and powdering wastes
Program PN2 Consortium CO Responsable Heput T,
Beneficiary CNMP Romania
[12] Project no. BC 13/2018, Procesarea deșeurilor feroase
pulverulente și mărunte, Director proiect Ardelean, M.,
Beneficiar Johnson Solution SRL Deva.
ISSN: 2067-3809
42 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
A M RAJESH, 2.Mohamed KALEEMULLA, 3.Saleemsab DODDAMANI
EFFECT OF ADDITION OF SIC AND AL2O3 ON WEAR BEHAVIOR OF

HYBRID ALUMINUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES
1.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJM Institute of Technology, Davangere, Karnataka, INDIA
2.
Department of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, U B.D.T. College of Engineering, Karnataka, INDIA
3.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jain Polytechnic, Davangere, Karnataka, INDIA
Abstract: In the present investigations, wear test is conducted on pin on disc device at room temperature for both the age
hardening and without age hardening conditions. Al7075 has chosen as the matrix material. HMMCs are produced utilizing stir
casting route for enhancing the wear behavior and hardness number. The reinforcement used is silicon carbide with 5%, 10% and
15% weight percentage and Al2O3 as the reinforcement in 5%, 10% and 15% weight percentage. In the aluminum matrix
Microstructural characterization reveals the homogeneous mixing of reinforcements. This investigation shows the enhanced in
wear resistance is due to the increment weight fraction of reinforcement. By raising the sliding speeds there is a reduction in the
rate of wear and it reduces with increment in sliding distance. As an increase in weight fraction there is decrement in rate of wear
of composites. In general tribological property enhances because of the addition of the two reinforcements.
Keywords: Al7075/SiC–Al2O3, Dry sliding wear, wear rare, HAMMCs
INTRODUCTION The principle tribological considerations that manage the

MMCs comprise of an alloy or a metal as the matrix and a wear and friction properties of discontinuously reinforced
reinforcement such as the particles, short fibre or whisker aluminium (DRA) composite can be categorized into two
and/or long fibre. MMCs were a group of material with types (i) Mechanical and physical properties: such as loads,
perspective for a broad collection of applications in structural speeds, surface finish, sliding distance, orientation of
management. Their properties such as light in weight, reinforcement, temperature and environment etc. (ii) Material
superior strength and resistance to wear are the requirement factors: for instance the type, size, and size distribution, shape,
for the aviation and automobile industries. reinforcement’s weight fraction, and the matrix
Discontinuously reinforced MMCs are much less expensive to microstructure [2].
fabricate than continuously reinforced composites. The important parameter which influences the wear of
Consequently, performance enhancement of the matrix materials is the microstructure. According to research reports,
comes at lower additional costs with discontinuous microstructure and mechanical properties have a correlation.
reinforcements compared with aligned reinforcements. On the other hand, to relate the wear techniques with
Particulate reinforced MMCs are not expensive to microstructural characteristics only limited reports were used.
manufacture than reinforced composites. Accordingly, The wear surface exhibits microstructural heterogeneity
performance improvement of the matrix comes at lesser which influences wear procedure since constituent, for
expenses with particulate reinforcements compared with example, incorporations, intermetallics, and scattered phases
fiber aligned reinforcements. In addition, particulate have properties not quite the same as those of the matrix. The
reinforced composites exhibit the isotropic properties [1], most imperative part of the microstructure is the distribution
whereas the properties of composites with fiber aligned of second phase particles [3].
reinforcements are highly anisotropic. AMCs are majorly impacted by the characters of the matirx
Hybrid aluminum metal matrix composite (HAMMC) and reinforcement material. The worn surface of the material,
materials are an excellent substitute to conventional in dry sliding wear, is subjected to considerable work
materials, because of the enhanced hardness, specific hardening. The layer, mechanically mixed layer (MML) is
strength and creep resistance properties. Based on the produced during wear of aluminum alloys, sliding against
literature survey made, one can consider the Al7075– ferrous alloy. Due to the shift and combination of materials,
SiC/alumina particulate MMC for automobile applications under definite load and velocity range, MML is formed. The
such as: pistons, cam shafts, brake components, Bearing generated MML consists of materials from both contact
surfaces, cylinder liners, etc., and aerospace applications such surfaces. It was also reported that the hardness of the
as wing and fuselage (main body) of aircraft structure, internal generated MML is greater than the bulk hardness of the
aerospace engine components, exhaust systems. composite. The generated MML is majorly responsible for the
A surface phenomenon referred as wear will occurs by decrement of wear rate and holding–up of transition to
relocation & separation of material. It generally suggests a severe wear.
progressive loss of material and change of measurements The literature survey gives the survey of the published
over some undefined time frame. material accessible on the influence of different types of
43 | F a s c i c u l e 1
reinforcements, volume/weight fractions, aging behaviour surface [16]. Amro M. Al–Qutub et al [17] investigated the
and size with aluminium based MMCs are a blend of two properties of Al6061 matrix reinforced with 10% volume
phases: one is referred as matrix, and the other as the fraction of Al203. Cui Y Geng et.al [18] observed that, an
reinforcement. Singla et al [4] developed aluminium alloy/ aluminum matrix composite was viably gotten using the self
SiCp composites of varying weight fractions of silicon carbide proliferating high temperature silicon carbide particles. The
(5–30%) by stir casting techniques using a two step–mixing composite was seen to be better in mechanical exhibitions to
method. Results showed that impact strength and hardness those of the composite with the normal status evaluation
increased with an increment in weight percentage of silicon silicon carbide particles. From the outcome it is reported that
carbide. Rajesh A M et al [5–7] conducted experimentations between aluminum–SiC their exist a high strength interfacial
like hardness, wear behavior at as–cast and age hardened bond.
conditions etc on aluminum hybrid metal matrix composites. It is noticed from the literature that more research conducted
The matrix material considered is Al7075, and reinforcement on the wear characteristics of Al–SiCp, Al–Li/SiC MMCs. In this
material is SiC and alumina. From the results it is clear that the background, the research gaps indicate that there is a lot of
HAMMCs have better properties as compared to scope for current researchers for investigation with the use of
unreinforced aluminum alloy. a combination of silicon carbide and aluminium oxide as
M K Surappa et al [8] studied the Al–Si composite for their reinforcement. Therefore this research work will focus on
tribological behavior. For the study, they considered the wear behaviour of aluminum hybrid metal matrix reinforced
automobile brake in pin on disc tribometer. Aluminum metal MMCs. Main aim of the proposed research work is to develop
matrix composites were utilized as a disc whereas brake pad the hybrid MMC in–order to improve the strength and wear
material forms the pin. Form the outcomes it is observed that resistance characteristics of the material that generate
the coefficient of wear and the fraction is varied with the load. Mechanically mixed layer.
Also as the coefficient of fraction decreases wear rate MATERIALS AND PROCESSING
increases. R. L. Deuis et al [9] surveyed the wear behaviour of — Materials
the materials and the development of fine equiaxed wear Al–7xxx alloys, for instance, 7075 are commonly used as a part
debris is related with a stable tribo–layer on the worn of applications including transport, automobile, marine and
surfaces. The critical parameters for adhesive wear are applied also in aerospace, because of their high strength and low
load, sliding velocity, the surface hardness of worn surface weight. The main constituents in the Al7075 are Si=0.4%, Zn
and morphology in relative to the theories of wear = 6.1%, Mg=2.9%. The properties of the Al7075 are density =
encuontered by the materials. 2.85g/cc, ultimate strength = 480MPa, elastic modulus =
Radhika et al. [10,11] has conducted the experiments to 75GPa, Poissons’ ratio = 0.33, melting point = 6500C.
evaluate the wear characteristics of Al/Gr/Al2O3 hybrid MMC Silicon carbide is a ceramic material also known as
and suggested that the graphite reinforcement has boost up carborundum, denoted as SiC. It is a blend of silicon and
the resistance to wear. This increment is due to the forming a carbon. It is an outstanding abrasive material utilized to
protective layer between the counterface & pin. Addition of prepare grinding wheel and other abrasive parts. Now a day,
the reinforcement Al2O3 has considerable influence in the SiC material is formed into a technical grade better quality
reducing rate of wear of the composite. Saleemsab ceramic with excellent mechanical/physical properties. Some
Doddamani et al [12] conducted experimentation on wear of the key properties of silicon carbide utilized here are
behaviour of Aluminum–graphite MMC. From the results it is Density –3.1 g/cc, melting point –27300c, molecular mass –
found that the adding of particles of graphite has increased 40.10 g/mol, grit size –16–100grit, Appearance –Black in color.
the resistance to wear of the MMC. Also it is reported that Aluminum oxide, commonly known as alumina (Al2O3) is
addition of particles of graphite in aluminum reduces the corundum in its crystalline form is widely used in industry. The
friction then that of the base alloy. alumina (Al2O3) as a reinforcement is steadier with aluminium
Heat treated material demonstrate the resistance to wear [13]. and withstand higher temperatures. Some of the key
Because of the higher ductility and strength of the aluminum properties of aluminum oxide utilized here are
matrix, the effectual stress connected on material surface density=3.69g/cc, melting point –20720C, mesh size=100–
along with the wear progression is less on account of the 200 mesh, appearance – White in color.
heat–treated alloys. This occurrence caused a reduction in the — Processing
cracking propensity of the material surface when contrasted Al7075–SiC/Al2O3 samples are formed at varied weight
with the as–cast alloy [14]. The heat treatment didn’t fractions of SiC/Al2O3 (5%, 10% and 15%) utilizing stir casting
drastically modify the morphology, but rather the matrix technique. The aluminum slabs were melted in the furnace.
hardening by age hardening occurred, which prompted In the wake of liquefying, liquid aluminum was superheated
greater strength & hardness [15]. The yield strength and to 7500C temperature [5,6]. The required measures of
higher hardness of the material after this heat treatment SiC/Al2O3 particles were added to the liquid aluminum while
condition may have the benefit of keeping generation of mixing with a stirrer at 600rpm speed. The liquid Al7075–
aluminium debris & reduction in its exchange to the steel SiC/Al2O3 was filled a permanent mold and it was permitted
44 | F a s c i c u l e 1
to set. The Al7075–SiC/Al2O3 composite bars were taken out tribological properties such as the good machinability, low
from the mold. The samples were set up from as–cast wear rate, high damping capacity, and their outstanding
combinations for investigation of required properties. properties.
Shearing temperature (6200C) and shearing speed (600 rpm) — Age Hardening
were the two process parameters which affect the The as–cast composite specimens were heat treated at a
composites. To examine the effect of processing parameters temperature of 4650C for 02 hrs taken after by quickly
tests were conducted. The different process parameters were quenched in cool water. After quenching the specimens,
chosen to exert a hydrodynamic force on the molten material these are subjected to an age (precipitation hardening) by
and to retain best possible fluidity for the casting. heat–treatment the specimens to 1200C, maintaining this
temperature for 05 hrs and after that taken after cooling in air
to room temperature.
EDX ANALYSES
To determine the chemical composition of the Al7075–SiC,
alumina composites, EDX measurements are carried out in
the SEM on individual specimens. The EDX analysis indicates
the foremost composition of Al7075–SiC, alumina
composites silicon, magnesium, Fe, carbon and aluminum.
Small amount of oxygen are also observed. The signals of
oxygen may arise from the contamination of the aluminum
oxide. Table in the Figure 2 describes the atom percentage of
Si, magnesium, carbon, and aluminum. These outcomes
Figure 1. Scanning Electron Micrograph shows a uniform specified that the chemical compositions of the Al7075–SiC,
distribution of particles of SiC/Al2O3 (a) As cast Al7075 (b) 5% alumina is consistent. The atomic percentage of carbon is
SiC/Al2O3 (c) 10% SiC/Al2O3 (d) 15% SiC/Al2O3 high than compared to silicon and magnesium. The presence
In the microstructure, shown in Figure 1, of the Al7075– of carbon indicates the adding up of SiC, alumina
SiC/Al2O3 particulate composite confirms uniform reinforcement with the Al7075 matrix. The content of Silicon
distribution of the reinforcement. In the process of the (0.63 to 0.91) and Magnesium (0.6 to 2.54) indicates that the
mixing, a whirling of molten material is formed from the presence of Si and Mg in the Al7075 alloy.
rotation of the stirrer through which the SiC/Al2O3 particles From the EDX analysis (Figure 2), it is found that Al7075– SiC,
are drained into the melt. The force gave by mixing the alumina MMCs are rich in both Si and Mg. The existence of
molten material with a mechanical stirrer beats the surface MgAl2O4 at interfaces was confirmed in a detailed study on
vitality hindrance because of poor wettability of SiC/Al2O3 by the interfaces in discontinuously reinforced metal–matrix
Al composite. Once the SiC/Al2O3 particles are moved into the composites. In all the compositions of Al7075– SiC, alumina,
molten aluminium, the dissemination is firmly influenced by oxygen (O) content has been obtained. The content of O is
certain flow transitions. From the momentum transfer and due to the formation of Al2O3 on the top of the pits as the
the outspread flow of melt, lifting of SiC/Al2O3 particles will main compound on the surface. The analysis of mechanically
take place and also causes prevention of particle settling in mixed layer was carried out by utilizing EDX to study the
the matrix. Meanwhile, local hydrodynamic forces are degree of exchange of material from the disc to pin. O–
induced on the particle grouping of SiC/Al2O3 particulates. mapping, in addition, is performed to know if any sample of
These forces induced are capable of separating the clustering oxidation tested at Along with Fe, O was likewise in age
of SiC/Al2O3 particles which in turn leads to homogeneous hardened Al7075 reinforced with Sic and alumina specimens.
microstructure all through the cast segment. The O presents in an O2, though, no clarity though it is a FeO2
A strong homogeneous microstructure between the or Alumina.
reinforcement and matrix helps in the load exchange from WEAR ANALYSIS
the reinforcement to the matrix. Thus, the break happens in The dry sliding wear behaviour of Al7075/SiC–Al2O3 HAMMCs
the composite via the reinforcement and not along the and heat treated (T6) Al7075/SiC–Al2O3 HAMMCs conducted
interface. Despite the fact that the SiC/Al2O3 is a non–load according to ASTM G–99 standard testing procedure. Dry
bearing ingredient, a solid particle/matrix interface helps the sliding wear experiments were conducted using a
SiC/Al2O3 particles install themselves into the matrix computerized Pin–On–Disc (POD) wear apparatus (Model:
legitimately, enhancing the crack resistance. It has been Wear & Friction Monitor TR–20) supplied by DUCOM. The dry
reported that during solidification, an enhancement in the sliding wear tests are conducted by weight loss
interfacial relationship between the aluminum matrix and measurement technique and data obtained from the
SiC/Al2O3. By reason of the uniform distribution and good experimentation for different loads, speeds and different
bonding of SiC/Al2O3 particles in the aluminium matrix, compositions for as–casted and age hardened conditions.
Al7075–SiC/Al2O3 particulate composites have greater
45 | F a s c i c u l e 1
SEM was carried out to understand the changes in worn

surfaces with the addition of SiC and Al2O3 reinforcements.
The dry sliding wear behavior of Al7075 base Alloy–Sic– Al2O3,
HAMMCs and heat treated (T6) Al7075 base Alloy–SiC– Al2O3
HAMMCs conducted according to ASTM G–99 standard
testing procedure. Dry sliding wear experiments were
conducted using a computerized Pin–On–Disc (POD) wear
apparatus(Model: Wear & Friction Monitor TR–20) supplied by
DUCOM The machine comprises of high carbon EN–31steel
disc and a wear track diameter of 90 mm. The cylindrical
specimen of 10 mm diameter and 30 mm height were utilized
for wear tests. Wear tests conducted for 3 different normal
loads i.e. 2kg, 4kg, 6kg, at a fixed sliding velocity of 0.942m/s,
(a) 0% reinforcement
1.8849m/s, 2.82m/s for 200, 400, 600rpm respectively for
about 5minutes.During the wear test, height loss of the
specimen was recorded and the corresponding volume loss,
wear rate, were calculated. Before and after the test, both disc
and specimen were cleaned.
After the sliding wear test the volumetric wear loss was
calculated over a Sliding distance of 282.47m, 565.48m, and
848.23m for 200, 400, 600rpm respectively for about 5minutes
at a load of 2kg (19.62N), 4kg (39.24N), 6kg (58.86N). It was
observed that the volumetric wear loss increased linearly with
the increase in sliding distance in all the investigating
composites. The volumetric wear loss reduced with
increment in content of SiC and Al2O3 reinforcements in
(b) 5% reinforcement MMCs when compared with base alloy. It shows the
increased wear resistance of the composites. In HAMMCs the
reduced wear loss was observed when compared with as–
cast 7075 because of the existence of Sic and alumina, which
act as solid lubricant [19]. At higher in sliding distances the
temperature of the sliding surfaces increases, which
consequences in soften of the pin surface which is in contact
with the disc, leading to heavy deformation and results in
advanced volumetric wear loss of the pin.
From the analysis minimum wear loss was observed in
Al7075–10wt%SiC–10wt% Al2O3 HAMMCs. Dry sliding wear
tests on hybrid aluminum matrix composites, reinforced with
silicon carbide and graphite particle and show that graphite
particles were useful agents in rising resistance of dry sliding
(c) 10% reinforcement wear of Al2219–SiCp composites [20]. Graphite particles
effect on distribution on wear behavior of aluminum
composites with a weight percentage of graphite content.
They found that the existence of graphite particulate could
enhance the wear resistance in composites. When compared
with base matrix alloy lower wear loss was observed in
composites. Increased loads resulted in delamination leading
to high volumetric wear of both the matrix alloy.
— Impact of sliding distance on the volumetric wear rate
The volumetric wear rate varies with the sliding distance as
shown in Figure 3(a–c) as–cast and Figure 4(a–c) with age
hardening, by incrementing the sliding distances rate of wear
reduces. The high temperature effect led to deformation
instead of wear in softer material. This outcome is seen in
(d) 15% reinforcement
each composites which reduces the rate of wear.
Figure 2. EDX profile analysis for the surfaces
46 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Figure 3a. Volumetric wear rate vs sliding distance Al7075 Figure 4b. Volumetric wear rate versus sliding distance Al7075
HAMMCs at load of 2kg [as–cast] HAMMCs at 4kg load [age hardening]
Figure 3b. Volumetric wear rate vs sliding distance Al7075 Figure 4c. Volumetric wear rate versus sliding distance Al7075
HAMMCs at a load of 4kg [as–cast] HAMMCs at 6kg load [age hardening]
From Figure 3 to 4 it was observed that the volumetric wear
loss decreased in heat treated 7075 HAMMCs increased Sic
and Al2O3 reinforcement (10%). When compared with the
7075 HAMMCs.
In aged HAMMCs the volumetric wear loss was further
reduced when compared with 7075 HAMMCs. Remarkably
the lowest volumetric wear loss was observed in heat treated
Al7075–10%SiC + 10%Al2O3– with ageing when compared to
7075 HAMMCs. Wear behavior of AA6092–SiC composite
which is heat treated, highlighted the improvement in
hardness due to T6 heat treatment, which lead to the
improved wear resistance of MMCs.
Figure 3c. Volumetric wear rate vs sliding distance Al7075 — Outcome of functional load on the volumetric wear
HAMMCs at a load of 6kg [as–cast] rate
The wear properties of 7075 HAMMCs and heat treated 7075
HAMMCs were discussed on the basis of volumetric wear rate
with applied load. From Figure 5 to Figure 6 it was observed
that, with an increase in load from 2 kg (19.62N), 4 kg (39.24N)
and 6 kg (58.86N) the volumetric wear rate increased in 7075
HAMMCs and heat treated 7075 HAMMCs proportionately.
In heat treated 7075 HAMMCs, the volumetric wear rate was
less when compared with the 7075 HAMMCs Also the lowest
volumetric wear rate was observed at Al7075–10%SiC +
10%Al2O3, at a load of 2 kg(19.62 N). The cumulative volume
loss increases with increasing applied normal load [96]. The
parameters like time 5minutes, track diameter 90mm is
Figure 4a. Volumetric wear rate vs sliding distance Al7075
considered for all the wear specimens without heat treatment
HAMMCs at a load of 2kg [age hardening]
and age hardening.
47 | F a s c i c u l e 1
From Figure 5a, for sliding velocity 0.9424m/s, the volumetric automotive application [89]. The addition of reinforcement in
wear rate will increases as there is increase in applied load. an aluminium matrix increases the load bearing capacity and
Also the lowest volumetric wear rate was seen at higher wear resistance. The role of silicon carbide and
Al7075+10%Sic + 10%Al2O3, from Figure 5b, sliding velocity is alumina are responsible for improving the wear resistance of
1.884 m/s the Volumetric wear rate will be less for 10% the hybrid composites. Because of increase in load rate of
reinforcement at a speed of 400 RPM is applied. From Figure wear incremented as material contacting pressure is more.
5c, for sliding velocity2.827 m/s, the volumetric wear rate will Pressure raise influenced the wear depth this is seen from the
decreases for 15% reinforcement when load is applied and it Figure 5 to 6.
is less for 10% reinforcements.
Figure 6a: Volumetric wear rate at an applied of speed 200 RPM in

Figure 5a: Volumetric wear rate at an applied of speed 200 RPM in Al7075 HAMMCs [age hardening]
Al7075 HAMMCs [as–cast]
Figure 6b: Volumetric wear rate at an applied of speed 400 RPM in

Al7075 HAMMCs [age hardening]
Figure 5b: Volumetric wear rate at an applied of speed 400 RPM in
Al7075 HAMMCs [as–cast]
Figure 6c: Volumetric wear rate at an applied of speed 600RPM in

Al7075 HAMMCs [age hardening]
Figure 5c: Volumetric wear rate at an applied of speed 600 RPM in From Figure 6a,sliding velocity 0.9424m/s the Volumetric
Al7075 HAMMCs [as–cast] wear rate will increases as the load increases to 4kg and again
The inclusion of ceramic materials in an aluminium alloys increases as the load increases to 6kg and it is observed From
incremented the load bearing capacity. The investigation of Figure 6b, sliding velocity 1.884 m/s, the Volumetric wear rate
wear behaviour of Aluminum Matrix Composites against will be less for 5% reinforcement when a load of 6kg is
friction materials is receiving particular attention because of applied. From Figure 6c, for sliding velocity 2.827m/s, the
the possibility of using these materials for disc brakes in volumetric wear rate will decreases for 5% reinforcement
48 | F a s c i c u l e 1
when 4kg load is applied and it is less for 15% reinforcement In Al7075–10%Sic–10%Al2O3 HAMMCs reported the least
when 6kg load is applied. Silicon carbide reinforced wear rate at 58.86 N load. From Figure 7a to Figure 7c it was
aluminum alloy composite observed that the useful effect of seen that the wear rate reduced drastically with sliding
particle reinforcement is reduced with load increment. The distance from 282.47m, 565.48m, and 848.23m for 200, 400,
effect of each reinforcement particle is able to carry a bigger 600rpm in base alloy Al7075 HAMMCs and heat treated
portion of load. Al7075 HAMMCs Further increase in sliding distance, the wear
— Result of sliding distance (sliding speed) on wear rate rate reduces gradually, beyond sliding distance of around
In the Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) increase wt% of SiC 848.23 m, the wear rate remains almost unchanged. This
and Al2O3 reinforcement improves the hardness. At larger clearly reflects that the wear stabilization called critical point
sliding distances, the rise of the sliding surface temperature is and the corresponding sliding distance and wear rate are
unavoidable. Addition of hard particulate reinforcement in considered to be critical, beyond which the wear stabilization
the composites restricts the composites from getting soft was observed.
which results in the reduction in wear rate. A Similar trend was
observed in case of Al7075–Sic–Al2O3HAMMCs as shown in
Figure 7 to Figure 8.
Figure 8a: Wear rate vs sliding distance for HAMMCs at a load of

2kg, after a sliding distance of 848.23 m [age hardening]
Figure 7a: Wear rate vs sliding distance for HAMMCs at a load of

2kg, after a sliding–distances of 848.23 m [as–cast]
Figure 8b: Wear rate vs sliding distance for HAMMCs at a load of

4kg, after a sliding– distances of 848.23m [age hardening]
Figure 7b: Wear rate vs sliding distance for HAMMCs at a load of

4kg, after a sliding– distance of 848.23 m [as–cast]
Figure 8c: Wear rate vs sliding distance for HAMMCs a load of 6kg,
after a sliding distance of 848.23 m [age hardening]
Figure 7c: Wear rate vs sliding distance for HAMMCs at applied The reduced wear rate was observed in heat treated HAMMCs
load of 6kg, after a sliding distance of 848.23 m [as–cast] with increment in SiC and Al2O3 reinforcements as shown in
49 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Figure 8(a–c). The improvement in hardness number of the

composite represents the reduced rate of wear as noticed by
researcher. The minimum wear rate was observed for all
loading conditions in Al7075–10%SiC–10%Al2O3 HAMMCs
with T6 heat treatment also observed the least wear rate at
58.86N.Minimum wear rate was observed that in Heat treated
HAMMCs at 58.86 N loads.
At higher loads the temperature of the sliding surfaces
increases which leads to higher wear rates. But due to hard
particulate reinforcement in the composites, it restricts the
composites from getting soft. Further increased sliding
distance reduces the wear rate and after a particular sliding
distance. Figure 9b. Effect of load on the rate of wear of HAMMCs for a
The wear rate remains almost unchanged as shown in Figure speed of 400 RPM [as–cast]
7 to Figure 8. This clearly reflects that the wear stabilization
occurs at a critical point and such corresponding sliding
distance and the wear rate are considered as critical, beyond
which the wear stabilization occurs.
— Effect of applied load on wear rate
The applied load is the most dominating factor which
controls the wear behavior. Figure 9 to Figure 10 shows the
effect of applied on the wear rate of 7075 HAMMCs and heat
treated 7075 HAMMCs. The wear rate varies with the normal
load. It was seen that at high loads the wear rate was
increased in both 7075 HAMMCs and heat treated 7075
HAMMCs with the increase in load the wear rate was
increased. The decrease in wear rate was observed with the Figure 9c. Effect of load on the rate of wear of HAMMCs for a
increase in the percentage of SiC and Al2O3 reinforcement up speed of 600 RPM [as–cast]
to 10 wt%.
The wear rate was significantly lower in heat treated 7075
HAMMCs when compared with the 7075 HAMMCs, from
Figure 9a, for sliding velocity 0.9424 m/s. Wear rate decreases
as the % of reinforcement increases up to 10%. From Figure
9b, for sliding velocity of 1.884 m/s. Wear rate will be less for
10% reinforcement of silicon carbide and aluminium oxide.
From Figure 9c, for sliding velocity 2.827 m/s, wear rate will
be less for 15% reinforcement. But when 6kg load is applied
the wear rate will decreases for 10% reinforcement sic and
alumina. According to several authors with an increase in
load, increase in wear rate was observed. At higher loads the
Figure 10a. Result of load on the rate of wear of HAMMCs for a
contact surface temperature increases. speed of 200 RPM [age hardening]
Figure 9a. Effect of load on rate of wear of HAMMCs for a speed of

Figure 10b. Cause of load on the rate of wear of HAMMCs for a
200 RPM [as–cast]
speed of 400 RPM [age hardening]
50 | F a s c i c u l e 1
weight loss will be less for 15% reinforcement when 4kg of

load is applied but when the load is increased to 6kg the
weight loss is reduced for 10% reinforcement.
Figure 10c. Cause of load on the wear rate of HAMMCs for a speed
of 600 RPM [age hardening]
From Figure 10a, for, sliding velocity 0.9424m/s, wear rate
decreases as the % of reinforcement increases up to Figure 11c. Outcome of load on weight loss of HAMMCs for a
10%.From Figure 10b, for, sliding velocity 1.884 m/s Wear rate speed of 600 RPM [as–cast]
will be less for 10% reinforcement of silicon carbide and
aluminium oxide. From Figure 10c, for, sliding velocity 2.827
m/s wear rate will be less for 5% reinforcement at 4kg of load.
But when 6kg load is applied the wear rate will decreases for
10% reinforcement. In the present investigation similar trend
was observed. The enhancement of hardness of the
composites in improvement of wear and seizure resistance.
Figure 12a. Outcome of load on weight loss of HAMMCs for a

Figure 11a. Result of load on weight–loss of HAMMCs for a speed

of 200 RPM [as–cast]
Figure 12b. Outcome of load on weight–loss of HAMMCs for a

Figure 11b. Outcome of load on weight– loss of HAMMCs for a

speed of 400 RPM [as–cast]
From Figure 11a, for sliding velocity 0.9424m/s, the weight
loss will be less for 10% reinforcement when speed of 200
RPM is applied. From Figure 11b, for sliding velocity 1.884 m/s,
the weight loss will be less for 10% reinforcement compared
to other percentages of reinforcement when 6kg load is Figure 12c. Outcome of load on weight –loss of HAMMCs for a
applied. From Figure 11c, for sliding velocity=2.827m/s. The speed of 600 RPM [age hardening]
51 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Friction coefficient reduced with an increment in percentage particulate metal matrix composite. Journal of Minerals &
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[5] Rajesh A M, Mohammed Kaleemulla, “Experimental
Al2O3 composites and reported the decreased coefficient of investigations on mechanical behavior of aluminium metal
friction with increase in alumina content. From Figure 12a, for matrix composites”, Materials Science and Engineering 149
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[12] Saleemsab Doddamani, Mohamed Kaleemulla, Yasmin
discovered that the homogeneous circulation of the particle Begum, Anand K J, “An Investigation on Wear Behavior of
in the matrix system with minimal amount of porosity. The Graphite Reinforced Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites”,
micro–structural study of SEM and EDX techniques shows the JoRSTEM, Sp issue; 2017: pp. 1–6.
[13] Vencl, A., Bobic, I., Arostegui, S., Bobicd, B., Marinkovic, A.,
homogeneous distribution of the particulates in the hybrid Babic, M. (2010) “Structural, mechanical and tribological
composites. properties of A356 aluminium alloy reinforced with Al2O3,
In T6 heat treated (age hardening) Al7075–10wt%SiC+10wt% SiC and SiC, graphite particles”, Journal of Alloy and
Compound, 506: 631–639.
Al2O3 HAMMCs, improved the wear resistance was observed [14] S Sawla, S Das “combined effect of reinforcement and heat
when compare with base alloy. Highest resistance to wear treatment on the two body abrasive wear of aluminium
was observed in Al7075–10wt%SiC+10wt% Al2O3 due to the alloy and aluminium particle composites”, pp 555–
561,2004.
presence of reinforcements. Further decrement in wear rate [15] Gomes E.G., Rossi, Sept 2001, Key Engg. Materials, Vol.189–
with increment in weight percent of reinforcement for the 191, pp. 496–502.
desired sliding distances. From the investigation, it was [16] N Singh, Shweta Goyal, Kishore Khanna, July 2010. “Effect of
concluded that, composites containing 10% weight of silicon Thermal Ageing on Al Alloy Metal Matrix Composite”,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, M.E. Thesis,
carbide and 10% weight of aluminium oxide reinforcements ThaparUniversity, Patiala, India.
with ageing exhibited superior mechanical and tribological [17] Amro M. Al–Qutub, Effect of heat treatment on friction and
properties. wear behavior of Al6061 composite reinforced with 10%
submicron Al2O3 particles, Department of Mechanical
Acknowledgement Engineering King Fahd University Of Petroleum And
We wish to thank University B.D.T. College of Engineering Minerals Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
(Davangere), VGST–K FIST facility for melting and Material [18] Cui Y Geng, May 15 1997, journal of Materials Science
Testing (SJMIT, Chitradurga) for their support in providing Letters Vol. 16, N10, pp.788– 790.
facilities for various characterizations of materials and helped me [19] C.S. Ramesh, A.R. Anwar Khan, N. Ravikumar, P.
to complete my research work. This research received no specific Savanprabhu, (2005) “Prediction of wear coefficient of
grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or Al6061–TiO2 composites”, Wear, Vol. 259, pp. 602–608.
not–for–profit sectors. [20] Abdulhaqq A. Hamid, P. K. Ghosh, S. C. Jain, Subrata Ray,
(2008), “The influence of porosity and particles content on
References dry sliding wear of cast in situ Al(Ti)–Al2O3(TiO2)
[1] ASM Handbook, “Composites”, ASM International, 21 composite”, Wear, Vol. 265, Issues 1–2, pp. 14–26.
(2001).
[2] Sannino, A. P., Rack, H. J. (1995). “Dry sliding wear of
discontinuously reinforced aluminum composites: review ISSN: 2067-3809
and discussion”, Wear, 189(1): 1–19. copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
[3] Williams, J. A. (2005). "Wear and wear particles – Some Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
fundamentals." Tribology International 38(10): 863–870 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
[4] Singla, M, Dwivedi, DD, Singh, L, Chawla, V. (2009).
Development of aluminium based silicon carbide http://acta.fih.upt.ro
52 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Anca-Elena IORDAN
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF A GAME USING ANDROID API

1.
University Politehnica Timisoara, Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara, ROMANIA
Abstract: In this article are rendered the requisite stages for the accomplishment of a game. The design of the game is
accomplished by the next two unified modelling language diagrams: use-case diagram and class diagram. By achieving these
types of diagrams, the game is described in an obvious and concrete approach, without ambiguousness. There have been
identified seven specific concepts of this game, and then there have been implemented corresponding classes for these concepts.
For the game development on the Android platform it will be used computer science branches as object oriented programming
and computational geometry, and as programming language it will be used Java Standard Edition with Android application
programming interface. The CASE tool used to represent the diagrams was ArgoUML, and the source code was written in Eclipse
integrated development environment.
Keywords: Game, UML, ArgoUML, Java SE, Android API, Eclipse IDE
INTRODUCTION corresponding classes [3] for these concepts. These classes

From the perspective of UML modelling language, the are the following: “Peste”, “Foc”, “Animatie”, “VizualizareJoc”,
analysis of the software consists in the making of use-case “Joc”, “Reguli” and “Principal”.
diagram [1]. The games’ options will be described in a clear The “Peste” class contains ten atributes: nine of “int” type and
manner by representing the use-cases. Each use-case one atribute of “Bitmap” type defined in the android.graphics
presents the interactions between user (player) and the package [4]. Also this class has in its componence five
software (game). The representation of the use-case diagram methods. The structure of this class is showed in figure 2. It
is showed in figure 1. can be observed that an object of this class is made from a
“Bitmap” object (composion relation), but it can be formed
from a “Canvas” object defined in android.graphics package,
two “Rect” objects defined in android.graphics package and a
“Random” object defined in java.util [5] (aggregation
relations).
Figure 1. Use-case diagram

This diagram defines the software domain, allowing the
visualisation of the dimension and the action sphere of the
whole development process [2]. The diagram’s structure
contains:
— One actor that represents the user (player), this being the
external entity which the software interacts with.
— Three use-cases which describe the functionality of the
game. Figure 2. Structure of the “Peste” class
— Relationships between user (player) and use-cases The “Foc” class has among its componence three atributes:
(association relations) and, also relations between use- two of “float” type and one atribute of “Bitmap” type defined
cases (dependency relations). in the android.graphics package. Also this class contains two
THE DESIGN PHASE methods. The representation of this class is showed in figure
The conceptual modelling allows identification of the most 3. It can be noted that an object of this class is composed of a
important concepts used in the game’s implementation. “Bitmap” object (composition relation), but can be formed
There have been identified seven specific concepts of this from a “Canvas” object defined in android.graphics package
game, and then there have been implemented (aggregation relations).
53 | F a s c i c u l e 1
java.util [10] package and one “Canvas” object defined in

android.graphics package.
Figure 3. Structure of the “Foc” class

The “Animatie” class, which inherits the attributes and
methods of the “Thread” class defined in the java.lang [6]
package, has in its composition one attribute of “long” type
and two methods. The structure of this class is showed in
figure 4. It can be observed from the previous mentioned
figure that an object of this class is formed from a “Canvas”
object, a “Toast” object defined in the android.widget [7]
package and an “Intent” object defined in android.content
package. All of these three relations are aggregation relations.
Figure 5. Structure of the “VizualizareJoc” class
Figure 4. Structure of the “Animatie” class

The “VizualizareJoc” class, which inherits the “SurfaceView”
class defined in the android.view package, has in its
composition ten attributes: three attributes of “Bitmap” type,
one attribute of “SurfaceHolder” type, two attributes of
“List<Peste>” type, one attribute of “Foc” type, one attribute Figure 6. Structure of the “Joc” class
of “Animatie” type , one attribute of “long” type and one The “Joc” class, which inherits the attributes and methods of
attribute of “int” type. The sequence from the class diagram “Activity” class, defined in the android.app [11] package, has in
which presents the structure of “VizualizareJoc” class is its composition three methods. The structure of this class is
showed in figure 5. Due to the presence of the composition presented in figure 6. Because of the presence of the
relations, it can be observed that an object of this class is composition relation, it can be noticed that an object of this
composed of: three “Bitmap” objects, one “SurfaceHolder” class is composed from an object of “VizualizareJoc” type. Due
object which corresponding class is defined in android.view to the presence of the aggregation relations, it can be
[8] package, two object of the generic type “List” defined in observed that an object of “VizualizareJoc” type can be
java.util package, one “Animatie” object and one “Foc” object. formed of an object of “Menu” type, an object of “MenuItem”
Because of the aggregation relations existing in the class type, an object of “MenuInflater” type, an object of tip
diagram, it can be observed that an object of this class is “Bundle” type and an object of tip “Intent” type. The first three
formed also from: one “MotionEvent” object defined in objects are defined in the android.view package, the forth
android.view package, one “Context” object defined in object is defined in the android.os [12] package and the last
android.content [9] package, one “Random” object defined in (fifth) object is defined in the android.content package.
54 | F a s c i c u l e 1
The “Principal” class, which inherits the attributes and [14], it can be noticed that an object of “Reguli” type can be
methods of “Activity” class, has in its composition three formed from a “Bundle” type object and an “Intent” type
attributes and three methods. The structure of this class is object.
presented in figure 7. In this figure are represented the two GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE
existing composition relations, which means that an object of The main user graphical interface of the game is an object of
the “Principal” class is composed from an object of “Intent” „Principal” type [15], having the graphical representation
type and two objects of “Button” type defined in the which is showed in figure 9.
android.widget package. Also in the same figure are
represented four aggregation relations. Their meaning
consist in the fact that an object of the “Principal” class can
contain: an object of “Menu” type, an object of “MenuItem”
type, an object of “MenuInflater” type and an object of tip
“Bundle” type.
Figure 9. Main user graphical interface

By selecting the first option from the presented graphical
interface, it is instantiated an object of “Joc” class, which
allows the start of a new game (figure 9). To represent the two
species of fish it is used an instance of “VizualizareJoc” class
and to simulate the fish movement it is used an instance of
“Animatie” class.
Figure 7. Structure of the “Principal” class
Figure 8. Structure of the “Reguli” class

The “Reguli” class, which inherits the attributes and the Figure 10. Graphical interface of the game
methods of the “Activity” class has in its composition one CONCLUSIONS
attribute of “Button” type and one method and it is In this paper it was presented the development of a game
represented in the figure 8. In this figure it can be observed based on UML design, Android API implementation,
that an object of this class is composed from an object of ArgoUML CASE tool and Eclipse interactive environment.
“Button” type due to the presence of the composition relation The Android SDK is a strong and full-featured set of APIs that
[13]. Because of the presence of the two aggregation relations Java developers will find usual and simple to utilize. Android
55 | F a s c i c u l e 1
is a ripe, yet still growing, platform that many game

developers have enfolded. Not only is Android a well-fixed
platform, but the features of actual Android devices are
starting to exceed the features of just those of latter
generation console systems. The variety of users does
Android an important platform for game development
companies as respects the tools and services available.
Because the representation of the UML diagrams
corresponding to all three phases: analysis, design and
implementation, the puzzle game has been described in an
obvious and objective manner, without ambiguity. The use of
the unified modelling language for the achievement of the
game is characterized by rigorous syntactic, rich semantic and
visual modelling support.
References
[1] J. Hunt, Guide to the Unified Process featuring UML, Java
and Design Patterns, Springer London Ltd, 2014
[2] B. Bruegge, A. Dutoit, Object Oriented Software
Engineering Using UML, Patterns, and Java, Pearson
Education, 2013
[3] A. Dennis, B. H. Wixom, D. Tegarden, Systems Analysis and
Design with UML, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2012
[4] B. Hardy, C. Stewart, Android Programming, Pearson
Education, 2015
[5] U. Roy, Advanced Java Programming, OUP India, 2015
[6] D. Vohra, Beginning Java Programming, John Wiley & Sons
Ltd, 2015
[7] Z. Mednieks, G. Blake-Meike, M. Nakamura, Programming
Android, O’Reilly Media Inc., 2016
[8] E. Hellman, Expert Android Programming, John Wiley &
Sons Ltd, 2016
[9] B. Hardy, C. Stewart, Android Programming, Pearson
Education, 2015
[10] J. Gosling, B. Joy, G. Steele, G. Bracha, A. Buckley, The Java
Language Specification, Oracle, 2013
[11] W. M. Lee, Beginning Android Programming with Android
Studio, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2013
[12] R. Rogers, Learning Android Game Programming, Pearson
Education (US), 2011
[13] F. White, Object-Oriented Software Engineering: Practical
Software Development using UML and Java, McGraw-Hill
Education, 2015
[14] B. Rumpe, Modeling with UML, Springer International
Publishing AG, 2016
[15] B. Burd, Java Programming for Android Developers, John
Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2013
ISSN: 2067-3809
56 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1,2
Petinrin M. OMOLAYO, 1,3Adegbola A. ADEYINKA
EFFECT OF VISCOUS DISSIPATION TERM ON A FLUID BETWEEN TWO

MOVING PARALLEL PLATES
1.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, NIGERIA
2.
Prototype Engineering Development Institute, Ilesa, NIGERIA
3.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, LadokeAkintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, NIGERIA
Abstract: The fully developed laminar heat transfer of a Newtonian fluid flowing between two parallel plates where the bottom
plate is fixed and the top plate is moving in an axial direction at constant speed was analyzed taking into account the viscous
dissipation of the flowing fluid. Applying the velocity profile obtained for the plane Coutte-Poiseuille laminar flow, the energy
equation with the viscous dissipation term was exactly solved for the boundary conditions of constant wall heat flux at one wall
with the other insulated. Special attention is given to the shear produced by the movable top plate over and above the viscous
dissipation due to internal fluid friction. The reason behind the behaviour exhibits by the temperature profile obtained at different
velocities can be attributed to the effect of viscous dissipation coming into play due to the shear stress within the fluid layer
induced by the movement of the upper plate.
Keywords: heat transfer, parallel plates, viscous dissipation, velocity profile, boundary conditions
INTRODUCTION power generation induced by the shear stresses. Heat transfer

Deformation and flow of materials require energy. This and microscale fluid flow has a different behavior from that of
mechanical energy is dissipated during the flow and is macroscale case. At macroscale, a slip condition for the
converted into internal energy of the material. The increase of velocity and a jump condition for the temperature should be
internal energy is in form of temperature rise. Viscous adopted. Gad-el-Hak [1] treated analysis for microchannel
dissipation is of interest for many applications: significant flows through study of microdevices fluid mechanics. Guo
temperature rises are observed in polymer processing flows and Li [3] studied the size effects on micro scale single-phase
such as injection molding or extrusion at high rates. fluid flow and heat transfer. Wu and Cherg[4] studied the
Aerodynamics heating in the thin boundary layer around friction factor and convective heat transfer in smooth silicon
high speed aircraft increases the temperature of skin. Viscous microchannels of trapezoidal cross-section. Zhang et al. [5]
dissipation for a fluid with suspended particles is equated to validated the Navier-Stokes equation for slip flow in transition
the viscous dissipation in a pure Newtonian fluid, both being region.
in the same flow (same macroscopic velocity gradient). The A numerical study [6] reported the influence of viscous
fluid flow in small devices and the corresponding heat dissipation for the flow of a Newtonian for the flow of a
transfer has received serious attention in recent past in view Newtonian fluid through a parallel plate channel. The effects
of the remarkable development in the field of of viscous dissipation on laminar forced convection through
microelectronics and MEMS. In small devices the effect of a pipe and channel have been studied [7] for the flow of a
viscous dissipation that could play a vital role, result in Phan-Thien Tanner fluid. The study has revealed that the
inefficient heat dissipation leading to overheat problems. The viscous dissipation enhances the fluid elasticity. Performing
understanding of the fluid flow phenomena has been an analytical study, using a functional analysis method, the
critically reviewed [1] through micro scale devices and effects of viscous dissipation on the heat transfer have been
explored the physics of flow emphasizing the use of MEMS in investigated [8] for a thermally-developing laminar Hartman
different areas for flow control. flow through a parallel plate channel with the aid of a
There has been an increase in research on flow and heat in magnetic field. In a study of thermal development of forced
microchannels recently due to the development in specific convection in a parallel plate channel filled by porous
areas such as microfabrication technology, micro devices, medium, an investigation of the effects of viscous dissipation
micro electromechanical systems (MEMSs), the electronic has been done [9] with the thermal boundary condition of
Industry and the biomedical engineering. For a rarefied fluid uniform wall temperature including axial conduction effects.
flow at microscale a slip condition for the velocity and a jump The analysis of laminar forced convection in a pipe for a
condition for the temperature should be adopted [2]. Viscous Newtonian fluid of constant properties has been performed
dissipation is another parameter that ought to be taking into [10] by taking the effect of viscous dissipation into account.
account at microscale. Viscous dissipation changes the The analytical work by Aydin and Avci [11] has dealt with the
temperature by behaving like an energy source due to a convective heat transfer problem for the plane Poiseuille flow
57 | F a s c i c u l e 1
with an emphasis given on the viscous dissipation effect. In a ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂2 u ∂2 u

recent study, [12] the effects of viscous of viscous dissipation ρ �u + v � = − + µ � 2 + 2�
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
on heat transfer between two fixed parallel plates with + Fx (2a)
constant heat flux boundary condition has been reported. ∂v ∂v ∂p ∂2 v ∂2 v
Performing a numerical study, the influence of viscous ρ �u + � = − + µ � 2 + 2 �
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
dissipation on fully developed laminar heat transfer has been
investigated [13] for a non-Newtonian fluid flowing between + Fy (2b)
two parallel plates with the axial movement of one of the Also, the energy equation containing the viscous dissipation
plates. term µØ is given in equation (3)
Problems that involve fluid flow and heat transfer with an ∂T ∂T
ρCp �u +v �
axially moving core of solid body or fluid in an annular ∂x ∂y
geometry can be found in many manufacturing processes, ∂2 T ∂2 T
= −� 2 + � + µØ
such as extrusion, drawing and hot rolling. In such processes, ∂x ∂y 2
a hot plate or cylindrical rod continuously exchanges heat +q (3)
with the surrounding environment. For such case, the fluid where
involved may be Newtonian or non–Newtonian and the flow
∂u ∂v 2 ∂u 2 ∂v 2
situations encountered can be either laminar or turbulent. In µØ = µ �� + � + 2 �� + � � ��
such industrial applications, it is of great importance to ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
encounter the heat transfer from the moving boundary to the For a fully developed fluid flow between two parallel plates
surrounding fluid and vice-versa. where one of the plates is set in motion and the other plates
In the previous report, the effect of viscous dissipation on fully is kept stationary, the fluid between the plate is said to be
developed Newtonian laminar heat transfer was discussed for subjected to coquette flow. Example of this flow can be found
the case of concentric annuli with axially moving cores. In this in journal bearing.
report, developed laminar heat transfer of a Newtonian fluid This fluid motion is also the case of parallel flow, in which the
flowing between two parallel plates with one moving plate flow motion is only in one direction, which indicates that the
was analyzed taking into consideration the viscous velocity component in y-direction is zero (v=0). Therefore,
dissipation of the flowing fluid. Applying the velocity profile from equations (1), the continuity equation reduces to
obtained for the plane Coutte-Poiseuille laminar flow, the ∂u
energy equation with the viscous dissipation term was =0 (4)
∂x
exactly solved for the boundary conditions of constant wall Also, from equations (1) and (2), the momentum equation
heat flux at one wall with the other insulated. The objective reduces to
of the paper is to investigate the effect of viscous dissipation ∂p ∂2 u
on the heat transfer on a two parallel plates where one plate 0 = − + µ � 2� (5)
∂x ∂y
is moving and between two moving parallel plates.
Neglecting the body forces Fx and Fy.
NUMERICAL FORMULATION
In couette flow, the fluid motion is sustained by the force
The assumptions used in this analysis are:
provided by one of the plates and not by the pressure
1. The flow is incompressible and steady- laminar, and fully
gradient, therefore, equation (5) further reduces to
developed hydro-dynamically and thermally.
∂²u
2. Either of two parallel plates is axially moving at a constant 0= (6)
velocity. ∂y²
3. The fluid is Newtonian and physical properties are Since uniform temperature field is going to be experienced
constant. on both plates, from equation (3), the convection term which
4. The body forces and axial heat conduction are neglected. has the temperature gradient, reduces to zero: Therefore, if
The governing equations consist of continuity, momentum the heat generation term, q is neglected, then equation (3)
and energy equations. In order to get the velocity and can be redefined as
temperature distributions between two plates, the governing ∂²T ∂u 2
k + µ� � (7)
equations have been derived based on the above-mentioned ∂y² ∂y
assumptions. — Boundary Conditions
— Governing Equations The viscous domain considered is engine oil; which has a
For steady, and two dimensional flow of an incompressible density, 𝜌𝜌= 888.2 kg/m3, thermal conductivity, k=0.145W/(m
fluid with constant fluid properties, the continuity equation K), dynamic viscosity, 𝜇𝜇=0.79938Pas and specific heat
and momentum equations are given in equation (1) and (2) cp=1870J/(kg K); and is bounded by two parallel plates of
respectively [14] length 10mm each with a gap of 3mm. The lower plate
∂u velocity varies from 0 to 10m/s for each parametric run of
+= 0 (1)
∂x upper plate velocity from 0 to 10m/s. The lower plate’s
58 | F a s c i c u l e 1
temperature is kept at 283.15K while the temperature of the attributed to the effect of viscous dissipation coming into
upper plate is kept at 303.15K. Since it was assumed there is play due to the shear stress within the fluid layer induced by
no heat flux to in direction of shear, thermal insulation was the movement of the upper plate.
applied to the two boundaries of the gap between the plates
with velocity symmetry boundary condition.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The velocity distribution when upper plate velocity is at
10m/s and when both plates moves in opposite direction
with velocities at 10m/s are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2
respectively. In this paper, the effect of viscous dissipation
term on a fluid between two moving parallel plates, where
the bottom plate is fixed and the top plate is moving in an
axial direction at a constant speed has been analysed. The
velocity is an important parameter governing the heat
transfer and fluid flow in a channel between two plates
moving in opposite direction. Actually, it is a dimensional way Figure 3: Temperature distribution
of representing the effect of viscous dissipation. when upper plate velocity is at 10m/s
370
360 v=0
350 v=1
Temperature (K) v=2
340
330 v=3
320 v=4
310 v=5
300 v=6
290 v=7
280
v=8
270
v=9
0 0.001 0.002 0.003
v=10
Distance From Lower Plate (m)
Figure 4: Temperature distribution between stationary lower plate

Figure 1: Velocity distribution and moving upper plate with varying velocities
when upper plate velocity is at 10m/s Viscous dissipation always generates a distribution of heat
source stimulating the internal energy in the fluid, and hence
the temperature profile gets distorted when both plates
move in opposite direction as it is clear in Figure 5 and 6. It is
observed that the velocity of the upper plate has great
influence on the thermal behaviour of the film as the
temperature rises towards the film centre with increase in
velocity.
Figure 2: Velocity distribution when both plates moves

in opposite direction with velocities at 10m/s
Figure 3 and Figure 4 depict the variation of temperature
profile for different velocities for the upper plate while
keeping the lower plate at stationary position. Viscous
dissipation acts as a source of energy in the flow and this
severely affect the temperature distribution in Figure 3 and
Figure 4. The reason behind such a behaviour exhibits by the Figure 5: Temperature when both plates moves in opposite
temperature profile obtained at different velocities, can be direction with velocities at 10m/s
59 | F a s c i c u l e 1
with Uniform Wall Heat-Flux: The Graetz Problem

620 v=0 Extended, Energy Conversion and Management, 44, 2003,
570 v=1 11-34.
v=2 [9] D.A. Nield, A.V. Kuznetzov, and M. Xiong, Thermally
Temperature (K)
520 v=3 Developed Forced Convention in Porous Medium: Parallel-

470 v=4 Plate Channel with Walls at a Uniform Temperature, with
v=5 Axial Conduction and Viscous –dissipation Effects, Int.J.
420 v=6 Heat Mass Transf., 46, 2003, 643-51.
370 v=7 [10] O. Aydin, Effects of Viscous Dissipation on the Heat Transfer
v=8
in a Forced Pipe. Part1: Both Hydrodynamically and
320 v=9
Thermally and Developed Flow, Energy Conversion and
v=10
270 Management, 46, 2005, 757-69.
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 [11] O. Aydin, and M. Avci, Viscous-dissipation Effect on the Heat
Distance From Lower Plate (m) transfer in a Poiseuille Flow, Applied Energy, 83, 2006,
Figure 6: Temperature distribution between lower plate at 10m/s 495—512.
with varying upper plate velocities in opposite direction [12] J. Sheela-Francisca, and C.P. Tso, Viscous Dissipation Effects
CONCLUSION On Parallel Plates with Constant Heat Flux Boundary
In this present study, fully developed laminar heat transfer of Condition, Int. Commun. Heat MassTransf., 36, 2009, 249-
a Newtonian fluid flowing between two parallel plates with 254.
one moving plate was analyzed taking into account the [13] G. Davaa, T. Shigechi, and S. Momoki, Effects of Viscous
Dissipation On Fully-developed Heat transfer of Non-
viscous dissipation for the thermal boundary conditions of
Newtonian Fluids in Plane Laminar Poiseuille-Couette Flow,
constant wall heat flux at one wall with the other insulated.
Int.Commun. Heat Mass Transf., 31(5), 2004, 663-672.
Apart from the effect of viscous dissipation due to internal [14] F. P. Incropera, and D. P. Dewitt, Fundamentals of Heat and
fluid friction, an emphasis on viscous dissipation is given to Mass Tranfer, (5th edition, New York: John Wiley & Sons,
include the effect of shear stress induced by the movement 2005)
of the top plate. The reason behind such a behaviour exhibits
by the temperature profile obtained at different velocities,
can be attributed to the effect of viscous dissipation coming
into play due to the shear stress within the fluid layer induced
by the movement of the upper plate.
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[7] F.T. Pinho, and P.J. Oliveira, Analysis of Forced Convection ISSN: 2067-3809
in Pipes and Channels with the Simplified Phan-thien- copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
tanner Fluid, Int.J. Heat Mass Transfer, 43, 2000, 2273-87. Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
[8] J. Lahjomri, K. Zniber, and A.A. Oubarra, Heat transfer by 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
Laminar Hartmann’s Flow in the Thermal Entrance-region http://acta.fih.upt.ro
60 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Ancuţa NEDELCU, 2.Cristina COVALIU, 1.Lucreţia POPA, 1.Radu CIUPERCA,
1.
Alexandra ANGHELET, 1.Ana ZAICA, 1.Mircea COSTIN
MODERN TECHNOLOGIES AND INSTALLATIONS DESIGNED TO

INDUSTRIAL SCALE CULTIVATION OF MICROALGAE FOR OBTAINING
ALGAL BIOMASS
1.
National Institute of Research – Development for Machines and Installations
Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry – INMA Bucharest, ROMANIA
2.
University Politehnica Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering, ROMANIA
Abstract: Nowadays, the biomass produced by the energetic plants is rather criticized, because these plants need large culture
surfaces, thus competing with the agricultural land allotted to food production. One of the current trends of scientific biological
researches with practical goal is the cultivation of algae designed to obtain the algal biomass as an important raw material used
in biotechnologies for production of alternative fuel. This paper presents the most up-to-date technologies and installations for
industrial cultivation of microalgae together with INMA researches results materialized in the installation of open culture systems
growing, of waterfall type.
Keywords: algae, cultivation technologies, biomass, biofuels
INTRODUCTION Recently, large quantities of red, brown and green and blue-
Production of vegetal biomass at large scale means to green algae are being cultivated. Algae make efficiently use
cultivate numerous species of plants. According to specialty of solar energy conserving it in biomass. (Marchin T.. s.a.. 2015).
literature (R. Şumălan. 2011), biomass is a very important More recently, algae industrial growing increased in the
component of carbon cycle and the carbon from atmosphere whole world as a source of renewable fuels. According to
is turned into biological matter (biomass) by photosynthesis. estimates, from the 50,000 of microalgae species cultivated,
By vegetal matter combustion, the carbon returns into the about 10 are being grown at industrial scale in order to obtain
atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Biomass is biodegradable and some products such as: Spirulina, Crypthecodinium cohnii,
renewable. Production of biomass is continuously extending Chlorella, Dunaliella salina, Ulkenia sp, Haematococcus
due to increased interest in alternative energy sources. pluvialis, Schizochytrium, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae,
Biomass is a renewable energy that supplies biofuels, Euglena and Odontella aurita.
generally of solid type and liquid biofuels. (I.R. Pecingina. 2011). Among the 10 species industrially cultivated, the species
Biofuels are fuels produced by bio-renewable sources coming Chlorella, Spirulina and Cryptecodinium have the biggest
from nature that, after their combustion in the engine contribution, as it results from the studies of specialists in
produce less noxious emissions to the environment. domain. (S. Dobrojan s.a.. 2016; Egardt J. Lie O. 2013).
According to European and national laws and literature A strategic trend that is more and more spread lately is based
(Carăuş I. 2007; I.R. Pecingina. 2011; M. Pavnutescu. 2011) on on obtaining biodiesel and biogas from algal biomass.
improving environment quality, the general goal is to limit MATERIAL AND METHOD
the quantity of fuel related to harvests and orient towards the Large-scale cultivation of algae is achieved by means of
biofuel coming from non-food sources, such as waste and various installations in terms of size, design and shape. There
algae. were designed very simple installations consisting of
The higher price of oil, as well as, the growing food crisis has channels of small depth made in the soil, lined with
led to an increased interest in algae culture, from which result polyethylene foil, but also special installations of big size were
vegetal oil, biodiesel, bioethanol, biobutanol and other fuels. built, these ones comprising concreted circular or other
This new energy source has many advantages among which shape basins endowed with systems of agitation of algal
the fact that it does not harm the environment, when storing suspension, aerating systems, harvesting systems and even
it randomly and it does not affect fresh water stock, being devices of adjusting the growing parameters (including
biodegradable. automated systems).
According to quantitative criterion, algal biomass represents Industrial-scale cultivation of microalgae is being achieved by
about 20% out of world aquaculture production (S. Dobrojan different systems, as they are shown in the scheme from
and. so on, 2016). The advantages and very good results Figure 1.
obtained by applying at different fields algal biomass make
imperative the necessity of growing algae.
61 | F a s c i c u l e 1
rays on both sides. The bags with algae are hung from the
ceiling and the roof protects them against the rain. Due to
sunlight exposure algae productivity increases, as well as
extracted oil yield. At the same time, algae contamination
must be avoided. Another type of bioreactor is the tubular
reactor, built of transparent pipes placed in parallel. In Figure
4 is presented a vertical tubular bioreactor (M. Farieda. s.a..
2017.)
Figure 1 – Schematic representation of algae growing systems

— Open algaculture systems are recommended for areas of
warm climate.
From practical reasons, algae should be grown in special
farms and they should not be harvested in their natural
environment, namely in the sea. Taking into account that the
open systems might be contaminated by bacteria, biomass is Figure 4 - Tubular photobioreactor with vertical tubes
mainly designed to obtain biofuel. The French-Dutch Company Cloud Collective (Beverley
A large capacity farm endowed with circular basins, built in Mitchell, 2014) has transformed one strip of a Swiss highway
Taiwan is shown in Figure 2. in Geneva into an urban algae culture farm using the algal
Its basins have approx. 45 meters diameter and the algal slurry bioreactor with transparent pipes. (Figure5 a).
depth is about 50cm; the algal culture is agitated by means of The installation was designed and manufactured in order to
a mobile radial arm that also injects pressure air into the algae demonstrate that any urban scenery can be used as support
growth medium, where carbon dioxide of 20% was added for for producing biomass. (Figure 5b). The algae liquid slurry
Chlorella and 10% for Spirulina culture. circulates through the transparent pipes feeding with carbon
dioxide coming from emissions generated by motorcars
passing on the highway.
The process results in biomass-green fuel and environment
air filtration using a simple method.
Figure 2 – Industrial-scale installation for growing microalgae

(from Hills, 1981)
— Closed systems of industrial scale algae culture consist of
closed bioreactors placed vertically or horizontally, the
algaculture being grown in recipients as sacks, bags,
tubes, columns, flat constructions, etc.
Algae growth in closed cells (bags) and columns, Figure3 was
developed as an alternative method of producing algae more
rapidly and more efficiently than in the open systems.
Figure 5 – Biomass production through a system of transparent

pipes mounted on a viaduct
a) Highway overpass in Geneva; b) Production of algae biomass in
Figure 3 – Algae cultivation in plastic bags transparent tubing reactors installed in urban areas
Within the system of algae culture on vertical, the algae are Another type of photobioreactor is the flat panel bioreactor
laid in transparent plastic bags, this way being exposed to sun as in Figure 6 (M. Farieda s.a.. 2017. A.C. Apel s.a .2017) The
62 | F a s c i c u l e 1
method consists in passing a thin algae layer on a transparent light dissipation of heat, easy cleaning and maintenance.
panel made of glass, plexiglass or polycarbonate. A special Algae culture is recirculated and slips on transparent panels
attention was given to flat photobioreactors due to big ratio in a thin layer of 3…35 mm.
between surface-volume and high density of cells. Algae growing technology includes a series of processes,
methods and techniques that must be respected and applied
for obtaining algal biomass:
— Ensuring the nutritive environment;
— Algae inoculation is accomplished by special methods
varying according to culture growing characteristics, level
of adaptation to concrete cultivation conditions;
— Ensuring the conditions of cultivation-temperature,
illumination, stirring;
Figure 6 – Photobioreactor with flat vertical panels — Biomass obtaining.
Flat panels have generally the advantage of being able to be The researches on algaculture in the installation of waterfall
placed vertically or inclined towards sunlight, for a better type are being in course of developing.
illumination. A microalga cultivated in this installation is Chlorella. This
As a general rule, the algaculture installations of any type microalgae is rich in proteins and essential fatty acids,
comprise: photobioreactors, energy sources, feeding minerals, vitamins, fibres. Chlorella is the richest source of
systems, stirring systems, illuminating systems, harvesting chlorophyll known up to present, but it is cultivated also as a
systems, automating and control systems of working process. rich source of ribonucleic (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid
RESULTS (DRA).
In order to study an innovative technology for obtaining algal
biomass in laboratory conditions, a functional model of
installation for growing algae in open system of waterfall
type, has been performed within INMA Bucharest.
Installation is made of one or several flat open reactors
working in waterfall system, one collecting compartment,
illuminating system, stirring system, algae recirculation
system, as it is presented in Figure 7.
Figure 8 - Diagram-technology for obtaining biogas

from algal biomass
Chlorella needs a specific medium of growing, namely a high
purity and quality of water at which adds a great variety of
natural minerals.
Culture of algae studied will grow in BBM (Bold Basal Medium)
medium.
The innovative technology designed to obtain advanced
biofuel from algae, proposed by INMA. Figure 8 consists in the
a)
following special technical equipment:
— Open growing system of algae using the waterfall type
installation whose size is in accordance with the capacity
of production desired.
— Algae harvesting-by filtration and centrifugal force.
— Obtaining biogas with pilot station by advanced dry and
humid methanogenesis MGA endowed by INMA.
CONCLUSIONS
— In order to improve the environment quality one of the
b) possible sources is to use the alternative energy.
Figure 7 - Installation for open system growth of algae of waterfall — Unlike other alternative sources of energy, algae present
type - ICA: 1. flat reactor; 2. collector; 3. illuminating system; 4.
a series of important advantages; they grow rapidly, do
recirculation system; 5. CO2 feeding and Ph control system; 6
agitators. a) appliance diagram; b) functional model ICA
not compete with food sources for agricultural fields and
In this type of reactor, the transparent panels made of glass, do not need fresh water to develop.
plexiglass or polycarbonate enable the sun direct radiation,
63 | F a s c i c u l e 1
— Microscopic algae could represent the newest and most [3] S. Dobrojan, V. Şalaru, V. Melnic, G. Dobrojan. (2016). Algae
viable and profitable generation of biofuels, outrunning culture. Monography (Cultivarea Algelor. Monografie). State
the traditional fuels, natural oils and wood. University from Moldavia. Laboratory of Scientific Research
— Microalgae are microscopic aquatic organisms that feed “Algology”. Chisinau. ISBN 978-9975-71-736-6
by photosynthesis. [4] Egardt J., Lie O. (2013). Aulie J., Myhre P. Microalgae a market
analysis carried out as part of the Interreg KASK IVA project:
— In order to cultivate algae at industrial scale for obtaining
Blue Biotechnology for Sustainable Innovations. "Blue Bio".
biomass, three systems are viable: open, closed and hybrid Sweden. 79 p.
systems, characterized by specific technologies and [5] M. Farieda. M. Samera. E. Abdelsalam. R.S. Yousef. Y.A. Attia.
installations. A.S. Ali. (2017). Biodiesel production from microalgae:
— Installation for algae growing in open system, of waterfall Processes. Technologies and recent advancements.
type can be appropriately sized according to production Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79. pp. 893–
expected and is designed both to grow algae at lab-scale 913. Ed. Elsevier. London/U.K.
and industrial scale. [6] Alternative fuels: biodiesel from algae Tag Archives:
— Installation proposed is mainly made of one or several flat algaculture for fuel (Combustibili alternativi: biodiesel din
open reactors on which the algae culture slips in a thin alge. Tag Archives: cultivarea algelor pentru combustibil).
layer, enabling the direct sunlight, light dissipation of heat, http://inimafericita.ro/tag/cultivarea-algelor-pentru-
easy cleaning and maintenance. The advantage of system combustibil/
above is that to reach a high biomass density and a big [7] Marchin T., Erpicum M., Franck F.(2015). Photosynthesis of
productivity due to big ratio between surface and volume. Scenedesmus obliquus in outdoor open thin-layer cascade
system in high and low CO2 in Belgium. Journal of
— Biomass will be capitalized through the pilot station for
Biotechnology. Issue 215. pp.2-12. Ed. Elsevier. London/U.K.
biogas production endowed by INMA.
[8] M. Pavnutescu. (2011). Exclusively GR: Green oil from sea
Acknowledgement
algae. (Exclusiv GR: Petrol “verde” din alge marine). Green
The research work was funded by the NUCLEU Programme of
Report. http://www.green-report.ro/exclusiv-grnbsppetrol-
the Ministry of Research and Innovation through financing
ldquoverderdquo-din-alge-marine/
contract no. 8 N / 09.03.2016 –Act.Ad.2/2017 for the project " PN
[9] I.R. Pecingina. (2011). Biotechnology for Obtaining
16 24 04 04 „Researches regarding the development of an innovative
Alternative Fuels From Seaweed. Annals of the „Constantin
technology for obtaining advanced biofuels from non-food
Brâncuşi” University of Târgu Jiu. Engineering Series. Issue
bioresources.
3/2011. pp. 418-426.
Note
[10] R. Şumălan. (2011). Biomass-source of renewable energy.
This paper is based on the paper presented at ISB-INMA TEH'
2017 International Symposium (Agricultural and Mechanical Agriculture Journal (BIOMASA-Sursă de energie
regenerabilă. Gazeta de agricultură).
Engineering), organized by University “POLITEHNICA” of
https://www.gazetadeagricultura.info/eco-bio/565-
Bucharest – Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering,
National Institute of Research-Development for Machines and energie-regenerabila/11375-biomasa-sursa-de-energie-
Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry – INMA regenerabila.html.
Bucharest, Scientific Research and Technological Development
in Plant Protection Institute (ICDPP), National Institute for
Research and Development for Industrial Ecology – INCD
ECOIND, Research and Development Institute for Processing and
Marketing of the Horticultural Products “HORTING” and
Hydraulics, Pneumatics Research Institute INOE 2000 IHP,
University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of
Bucharest (UASVMB) – Faculty of Horticulture and Romanian
Society of Horticulture (SRH), in Bucharest, ROMANIA, between
26 – 28 October, 2017.
References
[1] A.C. Apel. C.E. Pfaffinger, N. Basedahl. N. Mittwollen. J. Göbel.
J. Sauter. T. Brück. D. Weuster-Botz. (2017). ” Open thin-layer
cascade reactors for saline microalgae production evaluated
in a physically simulated Mediterranean summer climate”.
Algal Research. Issue 25. pp.381-390. Ed. Elsevier. ISSN: 2067-3809
London/U.K. copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
[2] Beverley Mitchell. Freeway Algae Garden Turns CO2 Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
Emissions into Energy in Switzerland. (2014). 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
http://inhabitat.com/overpass-algae-garden-turns-co2- http://acta.fih.upt.ro
emissions-into-combustible-biomass-in-switzerland/
64 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Bianca Ștefania ZĂBAVĂ, 1.Gheorghe VOICU, 1.Nicoleta UNGUREANU, 1.Mirela DINCĂ,
1.
Gigel PARASCHIV, 1.Mariana MUNTEANU, 1.Mariana FERDES
METHODS OF BIOGAS PURIFICATION – A REVIEW

1.
University Politehnica of Bucharest. Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering, ROMANIA
Abstract: Biogas is a product of anaerobic ferment of organic products. Among the fuels from vegetal biomass, biogas has a great
importance and can successfully replace fossil fuels for obtaining electricity and heat; the use of biogas exists for a few years also
in the field of transport. Biogas formed in the methane fermentation process contains about 50÷60% of methane. Other
ingredients such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, water, water vapour and small amounts of nitrogen and oxygen are
compounds that lower the energy value of biogas. In this paper are presented the main methods of biogas purification.
Keywords: biogas, purification, methane
INTRODUCTION Biogas offers a diversity of options for use. e. g. the

A major concern for most people these days is the use and decentralised production of electricity and heat, the
availability of energy. People spend a large portion of their distribution via heat networks, the feed-in of upgraded biogas
earnings on gas, propane and oil. These fossil fuels are being into the natural gas grid and its follwing use as a natural gas
continuously used to a large extent. Because these forms of substitute for energy, as fuel or in the chemical industry –
energy are non-renewable, their availability will continue to figure 1. Independently of the use selected, the objective is to
decrease and costs will continue to go up. This has led to a make the energy utilisation as efficient as possible.
search for new energy sources. One excellent source of
energy is biogas.
Biogas originates from bacteria in the process of bio-
degradation of organic material under anaerobic (without air)
conditions. The natural generation of biogas is an important
part of the biogeochemical carbon cycle. Methanogens
(methane producing bacteria) are the last link in a chain of
micro-organisms which degrade organic material and return
the decomposition products to the environment. In this
process biogas is generated, a source of renewable energy.
Biogas is a mixture of gases that is composed chiefly of: Figure 1 - Various options for using biogas
— methane (CH4): 40-70 vol.%
MATERIAL AND METHOD
— carbon dioxide (CO2): 30-60 vol.%
Biogas is a product of anaerobic fermentation of organic
— other gases: 1-5 vol.% including
products. Of the biomass fuel, biogas is of particular
— hydrogen (H2): 0-1 vol.%
importance and can successfully replace fossil fuels for
— hydrogen sulfide (H2S): 0-3 vol.%
electricity and heat. In order to obtain biogas in a productive
Like those of any pure gas. the characteristic properties of and profitable way, it must be processed before use. Thus,
biogas are pressure and temperature-dependent. They are prior to use, raw biogas is subjected to conditioning
also affected by the moisture content. The factors of main (purification) operations, resulting in the properties required
interest are: by users.
— change in volume as a function of temperature and Biogas purification is the operation of retention of unwanted
pressure. biogas components before it is used in the combustion
— change in calorific value as a function of temperature, process. Whatever the ultimate way of using biogas, it is
pressure and water-vapor content and impossible to use it in the raw state. The only recyclable
— change in water-vapor content as a function of component is methane. To enable the use of biogas by
temperature and pressure cogeneration, the substances to be eliminated are: water,
The calorific value of biogas is about 6 kWh/m3 - this organohalogen, carbon dioxide and sulfur (Ioan B. and
corresponds to about half a litre of diesel oil. The net calorific Minciuc E., 2003).
value depends on the efficiency of the burners or appliances. The most important reasons for improving the quality of
Methane is the valuable component under the aspect of biogas include the need to meet the requirements of the
using biogas as a fuel (Thomas H. et al.). installations in which it is used (engines, boilers, fuel cells, etc.)
65 | F a s c i c u l e 1
increasing its calorific value but also for standardizing the into elemental sulfur or sulfate. These systems are designed
quality (Krzysztof B. et al..2011). to ensure a high‐density microbial community and maximize
There are small amounts of biogas present in certain contact between the microorganisms and the feed gas (Y.
compounds that due to their oxidising or incombustible Zhu, 2001).
properties have to be eliminated to favor a good combustion A biological filter combines water scrubbing and biological
process. During the conditioning process, these compounds desulfurization. As with water scrubbing, the biogas and the
that inhibit the combustion process are reduced in quantity separated digestate meet in a counter-current flow in a filter
or totally eliminated, depending on the final use of biogas. bed. The biogas is mixed with 4% to 6% air before entry into
Figure 2 shows the most commonly used methods of biogas the filter bed.
conditioning: pressure adsorption, biogas purification with Biofiltration systems can be set up in three different
water under pressure, physical and chemical absorption, configurations: bioscrubber, biofilter, and biotrickling filter
membrane separation and cryogenic separation. These (Figure 3).
methods largely involve the removal of hydrogen sulfide, carbon
dioxide and water vapor.
(a) (b)
Figure 2 - Methods of biogas conditioning

Biogas can be used as a substitute for household and
industrial gas or can be used as a renewable and sustainable
energy source to produce heat or electricity in co-generation
units (CHP) ((Krischan J. et al.,2011).
Table 1 highlights biogas components that are removed
depending on how they are used.
Table 1. Removal of biogas components according to its final use
Use H2S CO2 H2O
Gas station < 1000 No removal No removal
(boiler) ppm required required
Removal No removal Removal (c)
Stove required required required Figure 3 - Biofiltration Process Schematic
Cogeneration of
heat and
< 1000 No removal Removal A) Bioscrubber. B) Biofilter. C) Biotrickling Filter
electricity ppm required required In a bioscrubber, pollutants are absorbed into liquid flowing
Removal Removal Removal counter‐currently through an absorption column, similar to a
Fuel for cars required required required water scrubber. The liquid is then sent to a bioreactor for
Fuel for the gas Removal Removal Removal
network required required required microbes to degrade the contaminants.
The method of conditioning the raw biogas must be A biofilter consists of a packed bed of organic material that
determined from the construction of the biogas plant for the stimulates biofilm growth through which humidified biogas
fact that it may require some specific details in the is pumped. Contaminants in the biogas contact absorb and
construction of the plant. adsorb into the biofilm and interact with the microbes.
RESULTS Biofiltration systems are effective for treating low and high
Raw biogas needs to be cleaned to remove toxic and harmful H2S concentrations from 50-100 ppm to 2000-4000 ppm,
constituents (e.g.. hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, VOCs. Halides, resulting in a H2S removal of 89-99.9% at a rate of 20-125 g
moisture, siloxanes, particulates, AB 1900 COCs, etc.) to meet H2S / m3 / h. Most bacteria grow and function optimally at a
regulatory and technical standards. The principle of cleaning temperature of about 35 ° C and a neutral pH.
techniques used currently includes adsorption, biofiltration, — Adsorption
water scrubbing (an absorption process) and refrigeration. Adsorption is the adhesion of compounds onto a solid
— Biofiltration surface. When biogas is flushed through an adsorbent bed,
Biofiltration relies upon the natural biological metabolism of contaminant molecules will bind to the adsorbent’s surface,
sulfur‐oxidizing bacteria species to convert hydrogen sulfide removing the contaminants from the gas stream. Effective
66 | F a s c i c u l e 1
adsorbents are generally highly porous with high surface area be offset by the use of a single-pass water scrubbing system,
which greatly increases their removal capacity. since other processes require a regeneration stage. Water
Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) is a method for the separation scrubbing is the most applicable CO2 scrubbing process for
of carbon dioxide from methane by adsorption/desorption of use in an agricultural setting because of its simplicity, low cost
carbon dioxide on zeolites or activated carbon at alternating and low toxicity.
pressure levels. Commonly used adsorbents are zeolite, carbon Another advantage of water scrubbing over some other
molecular sieve, silicagel and activated carbon, due to their low processes is that water is fairly easy to dispose of whereas the
cost, large specific area and pore volume and excellent thermal chemicals used in some of the other processes may require
stability (Siriwardane RV. Et al., 2003). These adsorbents are special handling and disposal when spent.
designed to have a specific pore size thus enabling selective
adsorption of molecules that are smaller than the designed pore
size. Figure 4 shows a four-vessel swing adsorption adsorption
system using carbon molecular sieves that circulate between
absorption and regeneration (Zhao Q. ei al.. 2010).
Figure 5 - The process of purifying biogas

in a pressurized water system
— Refrigeration/Chilling
Refrigeration, or gas cooling provides a simple means for
removing moisture from biogas. When the gas is cooled
Figure 4 - Pressure Swing Adsorption Process Diagram (typically to between ‐18 – 2 °C), water vapor condenses on
The adsorbent must be replaced once it is filled or can be the cooling coils and can be captured in a trap. Some
regenerated a limited number of times. This contributes to ammonia will also be removed given the high solubility of
operational cost. ammonia in water. Insignificant trace amounts of other
— Pressurized Water Scrubbing compounds may also be absorbed into the water. At lower
Purification of biogas by pressure water is one of the most temperatures of < ‐73 °C. VOCs will condense and can be
widely used biogas treatment methods. Pollutant removed too. At ‐70 °C. 99% removal of siloxane can be
compounds can be physically adsorbed (or dissolved) in a achieved as well, but it is costly to operate at such low
liquid solution. temperatures.
A schematic diagram of this method is shown in figure 5. To H₂S should be removed prior to refrigeration to significantly
enhance the absorption of CO2 and H2S, biogas is usually lengthen the life of the refrigeration unit.
compressed to 900–1200k Pa and a high surface area packing Raw biogas contains a variety of compounds aside from
media is used.Inside the scrubber,biogas flows counter- methane. These include hydrogen sulfide (H2S), oxygen (O2),
currently to water that is sprayed from the top of scrubber nitrogen (N2), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), siloxanes
and the absorption primarily occurs on the surface of the and moisture (H2O). To remove these contaminants,
packing media. The raw biogas is introduced at the bottom adsorption, water scrubbing, biofiltration and/or refrigeration
of the column and flows upward, while fresh water is processes are employed (Matthew D. et al.. 2014).
introduced at the top of the column, flowing downward over Tabel 2. Contaminants removed by different biogas cleaning
technologies
a packed bed. The packed bed (typically a high-surface-area
plastic media) allows for efficient contact between the water Biogas Cleaning
Siloxanes
VOCs
H2O
NH3
H2S
and gas phases in a countercurrent absorption regime.

O2
N2
Process
It is important that the H2S be removed prior to the removal
of the CO2. as H2S is highly corrosive and would result in Adsorption ** / - ** * ** **
decreased life and higher maintenance of the subsequent Water
** -- -- ** ** ** --
compressors required in the CO2-removal step. Cleaned Scrubbing
biogas can contain > 96% CH4 after drying (Liangcheng Y. et Biofiltration ** -- -- ** / / --
al., 2014). Refrigeration / - - / ** * **
The disadvantage of water scrubbing is that it is less efficient Legend: ** High removal (intended) * High removal (pre-removal
than other processes, both in terms of CH4 loss and energy. by other cleaning technology preferred) / Partial removal - Does
However, some of the energy inefficiency of the process may not remove -- Contaminant added R Must be pretreated
67 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Next, a comparison is made between three methods of [4] Krischan J., Makaruk A., Harasek M. (2012). Design and scale-
eliminating undesirable compounds from the biogas up of an oxidative scrubbing process for the selective
composition. Each of these technologies is able to treat different removal of hydrogen sulfide from biogas. J Hazard Mater
contaminants in different degrees (Table 2). 2012;215–216:49–56;
CONCLUSION [5] Krzysztof BIERNAT, Izabela SAMSON-BRĘK.(2011). Review of
technology for cleaning biogas to natural gas quality.
Biogas is a product of anaerobic ferment of organic products.
Automotive Industry Institute PIMOT. Warsaw;
Among the fuels from vegetal biomass, biogas has a great [6] Liangcheng Yang, Xumeng Ge, CaixiaWan, FeiYuc, YeboLi.
importance and can successfully replace fossil fuels for obtaining (2014) Progress and perspectives in converting biogas to
electricity and heat; the use of biogas exists for a few years also transportation fuels. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
in the field of transport. Biogas formed in the methane Reviews;
fermentation process contains about 50÷60% of methane. [7] Matthew D. Ong..Robert B. Williams. Stephen R. Kaffka
Other ingredients such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, DRAFT. (2014). Comparative Assessment of Technology
water, water vapour and small amounts of nitrogen and oxygen Options for Biogas Clean‐up. California Biomass
are compounds that lower the energy value of biogas. Collaborative University of California. Davis;
Biogas purification is the operation of retention of unwanted [8] Paraschiv G., Dincă M.N., Ungureanu N., Moiceanu G., Toma
biogas components before it is used in the combustion M.L. (2017). Waste recycling plants (Instalații pentru
reciclarea deșeurilor). Editura POLITEHNICA PRESS.
process. Whatever the ultimate way of using biogas, it is
București;
impossible to use it in the raw state. The only recyclable
[9] Siriwardane RV. Shen MS. Fisher EP (2003).
component is methane. .AdsorptionofCO2. N2. And O2 on natural zeolites.
Raw biogas needs to be cleaned to remove toxic and harmful EnergyFuels2003;17:571–6.
constituents (e.g.. hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, VOCs, halides, [10] Thomas Hoerz, Pedro Krämer, B. Klingler, C. Kellner, Thomas
moisture, siloxane, particulates,. etc.) to meet regulatory and Wittur, F. v. Klopotek, A.Krieg. H. Euler. Biogas Digest
technical standards. The principle cleaning techniques Volume I Biogas Basics. Information and Advisory Service on
used currently include adsorption, biofiltration, water Appropriate Technology
scrubbing (an absorption process) and refrigeration. [11] Y. Zhu. (2001). The Environmental and Industrial Gas
The method of conditioning the raw biogas must be Purification Technology. Chemical Industry Press.
determined from the construction of the biogas plant for the Beijing;
fact that it may require some specific details in the [12] Zhao. Q., E. Leonhardt., C. MacConnell, C. Frear and S. Chen.
(2010). PurificationTechnologies for Biogas Generated by
construction of the plant.
Anaerobic Digestion. Climate Friendly Farming Puyallup.
Note
This paper is based on the paper presented at ISB-INMA TEH' WA: Center for Sustaining Agriculture and Natural
2017 International Symposium (Agricultural and Mechanical Resources.
Engineering), organized by University “POLITEHNICA” of [13] ***BIOGAS an introduction. Fachagentur Nachwachsende
Bucharest – Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering, Rohstoffe e.V. (FNR) Agency for Renewable Resources. 2013
National Institute of Research-Development for Machines and [14] http://www.edu.pe.ca/agriculture/biogas.pdf
Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry – INMA
26 – 28 October, 2017.
References
[1] Bejan Mircea, Rusu Tiberiu. (2007) A renewable energy
source - the biogas of organic waste (O sursă de energie
regenerabilă – biogazul din deşeurile organice). Buletinul
AGIR nr. 1;
[2] Dilea M., Paraschiv G., Voicu Gh., Biriş S.Şt., Ungureanu N.,
Toma L. Ionescu M.(2013). Biogas. The most effective ISSN: 2067-3809
technology for biomass. Bulgaria; copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
[3] Ioan Bitir Istrate, Eduard Minciuc. (2003). Utilization of Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
biogas for the production of electric and thermal energy 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
(Valorificarea biogazului pentru producerea energiei http://acta.fih.upt.ro
electrice si termice). Cartea Universitară.
68 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Ruzena KRALIKOVA, 2.Lydia SOBOTOVA
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM - A WAY TO SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT IN UNIVERSITIES
Technical University of Kosice, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
1.
Department of Process and Environmental Engineering, Kosice, SLOVAKIA
Abstract: Traditionally EMSs are implemented across all operations at a facility simultaneously. This way of implementation works
well for industry and smaller businesses and offices where operations are easily delineated and there is a simple chain of command
structure in place. The University is able to implement the EMS strategy similarly. Environmental Management System is an
integrated organized set of policies and procedures under which the University can remain compliant with applicable
environmental regulations, and in addition, manage and lessen our impacts on the environment, thereby improving the
University's overall environmental performance. The University's EMS will require continual evaluation of the University's activities
to ensure the University is doing as much as possible to reduce its impact on the environment and to remain environmentally
compliant. This paper describes present situation and approach of universities to implementation of EMSs in Slovakia and into
university management in abroad. The main principles and key requirements of the organisation management in accordance with
the sustainable development are not only safety and quality managing of all activities in organisation in both manufacturing and
services (education) but also environmental appropriate access.
Keywords: Environmental Management System (EMS) strategy, continual evaluation, implementation
INTRODUCTION monitor and manage the impact of its activities on the

The University is made up of a variety of under-graduate, environment, enterprise can gradually reduce all its negative
graduate, and professional schools, each comprised of many environmental impacts.
departments with unique specialties. In addition to
academics, the University maintains a large laboratories, a
large educational and research departments, lecture halls and
facilities maintenance staff that maintain the infrastructure of
the University, such as utilities and building [7]. With so many
diverse operations, University-wide implementation is
exceedingly difficult. To more effectively communicate the
tasks and goals of the environmental management system
(EMS) to all the faculty, staff, and students, as well as getting
the required support of the EMS from all departments, the EMS
is being implemented incrementally on a much smaller scale
[2].
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AS TOOL FOR
Figure 1. Deming cycle
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The main principles and key requirements of the organization
management are not only safety and quality managing of all
activities in organization in both manufacturing and services
(i.e. education) but also environmental appropriate access in
accordance with the sustainable development [5]. Modern
pro-environmental oriented management approaches (as BS
8555 standard, EMS, EMAS etc.) emphasizes the principle of
continuous improvement, based on the Deming Cycle,
Figure 1.
Implementation of environmental management system
influences the growing interest of the public, pressure from
customers and business partners, and especially aware of own
responsibility for the state of the environment. This system is
implemented voluntarily and the enterprise can actively Figure 2. Continual Improvement model [9]
69 | F a s c i c u l e 1
The most commonly used framework for an EMS is ISO 14001 levels of achievement, linked to each stage of EMS
standard. An integral part of the EMS is the detailed development:
systematic control of all documents including policies, Phase 1: Planning (Bronze)
procedures, training records, reports, permits, and all other — Senior management commitment
relevant environmental information, Figure 2. — Environmental awareness training
APPLICABLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM — Baseline environmental review
INTO UNIVERSITY ORGANIZATION — Draft environmental policy
Environmental management system is an integrated Phase 2: Implementing (Silver)
organized set of policies and procedures under which the — Legal & other requirements
University can remain compliant with applicable
— Significant environmental aspects
environmental regulations, and in addition, control and lessen
— Objectives, targets & programs
our impacts on the environment, thereby improving the
University's overall environmental performance. This may — Environmental policy
sound complicated, but the concept is relatively simple. As Phase 3: Operating (Gold)
coordinated teams, Environmental Health & Safety (EHS) and — Resources, roles, responsibility & authority
each department at the University systematically and regularly — Competence, training & awareness
evaluate the department’s operations for environmental — Communication
regulatory compliance and environmental impacts. — Documentation
Operations are modified as necessary to meet the — Control of documents
requirements of the regulations. Identified environmental — Operational control
impacts are ranked and investigated to find ways to prevent, — Emergency preparedness and response
lessen, or eliminate these impacts. Phase 4: Checking & Correcting (Platinum)
⧉ Policy and strategy — Monitoring & measurement
An EMS enables an organization to manage its environmental — Evaluation of compliance
performance in a comprehensive, systematic and — Nonconformity, corrective action & preventative action
documented manner. It serves as a tool to reduce the impact,
— Control of records
both immediate and long-term, of an organization’s
— Internal audit
operations on the environment. It encourages the allocation
of resources, assignment of responsibility, and ongoing — Management review
evaluation of practices, procedures and processes with a view
to continual improvement of the system [4].
For universities, the introduction of EMS mean improving the
image of the public and it also may be proof of its quality and
social responsibility. It can reform the education of the
students to a better and also open up new opportunities for
obtaining research grants and supporting cooperation
between faculties [2].
⧉ Eco Campus
One of the schemes, which enables to colleges and
universities to be recognized for addressing key issues of
environmental sustainability is Eco Campus [1]. Eco Campus
is a scheme which offers a flexible phased approach to
implementing an environmental management system for the
higher and further education sector.
Eco Campus provides a modular, phased, incremental
Figure 3. Stage of the process Eco Campus
approach to developing an EMS in line with both BS8555 &
ISO 14001. Participants gain recognition at each stage of the BS 8555
process through a series of awards from bronze Eco Campus is closely aligned to ISO 14001, the international
through silver, gold and platinum. The platinum award environmental management standard, and BS 8555, the
conforms to the requirements of the international British guidance standard.
environmental management standard ISO 14001 (see the The British Standard BS8555 (full title: Guide to the phased
Figure 3). implementation of an environmental management system
The scheme enables colleges and universities to be including the use of environmental performance evaluation,
recognized for addressing key issues of environmental Figure 4) describes how to implement a generic EMS and can
sustainability 6]. Eco Campus provides awards relating to 4 be used as a route towards ISO14001 and EMAS.
70 | F a s c i c u l e 1
— Offer opportunities to develop skills and knowledge

to live and work sustainability
— Zero waste to landfill policy commitment
— Use alternative water sources and reduce water
consumption by 25% by 2020.
MMU is an example for other universities which illustrates as
to implement and realize the environmental policies and
plans into university concept. It's vital that staff, students,
trade union representatives should be have the enthusiasm
and interest to engage in the development of environmental
policies, strategies and management plans of their university.
CONCUSION
Currently, there is no university in Slovakia, which would have
introduced a certified environmental management according
ISO 14001. According scheme EMAS II, while efforts to
introduce environmental education into university teaching
process, especially in terms of sustainable development and
the establishment of EMS in the next step. This scheme was
planning to introduce the issue of sustainable development in
relevant study program as well as the introduction of at least
one subject on that topic at all levels of higher education.
Figure 4. BS8555 Model The next phase is a scheme EMAS III, which is used in the step
FOREIGN UNIVERSITY ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT of introducing of environmental management system and
SYSTEM schemes Green University of Slovakia and also for higher
As an example of the existing EMS in foreign universities is education of institutions [3]. The aim for the future is to certify
Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU). This University the EMS in the Slovak universities the same as universities
has implemented an Environmental Management System abroad that they have been successfully practiced with
that is certified by ISO14 001 and awarded Eco campus positive results already in the process of system integration
Platinum as one of only 28% of Eco Campus-registered Acknowledgment
Universities that have Eco Campus Platinum. The The research in this paper was solved in framework of grants:
Environmental Management System is implemented by using KEGA No 045TUKE -4/2018 (50%) and KEGA No 041TUKE-
the phased approach of the Eco Campus scheme, which 4/2018 (50%), supported by Slovak Research and
provides a structured approach to work towards the Development Agency.
ISO14001:2015 standard. In 2016, MMU was the first University References
to achieve the new and more challenging ISO14001:2015 [1] Alshuwaikhat and Abubakar: An integrated approach to
standard. EMS incorporates all of the University's business achieving campus sustainability. Assessment of the
activities, including estates and operations, leadership and current campus environmental management practices,
governance, learning, teaching and research and Journal of Cleaner Production. Vol.16, 2008, pp. 1777 -
engagement activities. Environmental Sustainability Strategy 1785. ISSN 0959-6526.
2014–2020 sets out the actions MMU needs to take to achieve [2] Krasny, E. M., Lundholm, C., Plummer, R.: Environmental
our aims and become a Sustainable University [8]: ecudation, resilience, and learning: reflection and moving
forward. Environmental Education Research. Vol. 16(5-6),
— Placing environmental sustainability alongside
2010, pp. 665-672, ISSN 1350-5622.
graduate employability
[3] Procházková, D., Rusko, M.: Relation between human
— Use of sustainable modes of transport that minimize
system safety management and environmental
environmental impact
management. Journal of Environmental Protection,
— Embed sustainable design principle Safety, Education and Management. Vol. 5 (9), 2017, p.
— Grow sustainability-themed research activity by 2020 ISSN 1339-5270.
— Ambitious targets to reduce carbon emissions by [4] Rusko, M., Procházková, D.: Solution to the problems of
50% by 2020 the sustainable development management. Research
— Prevent, reduce, reuse and recycle papers Faculty of Materials Science and Technology
— Reuse and recycle 85% of waste by 2020 Slovak University of Technology in Trnava. Vol. 19 (31),
— Protect and enhance biodiversity across the 2011, p.77-84. ISSN 1336-1589.
university
71 | F a s c i c u l e 1
[5] Newman L.: Change, uncertainty, and futures of

sustainable development. Futures. Vol. 38(5). 2006. pp.
633 -637.
[6] Nicolaides, A.: The implementation of environmental
management towards sustainable universities and
education for sustainable development as an ethical
imperative, International Journal of Sustainability in
Higher Education. Vol. 7 (4), 2006, pp. 414 – 424, ISSN:
1467-6370.
[7] Rands, G. P.: A principle-Attribute matrix for
Environmentally Sustainable Management. Education
and Its Application. The case for Change-Oriented
Service-Learning Projects. Journal of Management
Education. Vol. 33 (3), 2009, pp. 296-322, ISSN 1052-5629.
[8] http://www.mmu.ac.uk/environment/ems/index.php
[9] http://ems.iema.net/emsexplained
ISSN: 2067-3809
72 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Emeka Segun NNOCHIRI, 2.Oluwaseun Adedapo ADETAYO
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF LATERITIC SOIL STABILIZED WITH

CORN COB ASH
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, NIGERIA
1.
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University, Oye-Ekiti, NIGERIA

2.
Abstract: This study assesses geotechnical properties of lateritic soil using corn cob ash (CCA). Preliminary tests were carried out
on the soil sample for classification purposes. California Bearing Ratio (CBR), Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) and
compaction tests were performed on both the soil sample and the stabilized lateritic soil, which was stabilized by adding CCA in
percentages of 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 respectively by weight of the soil. The results showed that the addition of CCA reduced the values
of Maximum Dry Density (MDD) from 1345kg/m3 at 0% CCA to 1284kg/m3, the Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) increased from
14.95% to 20.20%, both at 10% CCA. The unsoaked CBR values increased from 9.25% at 0% CCA to 28.20%, the UCS values increased
from 495kN/m2 to 560kN/m2, for both CBR and UCS, the peak values were at 8% CCA. It was therefore concluded that CCA performs
satisfactorily as a cheap stabilizing agent for stabilizing lateritic soil especially for subgrade purposes.
Keywords: Atterberg limits, corn cob ash, lateritic soil, stabilization, strength tests
INTRODUCTION in Nigeria (Joel and Edeh, 2015). According to Bello et al.

Many researchers have come up with various definitions of (2015), lateritic soils are generally used for road construction
laterites, of note to this study is as posited by Ola (1983), in Nigeria. Lateritic soil in its natural state more often, have
where laterites is defined as the product of tropical low bearing capacity and low strength as a result of high
weathering with red, reddish brown and dark brown colour, content of clay. If lateritic soil contains a substantial amount
with or without nodules or concreting and generally (but not of clay materials, its strength and stability cannot be
exclusively) found below hardened ferruginous crust or hard guaranteed under load especially in the presence of moisture.
pan. Fundamentally, soils having a ratio of silica to The presence of high plastic clay in lateritic soil, causes soil
sesquioxide (SiO2/Fe O3 + Al2 O3) which are less than 1.33 are cracks and damage on pavement, road ways, building
regarded as laterites, between 1.33 and 2.00 are as regarded foundations or any civil engineering construction projects.
as lateritic soil and those above 2.00 are as non-lateritic soils. The need to improve the strength and durability of lateritic
Though, this definition is not convenient from the soil in recent time has become imperative, consequently, this
engineering point of view especially where there is a lack of has led researchers towards using stabilizing materials that
adequate laboratory facilities. According to Maignien (1966) can be sourced locally at very a cheap cost. These local
and Gidigasu (1976) have three stages have been identified in materials can be categorized as either agricultural or
the process of laterization. The first stage, decomposition is industrial wastes. The capability to blend the naturally
characterized by physico-chemical breakdown of primary occurring lateritic soil with some chemical additives to give it
mineral and the release of constituent elements. The second better engineering properties in both strength and water
stage involves leaching under appropriate drainage proofing is very important.
condition of combined silica and bases and the relative Stabilization, according to Ogundipe (2013), is the process of
accumulation and enrichment from outside sources blending and mixing materials with a soil to improve certain
(absolute accumulation) of oxides and hydroxides of properties of the soil. The process may include the blending
sesquioxides (mainly Al2O3 and Fe2O3), the most resistant to of soils to achieve a desired gradation or the mixing of
leaching. The third stage which is the hydration or desiccation commercially available additives that may alter the gradation,
involves partial or complete dehydration (sometimes texture or plasticity or act as a binder for cementation of the
involving hardening) of the sesquioxide rich materials or soil. There are three purposes of stabilization, these include;
secondary materials. There are five major factors that strength improvement, dust control and soil water proofing
influence the formation of soils and they are: parental (Amu and Adetuberu, 2010).
material, climate, topography, vegetation and time, of these According to Mujedu et al.,(2014), corncob is the hard thick
primary factors, climate in considered to be the most cylindrical central core of the maize, it is also described as the
important factor (Ola, 1978). agricultural waste product obtained from corn or maize
Laterite, a sedimentary rock deposit arising from the which is the most important cereal crop in Sub-Sahara Africa,
weathering of rocks, is one of the most common and readily 589 million tons of maize was produced worldwide in the
available road building materials that can be sourced locally year 2000 and the United States was reported to be the
73 | F a s c i c u l e 1
largest maize producer having 52 % of world production. The corncob was collected from a large corn farmland. The
Africa produced 7% of the world maize. Corn cob ash can be cobs were dried thoroughly, cut into smaller sizes and burnt
obtained by drying the cobs thoroughly and burning them for about ten hours using open air burning at 6000C. Finally
intensively using open air burning. Thereafter, the product the product was sieved through BS Sieve 75µm Sieve.
would be sieved using sieve number 200. Potable water was gotten from the running taps in the
laboratory.
METHODS
The soil sample was air-dried for two weeks at the
Geotechnical Laboratory of Federal University of Technology,
Akure before analyzing the soil sample. The Corn Cob Ash
(CCA) was added to the natural soil sample at varying
proportion of 2,4,6,8 and 10% by weight of soil, the following
tests were carried out on the mixes: Atterberg limits test,
compaction tests, unconfined compressive strength and the
California Bearing ratio tests. The procedures for the various
tests were carried out in accordance with BS 1377 (1990) and
BS 1924 (1990).
Figure 1: Corn Cob DISCUSSIONS
LOCATION AND GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA The sum of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 for Corn Cob Ash gives
According to Ogunribido (2011), the study area Akure lies 80.44%, which is greater than 70% recommended by ASTM
within longitude 70 181 N and 70 161 N North of Equator and C618 (2003), for the classification of pozolanic materials.
between latitude 50 091 E and 50 11.51 E of Green Winch Table 1. The chemical composition test results of Corn Cob Ash
meridian. The study area occurred within the Precambrian Elemental oxides Weight percentages
Crystalline rocks of the basement complex of Southwestern CaO 10.24
Nigeria. The predominant rock types in the study area are SiO2 64.90
charnockites, granite, gneiss and migmatitic rocks. In some MgO 2.08
places in the study are these rocks have undergone deep Na2O 0.43
weathering. Al2O3 10.79
Fe2O3 4.75
SO3 2.53
K2O 4.23
Source: Owolabi et al., (2015)
Table 2. The preliminary test results of lateritic soil
Property Amount
Natural moisture content (%) 13.20
Percentage passing BS No 200 Sieve 52
Liquid limit (%) 53
Plastic Limit (%) 18
Plasticity Index (%) 35
Specific gravity 2.70
Maximum Dry Density (kg/m3) 1345
Optimum moisture content (%) 14.95
California bearing ratio (Unsoaked) (%) 9.5
Unconfined Compressive Strength (kN/m2) 495
AASHTO Classification A-7-6
Preliminary tests (such as Atterberg limits, specific gravity and

particle size analysis) were carried out on the soil sample.
Figure 2: Geological map of Akure showing study area. According to Garber and Hoel (2009), for a soil to be classified
Source: Ademeso (2009). into A-7 group, it must have a minimum liquid limit value of
MATERIALS 41%, percentage passing through BS No 200 sieve must be
The materials used for this research work were lateritic soil, greater than 35% and the Plasticity Index must be greater
Corn Cob Ash (CCA) and potable water. than 11%, all these conditions were met by the Soil Sample.
The lateritic soil was collected from at burrow pit in Akure, Also for a soil to be classified into the A-7-6 subgroup, it must
Ondo State at depths representative of the soil stratum and satisfy the following requirement, P.I > L.L -30, therefore 35 >
not less than 1.2m below the natural ground level. 53-30 = 23.
74 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Table 3: Strength test results cementitious properties calcium silicate cement with soil
CCA MDD OMC UCS CBR (Unsoaked) particles.
(%) (kg/m3) (%) (kN/m2) (%)
2 1340 15.80 510 11.10 60
4 1335 16.70 525 18.05
50
6 1320 18.10 542 24.64
8 1301 19.10 560 28.20 40
W.C (%)
10 1284 20.20 550 26.10
30
— Compaction 20
With the increased addition of CCA, the Maximum Dry LIQUID LIMIT
Density (MDD) reduced. This reduction may be attributable to 10 PLASTIC LIMIT
the replacement of soils by the CCA in the mixture which has 0
PLASTICITY INDEX
lower specific gravity of 1.05, this is less than that of the 0 2 4 6 8 CCA 10
lateritic soil (2.70). The CCA therefore fills the voids in the
lateritic soil. The reduction in MDD may also be attributed to Figure 3: Graph showing effects of CCA on Water Content (W.C.)
coating of the soil by the CCA which result to large particles CONCLUSIONS
with larger voids and hence less density (Fattah et al., 2013). From the results of the investigation carried out in this study,
With the increased addition of CCA to the lateritic soil sample, the following conclusions can be drawn:
the Optimum Moisture Content increased in value this may
— The lateritic soil was classified under A-7-6 group.
be attributed to the addition of CCA, which decreases the
— Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index values reduced
quantity of free silt and clay fraction and coarser materials
considerable from 53% at 0% CCA to 43% at 10% CCA and
with larger surface areas were formed, these process need
from 35% at 0% CCA to 20% at 10% CCA respectively.
water to take place. This implies also that more water is
needed in order to compact soil-CCA mixtures (Fattah et al., — The treatment of the lateritic soil resulted to the decrease
2013). in Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and increase in Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC) with the addition of CCA.
— California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests
It was observed that the gradual increase in addition of CCA — The Unsoaked CBR values increased with the addition of
led to increase in value of Unsoaked CBR till it got to its CCA to the lateritic soil sample to an optimum value of
optimum value of 28.20% at 8% CCA. 28.20% at 8% CCA by weight of soil from 9.25% at 0% CCA.
With the further addition of CCA that is at 10% the value in — The UCS values increased with the addition of CCA to the
CBR reduced. The increase in CBR may be because of the lateritic soil sample to an optimum value of 560kN/m2 at
gradual formation of cementitious compounds in the soil by 8% CCA by weight of soil.
reaction between CCA and some amounts of Calcium As a consequence, one can conclude that the Corn Cob Ash
hydroxide present in the soil. The decrease in CBR at 10% CCA (CCA) performs satisfactorily as a cheap agent for stabilizing
may be due to extra CCA that could not be mobilized for the lateritic soil especially for sub-grade purposes in road
reaction which occupies spaces within the sample. This construction.
reduces the bond in the soil-CCA mixture (Okafor and References
[1] Ademeso, O. A. (2009) Deformation Traits in Charnockitic
Okonkwo, 2009).
Rocks of Akure Area, Southwestern Nigeria. Asian Journal of
— Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) tests
Earth Sciences, 2: 113-120.
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optimum value at 8% CCA by weight of soil. Thereafter, it calcined natural pozzolan for use in Concrete. American
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— Atterberg limit Bamboo Leaf Ash Stabilization of Lateritic Soil in Highway
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ISSN: 2067-3809
76 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Eugen MARIN, 1.Marinela MATEESCU, 1.Dragoş MANEA, 1.Gheorghe GHEORGHE
TECHNICAL EQUIPMENT FOR WORKING THE SOIL IN THE ROW OF

FRUIT TREES SIMULTANEOUSLY WITH ROOT CUTTING TO MODERATE
SHOOTS GROWTH AND PRECISION FOLIAR FERTILISATION
1.
National Institute of Research – Development for Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry – INMA
Bucharest, ROMANIA
Abstract: INMA Bucharest designed, produced and tested an experimental model of technical equipment for working the soil in
the row of fruit trees along with root cutting to moderate shoots growth and precision foliar fertilization, within the innovative
technology of fruit plantation maintenance in the rural areas. The paper presents experimental research with the aggregate of the
TD 80D New Holland tractor and the ETR technical equipment for determining the qualitative working indexes of soil working and
root cutting. The results obtained generate valid solutions for the achievement of a significantly improved product within the fruit
plantation maintenance technology and offer to the interested economic agents an efficient product, adapted to the specific
heavy conditions in the country.
Keywords: soil working, root cutting, fruit trees
INTRODUCTION precision foliar fertilization. ETR (figure 1) was made by INMA

The objectives of world fruit growing in general and in and intended for the maintenance of fruit plantations in order
Europe, in particular, are directed to reduce the growing to increase fructification efficiency by performing a single-
vigour of cultivated fruit species (apple, pear, cherry, sour pass ploughing on a strip at a distance from the trunk to
cherry and walnut) by mechanical interventions on the root maintain loose soil to the surface, cutting the root at a
system in order to establish intensive and super-intensive fruit distance from the trunk to moderate the shoots growth and
plantations with high tree density per area unit (ha). On these foliar fertilization.
small-scale plantations, technological works such as cuttings,
phytosanitary treatments, fruit harvesting etc, can be made
easier, with greater efficiency, less workforce and maintaining
the same production (Hoying. 2017).
Worldwide research in fruit growing has shown that cutting a
part of the tree root system, correlated with crown cutting, is
beneficial, helping to keep trees down and maintaining root
growth within the nutritional space of each tree.
The area of nutrition may be a field with herbicide applied
and/or worked on a 1-1.4 m band under the tree rows where Figure 1 - Technical equipment for working the soil in the row of
one can apply norms of localized irrigation (drip, micro- fruit trees along with root cutting to moderate shoots growth and
spraying) and fertilization (fertigation) of which only trees can precision foliar fertilization, ETR
benefit (Dorais et Ehret. 2008). ETR technical equipment is designed to perform proper root
A root cutting equipment at a distance of 50-60-cm from the cutting works in all soil types where fruit plantations are
trees trunk (row axis) with high quality working indexes located, ranging from mild to hard and with a stony structure
maintains root growth only in the nutrition space and is a soil, specific to plantations located on hill areas; it is robust
control operation of fruit trees growth. and has stability in the working direction by maintaining the
Root cuttings must be made in the side of the row by same distance from the tree axis (Marinela Mateescu et al..
mechanically reducing their length during vegetation, on 2016).
both sides of the row, alternatively, one year on one side and It performs the following works in the same time:
in the second year on the other side, in order not to — ploughing on a strip at a distance from the trunk to
compromise the stability of the fruit trees. The cut of a root maintain a loose soil to the surface;
should be like that of a branch, be straight, without fringes — root cutting at a distance from the trunk to moderate
and keeps the required distance. shoots growth;
MATERIAL AND METHOD — precision foliar fertilization.
The experimental researches were carried out with a The ETR technical equipment consists of a metal frame fitted
technical equipment for soil working on the row of fruit trees. with a coupling system at the three-point suspension
Together with root cuttings to moderate shoots growth and mechanism of a wheeled tractor, a wheel for copying the soil
77 | F a s c i c u l e 1
and adjusting the working depth of a right plough body for calculated. Table 1 shows the average values of root cutting
ploughing, a support for an articulated guide and means for depth. The coefficient of variation is defined as the ratio
adjusting the cutting depth and blocking in the vertical between the value of the standard deviation and the average
cutting direction of a disc-type working part with a large value and is given as percentage (Marin E. et al.. 2012).
diameter for root cutting (Marin E. et al.. 2015) and a device
for precision foliar fertilization.
The main technical characteristics of the ETR technical
equipment are:
— power source: 80 HP wheeled tractor
— strip width, 250 mm
— strip depth, 150..200 mm
— working depth of the large diameter disc knife, 10...250 Figure 2 – Measuring root cutting depth
mm — The Distance from the trunk to the root cutting disc was
— cutting distance from the trunk, 500...600 mm
determined by means of measuring tape by measuring
The experiments made in laboratory-field conditions to the distance between the trunk and the rim of the large
determine the qualitative and energetic indices of ETR technical diameter disc knife active part (Figure 3). Measurements
equipment, were performed on the INMA Bucharest were made in 5 points at intervals of 4 meters between
experimental plot according to the specific test procedure trees for three working speeds (small, medium and
made for this purpose. The following measuring and control maximum) of the ETR technical equipment. Based on the
equipment and instruments were used to test the ETR measurements, the average distance from the trunk to the
equipment: metallic tape, mechanical timer, device for root cutting disc was calculated.
measuring plow depth, rulers, set squares, poles, stakes. etc. Table 2 shows the average values of the distance from the
The following qualitative working indexes were determined trunk to the root cutting disc.
under laboratory conditions: Table 2. Average values of the distance from the trunk
— root cutting depth; to the root cutting disc
— distance from the trunk to the root cutting disc; d dm
S-standard Cv- variation
Repetition deviation coefficient
— soil working depth; cm cm cm %
— distance from the trunk to the soil working plough body. Working speed: 3 km/h
RESULTS 1 58
2 56
— The root cutting depth was determined using the
3 54 56.4 3.33 5.90
measuring tape by measuring the distance between the 4 58
surface of the non-worked field and the rim of the large 5 56
diameter disc knife active part (Figure 2). Working speed: 5 km/h
Table 1. Average values of root cutting depth 1 60
S – standard Cv- variation 2 58
a am 3 56 59.3 4.51 7.61
cm cm cm % 4 62
Working speed: 3 km/h 5 60
1 19.6 Working speed: 7 km/h
2 19.4 1 54
3 19.4 19.42 0.29 1.49 2 52
4 19.2 3 50 53.5 4.51 8.47
5 19.5 4 56
Working speed: 5 km/h 5 54
1 19.4
2 19.3
3 19.6 19.36 0.27 1.39
4 19.3
5 19.2
Working speed: 7 km/h
1 19.2
2 19.3
3 19.4 19.20 0.37 1.95
4 18.9 Figure 3 - Measuring the distance from the trunk
5 19.2 to the root cutting disc
Measurements were made in 5 points at intervals of 2 m — Soil working depth was determined by means of measuring
between them, for three working speeds (small, medium and tape by measuring the distance from the level of the soil
maximum) of the ETR technical equipment. Based on the resulting from the work to the bottom of the furrow
measurements, the average depth of root cutting was (Figure 4). Measurements were made in 5 points at
78 | F a s c i c u l e 1
intervals of 2 m between them for three working speeds dt dtm

S-standard Cv-variation
(small, medium and maximum) of the ETR technical
cm cm cm %
equipment. Based on the measurements, the average soil Working speed: 7 km/h
working depth was calculated. Table 3 shows the average 1 126
values of the soil working depth. 2 128
Table 3. Average values of soil working depth 3 124 125.2 4.51 3.60
S-standard Cv-variation 4 122
al alm 5 126
cm cm cm % The energetic indexes determined were:
Working speed: 3 km/h — Effective working speed Ve. in km/h
1 16.2
A linear space s was measured by means of measuring tape
2 16.0
3 15.8 16.12 0.45 2.80 on the test field and the beginning and end of this space was
4 16.4 marked with 2 stakes. When the aggregate became
5 16.2 operational in the test field, the timer was switched on and at
Working speed: 5 km/h the exit of that respective space it was stopped and the time
1 16.0
2 15.8 t for passing the space s was read out on the timer.
3 15.6 16.02 0.33 2.10 Determinations for three working speeds were made. The
4 16.0 operation was repeated 5 times for each working speed and
5 15.8 based on this, the arithmetic mean was calculated.
1 15.6 With recorded data, the travel speed v was calculated with the
2 15.4 following relation (Tecusan et Ionescu. 1982):
3 15.8 15.44 0.36 2.33 3.6 × s . km/h
4 15.6 Ve =
t
5 15.2
— The theoretical working capacity Wef. in ha/h
The theoretical working capacity was calculated with the
relation (Caba et al. 2013):
Wef = 0.1 × B l × Ve . ha/h
where: Bl is the working width of the technical equipment, in
m; Ve – working speed, in km/h.
Energetic indexes for the aggregate TD 80D New Holland
Figure 4 - Measuring soil working depth tractor (http://agriculture.newholland.com. 2011) + ETR
— The distance from the trunk to the soil working plough body technical equipment are shown in Table 5.
was determined by means of measuring tape by Table 5. Energetic indexes for the aggregate
TD 80D New Holland tractor + ETR technical equipment
measuring the distance between the trunk and the furrow
Parameters determined Value
wall made by the soil working plough body. Travel speed, km/h 3.0 3.1 3.2 4.9 5.0
Measurements were made in 5 points at intervals of 4 m Theoretical working
0.66 0.68 0.70 1.07 1.1
between trees for three working speeds (small, medium capacity Wef. ha/h
and maximum) of the ETR technical equipment. Based on Figure 5 shows an aspect during the determination of
the measurements, the average distance from the trunk to energetic indexes for the aggregate TD 80D New Holland
the soil working plough body was calculated. tractor + ETR technical equipment.
Table 4 shows the average values of the distance from the
trunk to the soil working plough body.
Table 4. Average values of the distance
from the trunk to the soil working plough body
S-standard Cv-variation
dt dtm
cm cm cm %
1 130
2 124
3 124 126.4 5.03 3.98
4 126
5 128 Figure 5 - Aspect during the determination of energetic indexes
Working speed: 5 km/h for the aggregate TD 80D New Holland tractor + ETR technical
1 128 equipment during root cutting and soil processing works
2 126 CONCLUSIONS
3 124 126 3.61 2.86
4 128
— The qualitative working indexes achieved during the
5 124 experimentation of the ETR technical equipment fall
79 | F a s c i c u l e 1
within the agrotechnical requirements corresponding to — The energetic indexes achieved during the
each individual work. The values of the variation experimentation of the ETR technical equipment fall
coefficients were below 10%. which is admitted by the within the agrotechnical requirements corresponding to
agrotechnical requirement, as follows: each individual work.
— Variation coefficient values of root cutting depth — Experimental research has enabled the technical and
depending on the working speed are graphically technological validation of the solutions addressed when
represented in Figure 6; designing the components of the ETR technical
equipment;
— Experimental results make it possible to develop a useful
recommendation for farmers applying innovative
maintenance technology for fruit plantations.
Acknowledgement: The results presented were achieved with
the support of the Ministry of Research and Innovation.
Programme NUCLEU, contract no. 8N/09.03.2016. Addendum
no. 2/2017. Project PN 16 24 02 04 – “Innovative technology for
Figure 6 - Variation coefficient of root cutting depth fruit plantations maintenance in the rural areas by soil works,
root cutting and precision foliar fertilisation”.
depending on the working speed Note: This paper is based on the paper presented at ISB-INMA
— Variation coefficient values of the distance from the trunk TEH' 2017 International Symposium (Agricultural and
to the root cutting disc, depending on the working speed, Mechanical Engineering), organized by University
“POLITEHNICA” of Bucharest – Faculty of Biotechnical Systems
are graphically represented in Figure 7; Engineering, National Institute of Research-Development for
Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food
Industry – INMA Bucharest, Scientific Research and
Technological Development in Plant Protection Institute
(ICDPP), National Institute for Research and Development for
Industrial Ecology – INCD ECOIND, Research and Development
Products “HORTING” and Hydraulics, Pneumatics Research
Institute INOE 2000 IHP, University of Agronomic Sciences and
Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest (UASVMB) – Faculty of
Horticulture and Romanian Society of Horticulture (SRH), in
Bucharest, ROMANIA, between 26 – 28 October, 2017.
Figure 7 - Variation coefficient of the distance from the trunk
References
to the root cutting disc depending on the working speed [1] Caba I.L., Biriș S., Selvi K.C., Bungescu S., Vlăduț V., Nițu M.
— Variation coefficient values of soil working depth (2013). Researches on improvement of working process of
depending on the working speed are graphically fibrous forages shredding parts. INMATEH Agricultural
Engineering. Vol. 39. No. 1. Bucharest. Romania;
represented in Figure 8; [2] Dorais M., Ehret D.L. (2008). Improving the Health-Promoting
Properties of Fruit and Vegetable Products. A volume in
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science. Technology
and Nutrition. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Research
Branch. pages 346–391. Canada;
[3] Hoying A. (2017). Orchard Crops. Encyclopedia of Applied
Plant Sciences (Second Edition). Pages 246-254. Vol. 3. Cornell
University. Ithaca. NY. USA;
[4] Marin E., Toderaşc P., Manea D., David A. (2015). Technical
equipment for tilling the soil and root pruning row of trees.
Patent application RO-BOPI 6/2015;
Figure 8 - Variation coefficient of soil working depth [5] Marin E., Sorica C., Manea. D. (2012). The establishing of corn
depending on the working speed with the equipment for soil tillage and sowing in narrow
strips. Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering: Proceedings
— Variation coefficient values of the distance from the trunk of the 40. International Symposium on Agricultural
to the soil working plough body depending on the Engineering. Opatija. Croatia. 21-24 February 2012 2012
working speed, are graphically represented in Figure 9. pp.231-241 ref.9;
[6] Mateescu M., Marin E., Vlăduț V., Manea D., Gheorghe G.,
Cârdei P., Tudor A., Boruz S., Sărăcin I., Stoian F.. (2016).
Solidworks 3d parametric modelling technique for root
cutting equipment declining growth of shoots in orchards.
Annals of the University of Craiova - Agriculture.
Montanology. Cadastre Series. Vol. XLVI. Craiova;
[7] Tecusan N., Ionescu E. (1982). Tractors and motor cars.
Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House. Bucharest.
Romania;
[8] http://agriculture.newholland.com/uk/en/Products/Tractors
. 2011.
Figure 9 - Variation coefficient of the distance from the trunk
to the soil working plough body depending on the working speed
80 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Mihaela Elena NAGY, 1.Constantin COȚA, 1.Nicolae CIOICA,
1.
Zoltán GYÖRGY, 2.Lucian FECHETE-TUTUNARU
INVESTIGATIONS REGARDING DEGRADATION BY HYDRATION-DRYING

OF SOME BIOCOMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH NATURAL FIBER
1.
National Institute of Research – Development for Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry – INMA,
Branch Cluj-Napoca, ROMANIA
2.
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Mechanics, ROMANIA
Abstract: Biocomposite materials with improved properties can be obtained by reinforcing a biodegradable matrix with natural
fibers. In order to obtain the biodegradable matrix a viable solution are thermoplastic starch based polymers. A method to avoid
the inconveniences of using thermoplastic starch (poor mechanical properties and low resistance to moisture) can also be the
reinforcement with natural fibers. The composite material studied was obtained by the reactive extrusion of various mixtures of
starch, glycerol, poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and Miscanthus fibers as reinforcing material. This paper presents
the results of water uptake and FT-IR spectroscopy investigations for 4 samples of composite material with thermoplastic starch
matrix and reinforced with Miscanthus fibers in different concentrations (up to 20%).
Keywords: composite, thermoplastic starch, Miscanthus fibers, degradation
INTRODUCTION MATERIAL AND METHOD

Extending the use of composite materials in almost all areas The samples in this study were prepared by reactive extrusion
of activity is influenced by a multitude of factors such as the with a laboratory twin-screw extruder with co-rotating
need for materials with less weight but with certain intermeshing, self-wiping screws ZK 25. Collin. (Germany).
mechanical properties, environmental and health concerns, The raw materials used were: native corn starch obtained
the need to reduce energy consumption, sustainable from SC ROQUETTE SA Calafat, Romania, having water
achievement. etc. [5] content of 12.01 %, a density of 0.561 g/cm3 and an amylose
The use of renewable materials both as reinforcement content of 21%. glycerol purchased from SC Nordic Invest SRL
elements and as matrix for composite materials contributes Cluj-Napoca with a concentration of 99.5% and a density of
to the mitigation of some environmental pollution problems 1.262 g/cm3. Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT)
due to synthetic composite materials. Degradable composite purchased from BASF Company - product code is Ecoflex F
materials are composite materials made of a polymer matrix Blend C1200 with mass density of 1.25-1.27 g/cm3, melting
derived from renewable sources (polysaccharides, vegetable point 110-120 oC and melt flow 2.7 - 4.9 g/10 min. and
oils) or from fossil sources (synthetic polymers such as Miscanthus fibers obtained from Arge Miscanthus Romania.
polyethylene, polypropylene, polyesters, etc.) with natural Table 1 shows the ratio of the components used in the
fiber reinforcement or by-products from agriculture. formula for the composite material reinforced with fibers.
One of the most used and studied bio-composite materials is
Table 1. The components ratio in the composite formula
one that uses starch as a matrix [2.6]. To improve the
(%Starch+PB
(%Starch+PB
(%Starch+PB
(%Starch+PB
Miscanthus
Composite
properties of starch based materials biobased polyesters or

AT+ Glyc))
AT+ Glyc)
AT+ Glyc)
AT+ Glyc)
Glycerol
sample
Starch
fibers
PBAT
synthetic biodegradable polyesters such as poly (butylene

adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) [7] can be added.
The use of natural fibers (flax, jute, hemp, Miscanthus) to
reinforce the biodegradable matrix ensures improved P0 64 13 23 0
properties of the composite, good mechanical properties, P5 64 13 23 5
low weight and certain environmental benefits.[1.3.4]. P10 64 13 23 10
Generally, the manufacturing technologies of degradable P20 64 13 23 20
composite materials involve machines and processes for The samples were cut into rectangular pieces (Figure 1) and
obtaining the matrix, preparing the reinforcement was added distilled water. For each sample we measure the
components, impregnating or treating the fibers, cutting the water uptake using a Partner WLC 0.6/B1 analytical balance
fibers, making the reinforcement (different shapes: network, with a precision of 0.1 g after the excess water was removed
fabric, braid, etc.) injection molding, compression and by placing the sample on absorbant paper for 1 minute. The
extrusion, compression-molding, or other processes. modification induced by hydratio/drying processes could
have effects on the vibration of the molecular bonds. FT-IR
81 | F a s c i c u l e 1
measurements can reveal this kind of modifications. To study

degradation due to hydration-drying processes, the samples 2.8
were hydrate by submerging them in distilled water for 48 2.6 P0
hours (Figure 2), after which they were dried for 6 days at 25°C. 2.4
The FT-IR absorption spectra were recorded with JASCO FTIR
Sample mass [g]

2.2 P5
4100 spectrometer in spectral range 400 - 4000 cm-1,
2
resolution 4 and accumulation 100. P10
1.8
P20
1.6
1.4
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Time [min]
a)
2.8
P0
2.6
2.4
Sample mass [g]

2.2
Figure 1 – Composite material samples P5
with different fibers content 2

P10
1.8
P20
1.6
1.4
0 50 100 150 200
Time [min]
b)
Figure 3 –Sample mass with water uptake after 72 h – a;
detailed view for the first 3 hours – b
Figure 2 –Samples after 48 h of submerging Also the sample with higher fiber content absorbed the
in distillate water lowest amount of water. The samples reinforced with
RESULTS different ratio of fibers keep their integrity for 72 h but the
Table 2 presents the samples mass with uptake water sample P0 (no fibers reinforcement) start to degrade after 24
absorbed after 24/48/72 h of hydration by four composite h (Figure 3.a) Also the sample with higher fiber content
materials samples with different formula presented in Table 1. absorbed the lowest amount of water. The samples
The sample P0 which has the formula with no fibers (0%) reinforced with different ratio of fibers keep their integrity for
reached the maximum water uptake with higher velocity (in 72 h but the sample P0 (no fibers reinforcement) started to
24 h) and that started to degrade. degrade after 24 h (Figure 3.a)
The sample P5 which has the formula with lower fibers In order to study the samples by FTIR spectroscopy we
content (5%) absorbed the highest amount of water (~28% recorded and compared the IR spectra of samples P0-P20
of sample mass) in 48 h and then started to degrade. The before and after hydration-drying. Due to the observation
lowest quantity of water (~16% of sample mass) was regarding water uptake, we analyzed the spectra of samples
absorbed by the sample P20 (with 20% Miscanthus fiber) in P0 (no fiber content). P5 (5% fibers absorbed the highest
48 h. amount o water) and P20 (20% fibers absorbed the lowest
Table 2. The sample mass after hydration and water uptake amount o water).
Sample P0 P5 P10 P20
1
Dry sample [g] 2.17 1.59 1.58 1.55
Distilled water [g] 20 20 20 20
1723
2936
3369
Sample after 24 h 2.63 2.01 1.97 1.79 0.5
Sample after 48 h 2.62 2.03 1.98 1.80 P0_init

absorbance
Sample after 72 h 2.60 2.02 1.98 1.80

1027
0 P0_HD
Water uptake [g] 0.46 0.44 0.40 0.25
1163
1274
As can be seen from Figure 3. B, all samples regardless of the -0.5

fiber content absorb most of the water in the first 3 hours, but
the samples reinforced with Miscanthus fibers absorbed the
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
highest amount of water slower than the sample with no wavenumber[cm-1]
fibers (P0).
Figure 4 – FT-IR spectra of P0 sample: initial state-P0_init and after
hydration-drying
82 | F a s c i c u l e 1
CONCLUSIONS
— Biocomposite materials with improved properties can be
obtained by reinforcing a biodegradable matrix with
natural fibers.
— Samples were prepared by reactive extrusion with a
laboratory twin-screw extruder.
— Raw materials used are: native corn starch, glycerol, PBAT
and Miscanthus fibers.
— All the samples regardless of the fiber content absorb
most of the water in the first 3 hours.
— Miscanthus fiber content decrease the speed of water
uptake.
— The sample with higher fiber content absorbed the lowest
amount of water.
Note
2017 International Symposium (Agricultural and Mechanical
National Institute of Research-Development for Machines and
26 – 28 October, 2017.
References
[1] Averous L., Fringant C., and Moro L. (2001). Plasticized
starch-cellulose interactions in polysaccharide composites.
Polymer vol. 42. pp.6565-6571
[2] Bastioli C. (1998) Biodegradable materials—present
situation and future perspectives. Macromol Symp. Vol.130.
pp.379-391.
[3] Carvalho A. J. F., Curvelo A. A. S. and Agnelli J. A. M.. (2002).
Wood pulp reinforced thermoplastic starch composites. Int.
J. Polym. Mater. Vol.51. pp. 647-660
[4] J. Gironès. J. P. López. P. Mutjé. A. J. F. Carvalho. A. A. S.
Curvelo and F. Vilaseca. (2012).Natural fiber-reinforced
thermoplastic starch composites obtained by melt
processing. Key. Eng. Mater. Vol.72. pp.858-863.
[5] Hanselka H. (1998) Fiber composites of raw renewable
materials for the ecological lightweight design.
Materialwiss Werkst vol.29. pp. 300-311
[6] Hermann A.S., Nickel J., Riedel U. (1998) Construction
materials based upon biologically renewable resources.
Polym.Degrad.Stab. vol.59. pp.251-261 ISSN: 2067-3809
[7] Yeh J. T. , Tsou C. H. et all.(2010). Compatible and copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
crystallization properties of poly(lactic acid)/poly(butylene Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
adipate-co-terephthalate) blends. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
Vol.116. pp.680-687 http://acta.fih.upt.ro
83 | F a s c i c u l e 1
XII
ISSN: 2067-3809
1.
Gheorghe VOICU, 1.Gabriel Alexandru CONSTANTIN, 1.Elena-Mădălina STEFAN,
1.
Paula TUDOR, 1.Mariana Gabriela MUNTEANU, 2.Tomasz ŻELAZIŃSKI
ASPECTS REGARDING THE ASEPTIC PACKAGING OF FOOD PRODUCTS

University Politehnica Bucharest. Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering, ROMANIA
1.
Warsaw University of Life Sciences– SGGW, POLAND

2.
Abstract: Aseptic packaging of food products is necessary to prolong their validity and to preserve their original qualities, but also
for obtaining higher quality products. Aseptization must be done both for the product to be packaged and for packaging, but also
for the enclosure where packaging takes place (the packing machine). There are many ways to sterilize package, but the
sterilization procedure usually begins with the packaging material which must be maintained under sterile conditions until the
package is made, but also during filling and closing. For the product to be packaged, the most used sterilization methods are
thermal treatments, while for packing machines both thermal treatments are used (with steam and hot air) but also combined
treatments (thermal and chemical). For packaging material, the most commonly used sterilization procedure is spraying with
hydrogen peroxide or peracetic acid solution.
Keywords: food products, aseptic packaging, sterilization
INTRODUCTION the entire system. The packages are closed under the liquid
Aseptic packaging is defined as the filling of a sterile food level, filling is thus complete and, in this way, the content is
product intended for marketing in sterile containers, under completely protected against oxidation and at the same time
sterile conditions and closing the containers so that the package is used with maximum efficiency. For products
reinfection is prevented (hermetic closure). It is obtained, that require agitation, filling may be incomplete.
therefore, high quality products with a high shelf life. MATERIAL AND METHODS – ASEPTIC PACKAGING
Aseptic packaging involves both sterilization of the product PRINCIPLES
and of the materials and package used. Sterilization of The food products are altered depending on the speed at
products for aseptic packaging is carried out, in general, by which the micro-organisms multiply. Multiplication of micro-
HTST or UHT procedures which allow both the destruction of organisms occurs rapidly in a warm environment and slows
microorganisms and the inactivation of enzymes (Turtoi M., at low temperatures. It results that, when the food product is
2003; Ramos et al. 2015; Tran et al. 2008; Nema & Ludwig, 2010)). frozen, micro-organisms cannot multiply at all, being
Aseptic term implies absence or removal of any unwanted completely destroyed when a very high temperature is
micro-organism from the package, product or other applied (Okawara. 2008; Office of Compliance, 2004).
characteristic areas, while the term hermetic is used to By controlling and destroying micro-organisms, the food
indicate mechanical properties corresponding to the products are kept longer. Sterilization methods used in
exclusion of penetration phenomenon of microorganisms aseptic processing of food are HTST (high temperature - short
into a package, but also of water vapor or gas in / out of the time) or UHT (ultra-high temperature).
packaging. The HTST process is defined as being sterilization by heating
Aseptic packaging is used for many reasons: the product at an elevated temperature between a few
— the use of unsuitable packages for sterilization in the seconds and a few minutes depending on the temperature
package; value. The UHT process is a thermal sterilization treatment in
— thermal treatments used allow achieving of a high continuous flow to a temperature that may vary between
temperature for a relatively short time, thus increasing the 130-150°C with a maintenance time of 2-8 seconds. The
efficiency of treatment in comparison to lower maximum temperature is used for products with low
temperature but long-term treatments; viscosity, (for example milk) and the minimum value is used
— prolonging the shelf life of food products stored at normal for products with high viscosity. Thermal treatment must
temperatures. reach 135°C for a period of one or more seconds (Ramos et al.
At aseptic packaging, the product is transported to the 2015; Tran et al. 2008).
packaging machine in a closed system, presterilized and then Milk products and fruit juices must be packaged under
aseptically dosed in packages that is formed inside the aseptic conditions to preserve the microbiological qualities
machine. Filling takes place in the aseptic area of the conferred by the thermal treatment applied.
machine, packages sterilization being performed with sterile When sterilizing food products through processes HTST or
air under pressure. The aseptic area of the machine in which UHT problems with inadequate enzyme inactivation may
is realized the filling is small with few moving elements. This occur. This is specific especially to vegetal enzymes (ex.
is a very important factor which contributes to the integrity of peroxidases), namely proteases and bacterial lipases.
85 | F a s c i c u l e 1
It is noteworthy that, bacterial enzymes have a much higher bacteria, which means that packaging machines must be
resistance to temperature as compared to spores of Bacillus sterile as before and after the packaging process is
stearothermophilu, which are reference spores in thermal completed.
treatment.
Aseptic packaging is used for food products such as:
— whole milk / partially skimmed / dietetic milk pasteurized
or sterilized (UHT);
— milk based drinks (milk with flavours, milk with cocoa, milk
with chocolate);
— milk enriched with vitamin and mineral salts for children,
athletes and future mothers;
— consumer cream, sweet or fermented;
— acid dairy products, such as yoghurt, beaten milk, etc.;
— natural mineral water with flavours or purified water;
— specific beverages for athletes;
— simple or mixed fruit juices;
— beverages based on fruit juice;
— alcoholic beverages;
— cold tea;
— coffee and coffee based drinks with added milk;
— soups, flavoured sauces;
— vegetable oil and oil based products (creams, mayonnaise,
liquid margarine, dessert sauces).
Tetra Pack aseptic packaging consists of successive cardboard
layers, aluminium foil and polyethylene. This combination
provides safety and convenience in the use of the product. Figure 1 – Principle of aseptic packaging (a) (Turtoi. 2003) and
Each type of packaging material has its specific function in complex material for aseptic packaging (b)
protecting the food. Combination of cardboard, polyethylene RESULTS
and aluminium foil varies according to the product to be — Sterilization of the surface of packaging material in
packaged; in all cases, however, the only material that comes contact with food products
in direct contact with the food is polyethylene for food use. For the sterilization of packaging material used in aseptic
Thus, for a product packaged in Tetra Brik Aseptic, there is the packaging three methods can be used, singular or in
following combination of materials: combination: thermal treatment, chemical treatment and
— 75% paper from renewable sources that gives firm irradiation.
packages and stability; A. Sterilization of the surface of the packaging by thermal
— 25% polyethylene to prevent reinfection of the product treatments
with micro-organisms, which confers resistance to the a. Sterilization with saturated steam
aggression of external factors; The safest thermal agent for sterilization is saturated steam.
— 5% aluminium, which is a barrier to air and light, helping When using it, the following problems may occur:
to preserve the taste and nutritional qualities of the food — an enclosure is required in which the packaging must be
kept under pressure in order to reach sufficiently high
product. temperatures at which sterilization can take place in a few
Aseptic packages have different shapes and are accessible to seconds;
any type of consumer. It is necessary, however, that — avoid the penetration of fake air into the sterilization space
everything is sterile in the manufacturing process, food as far as possible otherwise it can influence heat transfer
products, packaging material, equipment and environment from the steam to the surface of the packaging;
in which packaging is carried out. Aseptic packaging is UHT — steam condensation may remain on the surface of the
sterilized before heat-treated food product is introduced, packaging by diluting the food product.
resulting in a food with a life span of over 3 months. b. Steam sterilization with superheated steam
As a method of sterilization, the passage of the packaging Overheated steam can be used for sterilization of aluminium
material can be used through a hydrogen peroxide bath, in metal cans and tin plate.
concentration of 30%, heated to 70oC for 5-6 seconds. It has the advantage that it can be used for sterilization of
Hydrogen peroxide is then removed from the packaging by packaging, as well as packaging materials under normal
pressing rollers or hot air. The environment in which foods are pressure conditions, reaching temperatures of 220-225°C, for
thermally processed and sealed must be, also, lacking
86 | F a s c i c u l e 1
35–45 s depending on the material from which they are polypropylene etc.) can be reached temperatures of 180-
made. 230°C, which are kept for up to 3 minutes so that the
c. Hot air sterilization packaging is sterilized. Variations in retention time of the
As with overheated steam, hot air sterilization has the granules inside the extruder and uneven temperature
advantage that the necessary temperatures can be obtained distribution cannot guarantee, however, the sterility of all the
at atmospheric pressure. This simplifies the problems of particles.
mechanical design of the sterilization system. For this reason no reduction in microbial spores greater than
This process is used for the sterilization of complex aseptic 3-4 D can be achieved and the packaging thus obtained can
cartons made from cardboard / aluminium foil / plastic only be used for acidic food products with a pH below 4.5. If
material. At the surface of the material, the temperature 145°C after the extrusion a sterilization with hydrogen peroxide is
can be reached for 180 s. under the conditions in which the made of the packages, they can also be used for products
hot air used for sterilization has a temperature of 315°C. Even with a pH> 4.5.
if the working temperature is high, hot air treatment can only B. Sterilization of the packaging surface through chemical
be used for packaging where acidic food is packaged. treatments
a. Sterilization with hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is used for a long time in treating
the surface of the packaging to destroy the micro-organisms
in combination with the effect of heat, because at the
ambient temperature neither the concentrated solutions
have a fatal effect. For the short-term destruction of the most
resistant spores on the packaging material, the minimum
temperature must be at least 80 ° C. and the concentration is
at least 30%. There is also the danger that hydrogen peroxide
used to sterilize packaging and packaging material will reach
the food.
The packaging material is sterilized, mostly, by immersion in
hydrogen peroxide with concentration 30-33% or by spraying
Figure 2 – State Diagram of Water (Pressure - Temperature)
on the surface of the packaging, followed by hot air drying in
(Okawara. 2008) both cases.
d. Sterilization with hot air and steam To reduce the amount of oxygenated water used and
It is a combined process that is used to sterilize packages from increase the efficiency of treatment, we can use a series of
stable materials to lower temperatures (about 160°C),, such as combinations of heat and / or radiant or irradiated energy.
the sterilization of the inner surfaces of glasses and caps made Thus, for lethal effects of 3-5 D. the hydrogen peroxide
from polypropylene, in which case the hot air blows inside concentration drops below 5% for which the possibility of
the glasses through a nozzle that evenly heats both the hydrogen peroxide in the packaged product decreases.
bottom and the walls of the glass (Akers. 2010).
Figure 4 – Sterilization of the packaging material by immersion

(chemical treatments)
b. Sterilization with peracetic acid
Figure 3 – Dry heat sterilization / depyrogenation tunnel.
Peracetic acid has increased destructive efficiency in
Schematic (Akers. 2010) combination with hydrogen peroxide, even at 20°C. a 1%
e. Sterilization by extrusion in the manufacture of solution removing over 100 species of resistant spores in just
packaging 5 minutes. The duration of sterilization is reduced, in this case
In the process of extruding preforms for obtaining plastic about 5 times, and the maximum working temperature is
containers (polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, 40°C.
87 | F a s c i c u l e 1
microorganism impermeable boxes before irradiation. A dose

of 20 kGy ensures the sterilization of a 9 mm polyethylene
strap infected with approximately 105 spores Bacillus
stearothemophilus.
d. Treatment with light pulses
Light pulses (PL) are obtained from the “flash” lamp and their
effect is sufficient to destroy the microorganisms on the
surface of a package. Light pulses have a duration of 10-1–10-
6 s. a spectrum of wavelengths of 170–2600 nm, providing an
energy density of 0.01–50 J/cm2. When sterilizing packaging
material, the pulse lamp is inserted into the tube that is
formed in packs of complex materials type pillow pack to a
Figure 5 – Chemical treatments applied to packaging materials for packaging machine in the formation - filling - closing system
forming, filling and closing
(Bhavya and Umesh-Hebbar. 2017).
1 – roll with packaging material; 2 – immersion area in sterilizing
solution; 3 – packaging accessory; 4 – packaging formation; — Food sterilization
5 – filling the packaging; 6 – packaged product; 7 – full packaging Sterilization is the process by which all living microorganisms
disposal; 2’ – splash area; 3’ – hot air drying area are removed or destroyed on the surface of the packaging
C. Sterilization of the packaging surface by irradiation and inside the food. The sensitivity of micro-organisms must
Surface of packaging or packaging materials used in aseptic be taken into account in the choice of sterilization methods
packaging can be sterilized by irradiation with ultraviolet used in relation with the action of external environmental
radiation, infrared, ionizing or pulsed light (Bhavya and factors and the physical and chemical qualities of the product
Umesh-Hebbar. 2017; Falguera et al. 2011; Reineke et al. 2015; subjected to sterilization.
Tanino et al. 2007). Sterilization is intended to destroy all microorganisms present
a. Irradiation with ultraviolet radiation in the food, both vegetative forms, as well as those
Ultraviolet radiation with a wavelength of 200-280 nm has the sporulated. When sterilizing, some of the microbial and toxins
effect of destroying microorganisms, the optimal value being are also destroyed, likewise, some of the enzymes are
253.7 nm. To inactivate microorganisms, the energy density inactivated (tissues and microbes) (Barbosa-Canovas and
of the radiation treatment must be at least 400 J/cm2 Juliano. 2008).
(Falguera et al. 2011). In order to be commercially stable the food, it should be
The conditions for good efficacy of sterilization of ultraviolet heated for a certain time at a pre-determined temperature,
radiation surfaces are: depending on the nature of the food (Cumings. 2004).
— the irradiated materials to be smooth, UV-resistant and Liquid products less acidic, like milk, are more likely to
non-adhering dust to avoid the shading effect of surfaces; develop microorganisms and bacteria than strong acid
— the irradiation intensity should be uniform and suitable for products (for example, fruit juices).
sterilization of the entire package, even if it has a complex UHT thermal treatment (Ultra High Temperature) or Ultra
form. Pasteurization takes place before packaging, with optimized
The method is used, in general, commercially available in heat exchangers (Ramos et al. 2015; Tran et al. 2008)
combination with hydrogen peroxide. Through this controlled process which allows the action of
b. Irradiation with infrared radiation heat for a very short period of time (between 2 and 4 seconds)
Infrared Radiation (IR) is converted into heat by contact with – followed by an equally rapid cooling, minimal nutritional
an absorbent surface resulting in an increase of surface losses are minimized.
temperature. Like UV irradiation, irradiation with IR is used A combined application of electric pulse treatment (PEF) with
only for smooth and regular surfaces. IR is used to treat the heat treatment can lead to an accelerated inactivation of
interior of the aluminium caps on which a plastic lacquer was endospore in comparison to a pure thermal inactivation in an
deposited. Due to the possibility of soaking the lake, identical temperature field. This treatment could be used as
maximum temperature should be less than 140°C. an alternative treatment technique at ultra-high
c. Irradiation with ionizing radiation temperatures of liquid foods with a high pH value, such as
Radiation techniques using gamma radiation of Co60 or milk, vegetable juices or soups (Reineke et al. 2015). The PEF
Cs139 are used to sterilize the inside of the packaging, usually treatment parameters applied resulted in energy inputs of
made of materials that do not withstand sterilization 60.92-257.14 kJ kg-1 and thermal loads of 94.61-136.25°C.
temperatures or cannot be sterilized efficiently by other Also, food products (in general, vegetables and fruits) can be
means, due to the shape they have, such as laminated plastic sterilized with ionizing radiation. Still, conservation with
bags used in bag-in-box aseptic packaging. ionizing radiation destroys vitamins, minerals and lack the
They irradiate with at least doses of 25 kGy (2.5 Mrad), which food from taste and smell. The method has the benefit that
are sufficient to ensure sterility. The bags are enclosed in the food remain "fresh" for a long time. This treatment
88 | F a s c i c u l e 1
involves exposing the food to a stream of ionizing rays that sterilization of the three elements involved in the packaging
can be generated by a radioactive source. Foods can be process: product, packaging, packaging environment.
irradiated with gamma or with X ray. Radiation-beam Both processors, as well as manufacturers of packaging or
technology uses radioactive substances. 60Co or 137Cs. Here, packaging materials together with manufacturers of
the processors should however have a great responsibility, packaging machines must work together to meet the goal
because doctors draw attention to the danger of these of producing aseptic food products with a longer
treatments (Bogdan et al. 2011). conservation period and improved qualities.
Note
26 – 28 October, 2017.
References
[1] * * * - (2004). Sterile drug products produced by aseptic
Figure 7 – The principle of sterilizing autoclaves
processing — Current good manufacturing practice. Office
of preserved foods (Cumings. 2004) of Compliance in the Center for Drug Evaluation and
Research (CDER) in cooperation with the Center for
Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER) and the Office of
Regulatory Affairs (ORA). Rockville. USA;
[2] * * * - (2008). Sterilizing technology by superheated steam.
Okawara MFG. Co..Ltd.. Japan
[3] Akers M.. (2010). Sterile drug products: Formulation.
Packaging, manugacturing and quality. Informa Healthcare.
New York.
[4] Barbosa-Cánovas G.V. and Juliano P.. (2008). Food
sterilization by combining high pressure and thermal
energy. Food Engineering: Integrated Approaches.
Figure 8 – Sterilization of milk with steam injection Springer. XXIV. Hardcover;
CONCLUSIONS [5] Bhavya M.L., Umesh-Hebbar H. (2017). Pulsed light
To ensure high quality food products and preserve its processing of foods for microbial safety. Food Quality and
quality for a long time, processors are forced to use aseptic Safety. Vol.1. Iss. 3. pp.187–202.
packaging technology lines. It is necessary to sterilize both [6] Bogdan A. et al. (2011). Elements Microbiology. Editura
food product, before filling the packages, as well as sterile Asclepius Publishing, Bucharest.
packaging, but for aseptic packaging it is also necessary to [7] Cumings B. Sterilization process: Water steam spray batch
sterilize the packing machines and the enclosure where retort, batch autoclave sterilizer. Pearson Education. Inc..
filling and closure takes place. 2004
There is an essential difference between hermetic and [8] Falguera V., Pagán J., Garza S., Garvín A., Ibarz A. (2011).
aseptic. The aseptic term implies the absence or elimination Ultraviolet processing of liquid food: A review. Part 2: Effects
of any unwanted organism in the product, packaging or on microorganisms and on food components and
other specific areas, while the term hermetic is used to properties. Food Research International. Vol.44. pp.1580–
indicate mechanical properties corresponding to the 1588;
[9] Nema S., Ludwig J. (2010). Pharmaceutical dosage forms:
exclusion of the microorganism penetration into a
Parenteral medications. Vol.2: Facility design, sterilization
packaging and of the gases or water vapours into and out of
and processing. Informa Healthcare. London.
the packaging. So, it is not sufficient to seal the packing to
[10] Ramos M., Wurlitzer N., Machado T., Sucupira N., Modesto A.
ensure the quality of packaged products, but also the (2015). Validation of an aseptic packaging system of liquid
89 | F a s c i c u l e 1
foods processed by UHT sterilization. Chemical Engineering

Transactions. Vol. 44. 6.pg.;
[11] Reineke K., Schottroff F., Meneses N., Knorr D. (2015).
Sterilization of liquid foods by pulsed electric fields–an
innovative ultra-high temperature process. Frontiers in
Microbiology. vol.6. art.400. University of Natural Resources
and Life Sciences, Vienna. Austria;
[12] Tanino M., Xilu W., Takashima K., Katsura S. and Mizuno A..
(2007). Sterilization using dielectric barrier discharge at
atmospheric pressure. International Journal of Plasma
Environmental Science & Technology. Vol.1. No.1. 102-107;
[13] Tran H., Datta N., Lewis M.J., Deeth H.C. (2008). Prediction of
some product parameters based on the processing
conditions of ultra-high-temperature milk plants.
International Dairy Journal 18
[14] Turtoi M. (2003). Principles of aseptic packaging of food
products. Bulletin AGIR. no. 3. pp.60-65.
ISSN: 2067-3809
90 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Gabriela Cristina SIMION, 1.Mirela Nicoleta DINCĂ, 1.Georgiana MOICEANU, 1.Mihai CHITOIU
RENEWABLE ENERGY IN CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

1.
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering, ROMANIA
Abstract: At the basis of the evolution and development of modern human society lies the energy, being one of the input
components for most production processes and comfort offered to people. Energy can be analyzed from a safety perspective
through the availability of energy resources for the economy, sustainability, the impact of using different energy sources on the
environment and competitiveness, at the level of attracting energy sources. The paper explores the analysis of renewable energy
resources: biomass, wind, solar energy and its current development at national and European level.
Keywords: renewable energy, biofuels, biomass, wind energy, solar energy, biogas, fermentation
INTRODUCTION that the Sun doesn’t offer constant energy in any place on
The concept of energy security is in connection with Earth.
sustainable development by identifying and exploiting Not to mention the rotation of the planet, the day-night
alternative energy sources, reducing environmental temperature difference, the solar light can be used for energy
pollution, upgrading and modernizing existing transport only for a short part of every day. Another setback of using
routes. The European Union is increasingly exposed to this type is that of the cloudy days, when the energy potential
instability and rising prices on international energy markets, drops because of the blocking of the solar light.
as well as, to the consequences of the fact that hydrocarbon Hydro-energy represents the capacity of a system (water) to
reserves are gradually being mobilized by a small number of make energy from the passing from one state to another. In
holders. practice, this is the energy produced in hydro stations with
Renewable energy refers to forms of energy obtained the help of the movement of water, caused by the level
through energetic transfer of the resulting energy from difference between the accumulation lake and the station.
natural renewable processes. Therefore, solar energy, wind Biomass represents the renewable resource which is most
energy, flow waters energy, that of biological processes and abundant on our planet. This includes absolutely all the
geothermal heat can be taken by humans using different organic matter produced through metabolically processes of
procedures. The types of energy that are not renewable the living organisms. Biomass is the first form of energy used
include nuclear energy, as well as, the energy generated by man, once with the discovery of fire.
through burning of fossil fuels, like oil, charcoal and natural At the present day, in the European Union, the Renewable
gases. These resources are, evidently, not renewable, as they Energy Directive sets rules for the EU to achieve its 20%
are found harder each year. From the renewable energy renewables target by 2020.
sources we can find-wind energy, solar energy, water energy, http://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/renewable-energy.
biofuels and biogas. All of these forms of resources are been MATERIAL AND METHOD
used for generating biofuels, electric current, hot water, etc. From the 1990, the UE has put itself in an ambitious plan to
Wind energy is generated through the transfer of wind become a worldwide leader in the renewable energy domain.
energy by a wind turbine. Winds form because the Earth is For example, the UE disposes at the present day of a capacity
heated unevenly by the energy radiated by the Sun which to create wind energy the equivalent of 50 coal based
reaches our planet. This variable warming of the air layers factories, to which their costs have been reduced to half in
produces different air density zones, which, in turn, creates the past 15 years. The renewable energy market of the UE has
movement of the air. The kinetic energy of wind can be used an annual business number if 15 billion EURO (half of the
by the wind turbines, which are capable of generating entire worldwide market), an average of 300000 workers and
electricity. Some wind turbines are capable of producing up is an important exporter. At the present day, the renewable
to 5 MW of electric energy, even though they require a energy is beginning to compete, from the cost point of view,
constant speed of the wind of about 5.5 m/s. or 20 km/h. with fossil fuels.
There are only a few areas on Earth which have those In 2001, EU decided that the electricity percent produced
attributes, especially at high altitude and oceanic areas. from renewable resources should reach 21% by 2010. In
The concept of solar energy refers to the energy that is 2003, it was decided that at least 5.75% of the entire
directly produced through transfer of solar energy radiated by quantity of gas and diesel should be made from bio-fuels
the sun. This can be used to generate electric energy or to by 2010. A few countries record a rapid rise in usage of
warm the air inside a building. Even though this type of renewable energy through support national policies. But
energy is reusable and easy to produce, the main problem is
91 | F a s c i c u l e 1
according to the actual times< EU will be around 1-2 remained at the theory levels. In present the market
percent below the fixed targets. conditions do not favor their direct competition. The closest
For the EU to fulfill its long term objectives of climatic to a commercial use are applications that use biomass, micro-
changes and reduce its dependency for the import of fossil hydro, geothermal resources.
fuels, it must reach and even top those objectives. The In the present day, the electric energy that comes from
renewable energy occupies the third place for producing renewable sources is 42.29%. Therefore, hydro is 29.88%, wind
electricity and still has risen potential, with all the is 11.07%, solar photovoltaic is 1.18% and biomass is 0.16%
advantages for the environment. [www.agerpres.ro/economie/2017/04/19].
An efficient measure for preventing climatic changes Both the energy law and the energy efficiency law stimulate
represents an urgency and the EU must continue to keep the development of renewable energy and the ANRE has in
control as a leader through examples and act for extending plan the completion of a specific program.
as much as 92possible the international action. Europe must RESULTS
be ambitious and act in an integrate way and promote the Renewable energy resources that compete directly with fossil
Lisbon objectives. fuel are biomass and wastes from agriculture.
The EU made already its first steps in the direction of limiting Since biomass is the only carbon-based renewable fuel, its
the economic rise from the energy usage increment. The EU application becomes more and more important for climate
initiative combined legislative initiatives and energy protection. Among the thermochemical conversion
efficiency programs which encourage competition and the technologies (i.e.. combustion, gasification and pyrolysis),
efficient usage of renewable energy. The EU engagement of combustion is the only proven technology for heat and
preventing climatic changes is a long term one. power production. Biomass combustion systems are available
For reducing the rise of global temperature to a maximum in the size range from a few kW up to more than 100 MW. The
of 2 degrees over the pre-industrial levels, the gas efficiency for heat production is considerably high and heat
emissions with greenhouse effect should reach the from biomass is economically feasible[14]
maximum value until 2025 and then they should be Biomass represents the renewable resource which is most
reduced by at least 15%, preferably at most 50% abundant on our planet. This includes absolutely all the
comparative to those levels from 1990. This challenge organic matter produced through metabolically processes of
means that Europe should react now, especially in the the living organisms. Biomass is the first form of energy used
fields of energetic efficiency and renewable energy. by man, once with the discovery of fire.
Aside from the prevention of climatic changes, measures Biomass has a worldwide interest as a renewable energy
regarding renewable resources and the energetic efficiency resource that can make a big contribution to rural
will contribute to the rising of this energy usage and lowering development and to the implementation of sustainable
the UE dependency to average energy. Also this policy will energy supply systems at local, regional and global level. The
create numerous workplaces of good quality in Europe and current primary energy conversion technologies contained in
will maintain the no.1 place as a leader in technology, for a biomass are the following: direct burning, gasification,
worldwide sector in full development. pyrolysis, biological fermentation.
From this perspective, the UE plan of Emission Energy security and climate change mitigation are core
Commercialization creates a flexible frame from the point of elements in current European energy policy. The EU countries
view of costs for a cleaner production of energy. This plan is are mandated to meet by 2020 a target of 20% renewable
also the nucleus for the worldwide market of CO2. resources in the energy supply and 10% renewable resources
The maximum potential will be exploited only through a long in energy in the transport sector [4]. The latter corresponds to
term engagement for development and installation of a replacement of 50 billion liters of fossil transportation fuels.
renewable energy. The Energy Strategy 2020 [3] of the European Commission
calls for increased use of renewable resources in the energy
Table 1. A synthetic analysis of the resources
and their potential on the market in Romania
system and the European Council has presented a long term
Level of resource target for the EU and other industrialized countries of 80 to
Technology Market Potential 95% cuts in greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. A cornerstone
existence
Wind 2-3 2 in renewable energy projections of the European Union is
Solar Photovoltaic 2-3 1 biomass, which is expected to account for 56% of the
Solar Thermal 2-3 2-3 renewable energy supply in the EU by 2020
Micro-hydro 3 3 When biomass is used as a fuel, instead of fossil, the same
Biomass 3 3 amount of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. If
Geothermal 3 2-3 the use of biomass is to produce energy, it is considered a
Energy valued waste 2 2 neutral carbon fuel, due to the drastic reduction of gas
emissions into the atmosphere by producing methane
In Romania there is a technical and scientifically experience
instead of CO2. Carbon represents about 50% of the dry
important in the domain of renewable resources, but that
92 | F a s c i c u l e 1
vegetal mass and is part of the atmospheric carbon cycle. » maize stalks and corn hammers – 17,286 thousand tons /
Biomass fixes CO2 from the atmosphere during growth after year
carbon dioxide is released as a mixture of carbon dioxide » sunflower – 7,350 thousand t / a
(CO2) and methane (CH4), depending on the last use of the » vineyards – 255 thousand tons / year
plant material.[1] » flax and hemp pocket – 5,590 thousand t / a
Almost all the resulting agricultural residues can be used as The resulting agricultural biomass traditionally has three
resource for renewable energy, but considering the possible uses, namely:
possibilities of collection and baling for transportation, only » re-use in agriculture (animal husbandry)
the following types of agricultural residues are considered: » raw materials in the pulp and paper industry
» straw » fuel
» maize stalks What is not consumed by one of these forms is burnt in the
» corn hammers field, embedded in soil or stored for biological degradation.
» sunflower – strains, capite and seed husks In areas with a lot of arable land, biomass can play an essential
» vineyards role in energy production.
» flax and hemp pocketing
Table 3. Energy potential of biomass
In the category of "straw" were included the residues resulting Parameter UM Technical Economical
from the harvesting and treatment of the main crops of grain a) Vegetal biomass
cereals – wheat, barley, rye, oats. It is obvious that depending Thermal/ TJ/year 471,000 289,500
on the species and the variety, the weight of the straw in electrical Thousant
relation to the weight of the grain varies widely. Under these 11,249 6,915
energy tep/year
conditions it was considered that an average of straw weight b) Biogas
is about 90% of the grain weight. [4] Thermal/ TJ/year 24,600 14,800
Corn stalks are the plant, as harvested less. The weight of the electrical Thousand
587 353
maize strains is very varied depending on the maize variety energy tep/year
and the humidity at harvest. Corn ham is the support of corn c) Urban waste
grains in the pot. The weight of corn ham is on average equal Thermal/ TJ/year 22,800 13,700
to the weight of the grain. The flakes and hemp are the electrical Thousand
544 327
remains of the plant stems after the fibers have been energy tep/year
extracted. The weight of the cases is approx. 50% of the TJ/year 518,400 318,000
TOTAL Thousand
weight of the plants. [20] 12,382 7,595
tep/year
Table 2. The biomass potential by sorts, regions
CONCLUSIONS
Urban waste thousand
Wood waste thousand
thousand tones/year
thousand tones/year
Agricultural biomass
From the 1990, the EU has put itself in an ambitious plan to

Forestry biomass
become a worldwide leader in the renewable energy domain.

ml.mc/year
tones/year
tones/year
Region
Biogas
TOTAL
For example, the EU disposes at the present day of a capacity

TJ
to create wind energy the equivalent of 50 coal based

factories, to which their costs have been reduced to half in
the past 15 years. The renewable energy market of the UE has
54 19 844 71 182 an annual business number if 15 billion EURO (half of the
Dobrogea 29,897
451 269 13,422 1,477 910
166 58 2,332 118 474
entire worldwide market), an average of 300,000 workers and
Moldova 81,357 is an important exporter. At the present day the renewable
1,728 802 37,071 2,462 2,370
Carpatic 1,873 583 1,101 59 328 energy is beginning to compete, from the cost point of view,
65,415
Region 19,552 8,049 17,506 1,231 1,640 with fossil fuels.
835 252 815 141 548 In 2001, EU decided that the electricity percent produced
Transilvania 43,757
8,721 3,482 12,956 2,954 2,740 from renewable resources should reach 21% by 2020. In 2003,
347 116 1,557 212 365
Vest Plain
3,622 1,603 24,761 4,432 1,825
60,906 it was decided that at least 5.75 % of the entire quantity of gas
Subcarpatic 1,248 388 2,569 177 1,314 and diesel should be made from bio-fuels by 2010. A few
110,198 countries record a rapid rise in usage of renewable energy
Region 13,034 5,366 40,849 3,693 6,570
South Plain
204 62 3,419 400 1,350
126,639
through support national policies. But according to the actual
2,133 861 54,370 8,371 6,750 times, EU will be around 1-2 percent below the fixed targets.
4,727 1,478 12,637 1,178 4,561 For the EU to fulfill its long term objectives of climatic changes
TOTAL 518,439
49,241 20,432 20,093 24,620 22,805
and reduce its dependency for the import of fossil fuels, it
Starting from the above, the total biomass production used must reach and even top those objectives. The renewable
for fuel is: energy occupies the third place for producing electricity and
» straw – 3,357 thousand t / a
93 | F a s c i c u l e 1
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The maximum potential will be exploited only through a long 2009/28/CE privind promovarea utilizării energiei din surse
term engagement for development and installation of regenerabile European Comission Bruxelles;
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[13] Van Loo S. and J. Koppejan (2002) Handbook of Biomass
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94 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Loganathan PARASURAMAN, 2.Deepa KRISHNAMURTHY
PRANDTL BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW OF A CASSON NANOFLUID PAST A

PERMEABLE VERTICAL PLATE
Department of Mathematics, College of Engineering, Guindy, Anna University, Chennai-25, Tamilnadu, INDIA
1-2.
Abstract: This paper demonstrates the non-Newtonian flow behavior of a nanofluid under the permeability of a porous medium.
In particular, this investigation focused on the flow properties of Silica (SiO2) nanofluid subject to the buoyancy driven Casson fluid
flow. The volume fraction of nanoparticles influences the velocity and temperature field. The higher percentage of volume fraction
thickens the thermal boundary layer which in turn reduces the growth of velocity boundary layer. The effects of rheological
parameters such as Prandtl number, thermal Grashof number, permeability, Casson parameter, Nusselt number and skin friction
coefficient has been explored abundantly. The quantitative comparison of this study with the already existing results produces an
excellent correlation.
Keywords: Casson fluid; Moving vertical plate; Silica; Nanofluid; Porous medium
INTRODUCTION was analyzed that the larger blood vessel with the elevated
Non-Newtonian fluids are processed under laminar flow rate of shear demonstrates the Newtonian characteristics of
conditions owing to their high consistency. The wide ranges the fluid; whereas the smaller diameter arteries uplift the
of applications are found in the non-Newtonian fluids which apparent viscosity and betraying the non-Newtonian
unveil a pseudoplastic flow. In other words, the fluid exhibits characteristics.
a decrease in viscosity with increasing rate of shear. The paint, Over the years, nanofluids drew attention of many scientists.
printing inks and disperse systems are the most renowned Choi initiated the term called nanofluid; accordingly nano
examples of this kind of flow behavior. However, on account technology based heat transfer was evolved [Das et al. (2007),
of poor flow at low shear rate, the pseudoplasticity is Choi et al. (1995)]. Silica nanofluids have enormous findings in
objectionable in some way [Cross (1965)]. the literature. Generally, this kind of fluid serves as a flow
The yield stress of a non-Newtonian fluid involves in the agent in powdered foods and pharmaceutical products.
rheological characteristics. A substance driven by a yield Hydrated silica can be utilized as a rough material in removal
stress and generating a nonlinear flow curve is often called as of plaques. Theoretically, Blasius and Sakiadis problem for
the yield-pseudo plastic material. This type of material nanofluids was explained by Ahmad et al. (2011). Das et al.
exhibits infinite apparent viscosity with zero shear rate. At (2015) examined the hall current and thermal radiation effects
very low apparent viscosity, the rate of shear drastically on a water based nanofluid containing Al2O3, Cu and Ag
achieves an infinite value. This viscoplastic behavior nanoparticles under rotating frame of reference over an
associated with the Casson fluid model. Consequently, oscillating porous plate. Noghrehabadi et al. (2011) and
Casson fluid is described as a non-Newtonian shear thinning Noghrehabadi et al. (2012) inspected the heat transfer
fluid with a yield stress. Also, this model has been used for enhancement in SiO2 water nanofluid under the variation of
expounding the shear stress and shear rate behaviour of volume fraction and compared the results with Ag water
blood, yoghurt, tomato puree, molten chocolate, many food nanofluid over a stretching sheet.
stuffs and biological materials [Chhabra and Richarson According to Shi et al. (2017), the thermal resistance of
(1999)]. miniature heat pipe radiators was lowered for the 0.6%
The Casson flow model was invented by Casson. The volume fraction of SiO2 water nanofluid and this nanofluid has
constitutive equation which is formulated for this model is strengthen the performance of radiators comparing to the
used to effectively illustrate the flow curves for suspension of results of DI (Deionized) water. Ullah et al. (2016) studied the
pigments in printing inks and silicon suspensions. By virtue of effects of chemical reaction and thermal radiation on MHD
its possible applications, many researchers made their focus free convective Casson nanofluid flow past a nonlinearly
of attention on this flow model. Hussanan et al. (2014) derived stretching sheet saturated in a porous medium with slip and
the exact solution of Newtonian heating Casson fluid over an convective boundary conditions. Casson nanofluid flow
oscillating vertical plate. The notable conclusion of this article through a cone which is rotated and fixed in a rotating frame
is that an increase in the value of Prandtl number and Casson filled with ferrous nanoparticles was numerically studied by
fluid parameter regulate the flow separation. Venkatesan et al. Raju and Sandeep (2017). Haq et al. (2014) concentrated on
(2014) developed a numerical modelling of Casson fluid the MHD effects with suction/injection of Casson nanofluid
through a mild bell shaped stenosis at lower shear rates. It past a shrinking sheet and the numerical results were
95 | F a s c i c u l e 1
discussed for the flow properties. Meybodi et al. (2015) flow equations mentioned in [Tiwari et al. (2007)] can be
centralized their priority to viscosity. Least squares support expressed as
vector machines method is adopted to predict the viscosity ∂u µ nf  1  ∂2u (ρβ* ) nf
in this analyzes. Muthucumaraswamy et al. (2011) found the =  1 +  2 + g (T′ − T∞′ )
∂t * ρnf  β  ∂y ρnf
exact solution of incompressible viscous fluid flow over an (1)
µ
oscillating plate with thermal radiation and chemical reaction. − nf u
Rayleigh’s problem described the fluid flow along a moving kρnf
horizontal plate. On account of practical applications, ∂T′ k nf ∂ T′ 2
= (2)
convective flow over an impulsively started vertical plate has ∂t *
(ρc p ) nf ∂y 2
been studied in this article. The most prominent distinctive Suitable initial and boundary conditions of the problem are
aspect distinctive aspect of this work is the non-Newtonian
t * ≤ 0, u = 0,T′ = T∞′ for all y
flow configuration that has been dealt with the SiO2 -water
nanofluid past a permeable impulsively started semi-infinite t * > 0, u = u 0 ,T′ = Tw′ for y = 0 (3)
vertical plate. The complexities pertaining to the non-linearity u → 0,T′ → T∞′ as y → ∞
of the rheological characteristics are represented graphically.
where β* is the thermal expansion coefficient, µ nf and ρnf
To assure the reliability and accuracy of the solution, the
investigation is directed towards the comparison with the are the dynamic viscosity and density of nanofluid
results of Soundalgekar (1977). Certainly, the correlation respectively.
discloses an appreciable and extremely good match.
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
Consider a convective Casson fluid flow over a nanofluid past
a permeable moving semi-infinite vertical plate. Assume that
the plate is at rest initially. Hence, it is evident that the fluid
temperature remains ambient temperature. The plate
suddenly starts to accelerate vertically upwards with a
constant speed u 0 at t * > 0 . This impulsive motion results in
the velocity and temperature. At this time level the
temperature of the plate raised to T' (> T' ) . Eventually, the
w ∞
fluid encounters the heat transfer near wall. For the case that
the flow is far away from the plate, the velocity and
temperature gradually drops to zero. The fluid motion is taken Figure 1. Schematic representation of the flow model
along x direction vertically and the y direction is normal to The expressions for the nanofluid parameters are defined as
the plate. The velocities u and v are described along vertical [Ahmad et al. (2011)]
and horizontal directions respectively. The schematic µ
representation is shown in figure 1. µ nf = f 2.5 , ρnf= (1 − φ)ρf + φρs ,
(1 − φ)
The effect of viscous dissipation is negligible in the energy
(ρc p ) nf = (1 − φ)(ρc p )f + φ(ρc p )s ,
balance equation. The expression for the flow configuration
of Casson fluid can be defined by a constitutive relation (ρβ* ) nf= (1 − φ)(ρβ* )f + φ(ρβ* )s
[Makanda et al. (2015), Arthur et al. (2015), Raju et al. (2016) Effective thermal conductivity is described by [Oztop et al.
and Ullah et al. (2016)]. (2008), Hamilton and Crosser (1962)]
  Py  k nf (k s + 2k f ) − 2φ(k f − k s )
2  µ B +  eij , π > πc =
  2π  kf (k s + 2k f ) + φ(k f − k s )
τij =
  Py  Here φ is the volume fraction coefficient, ρs is the
 2  µ B + 2π  eij , π ≤ πc
  c  nanoparticle density, ρf is the density of the base fluid, (c p )f
Here, π =e e and eij is the (i, j)th component of the shear rate. and (c ) are respectively the heat capacity of base fluid and
ij ij p s
πc is the critical value of π concerned with the model. µ B is nanoparticle. The thermophysical properties of various
materials at 250C are taken from [Hussein et al. (2013)] and the
the plastic dynamic viscosity and Py is the yield stress of the
nanoparticles considered in this investigation are spherical
fluid. shaped nanoparticles. Non dimensional quantities employed
The governing boundary layer equations of the mathematical on the coupled partial differential equations (1), (2) and (3) are
model that encompasses the above assumptions, taken as
constitutive equation, Boussinesq approximation and the u yu 0 t * u 02 T′ − T∞′
= U = ,Y = ,t = ,T
u0 υf υf Tw′ − T∞′
96 | F a s c i c u l e 1
υf gβ*f (Tw′ − T∞′ ) υf (ρc p )f ku 02 ⧉ Case (ii):

Gr = 3
, Pr , K = 2 As K → ∞ , the permeability becomes infinitely large which is
u0 kf υf
the case that there is no porous medium.
where U, Y, t and T are the dimensionless velocity,
 Y 
horizontal direction, time and temperature respectively. Gr U(Y, t) = erfc  
 2 aB t 
is the thermal Grashof number, Pr is the Prandtl number, K  1 
 Y  2
is the permeability parameter and υf is the kinematic  Y  Y −

 erfc  − e 4aB t  1
  2 aB t  πaB1t 
viscosity of the base fluid.  1 
 
Non dimensional form of (1), (2) and (3) are  Y 2  Y  
+ erfc   
∂U  1  ∂ U 2
U  
 2aB1t  2 aB1t  
=+1  B1 2 − B1 + B2 Gr T (4)  
∂t  β  ∂Y K Gr B2 t   Y B4  
+ − erfc  
∂T 1 ∂ 2T (aB1B4 − 1)   2 aB t 
 1 

 
= B3 (5)  Y 2 B4 
∂t Pr ∂Y 2  + Y B4 e− 4B1t 
Appropriate initial and boundary conditions are  πaB1t 
 
t ≤ 0, U =0,T =0 for all Y  Y2B  Y B4  
− 4
erfc   
t > 0, U =1,T =1 for Y =0 (6)  2aB1t

 2 aB t 
 1 


U → 0, T → 0 as Y → ∞ where
Solutions of the equations (4) and (5) together with the initial  (ρβ* ) 
(1 − φ) + φ  * s 
and boundary conditions (6) are acquired by =
Laplace B1 =
1
,B2  (ρβ )f  ,
transform technique. The expressions which explicate the  ρ   ρ 
(1 − φ) + φ  s 
(1 − φ)2.5  (1 − φ) + φ  s  
flow characteristics are obtained as follows.   ρf    ρf 
— Temperature distribution k nf
B3 =
  (ρCp )s  
 Y Pr  k f  (1 − φ) + φ  
  (ρCp )f  
T(Y, t) = erfc     
 2 B3 t 
Pr B B5 1
B4 = , B5 = 1 , B6 = , a= 1+
— Velocity distribution B3 K aB1B4 − 1 β
⧉ Case (i): Heat transfer can be analysed from the Nusselt number
If K is finite expression with the various values of Pr .
 e B6 t  F (Y, t) + F (Y, t)   k nf Pr
 1 2
 −F (Y, t) − F (Y, t)   Nu =
 2  3 4  kf πB3 t
 
Gr B2  1  Skin friction coefficient is given by
U(Y, t) = − [ F5 (Y, t) + F6 (Y, t) ] 
B5  2  1  1  ∂U
Cf =
− 1 + 
  B4 Y   (1 − φ) 2.5  β  ∂Y
+erfc    Y =0
 

  2 t  
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1 To establish the validation of the current results, an extensive
+ [ F5 (Y, t) + F6 (Y, t) ] comparison has been done with the solution of Soundalgekar
2
−y
B5 + B6
 Y  (1977) for
aB1
where F1 (Y, t) e
= erfc  − (B5 + B6 )t  Y . The
 2 aB t  =t 0.2,
= Pr 0.71,Gr
= 5 &10, K → ∞ , β → ∞
= ,φ 0 and
= η
 1  2 t
B5 + B6
 Y
y
aB1
 exact solution obtained in this study manifests the wonderful
F2 (Y, t) = e
erfc  + (B5 + B6 )t 
 2 aB t  match which is illustrated in figure 2.
 1 
Figure 3 demonstrates the effects of K, t, Pr and Gr on the
 B4 Y 
=F3 (Y, t) e
− y B4 B6
erfc  − B6 t  velocity of SiO2 nanoparticles with the fixed volume fraction
 2 t 
  φ =0.02 . The rise in the permeability leads to the increase in
y B B
 B4 Y  velocity. Physically, this is due to the bulk behaviour of the
=F4 (Y, t) e 4 6 erfc  + B6 t 
 2 t  fluid which is strongly depending on the porous medium
 
B5
structure. Velocity is uplifted by the larger time level due to
−y
aB1
 Y  the impulsive motion of the plate with constant velocity. The
=F5 (Y, t) e erfc  − B5 t 
 2 aB t  higher values of Prandtl numer exhibit decrease in the
 1 
y
B5
 Y 
velocity boundary layer as a result of resistance in the fluid
=F6 (Y, t) e aB1
erfc  + B5 t  flow caused by the viscosity. The greater external cooling of
 2 aB t 
 1  the plate improves the flow speed.
97 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Figure 5. Velocity distributions of various nanoparticles

Figure 2. Comparison of velocity profiles with the results of
Soundalgekar (1977)
Figure 6. Effect of φ on velocity distribution

In figure 5 and 7, the velocity and temperature profiles of
Figure 3. Influence of K , t , Pr, Gr and β various nanoparticles SiO2, Al2O3, Ag, TiO2 and Cu are
on velocity distribution of SiO 2 discussed. SiO2 nanoparticles produce the highest velocity
As mentioned previously, the Casson parameter depends on distribution and the lowest temperature distribution.
the viscosity and yield stress of the fluid. By lowering the yield
stress, the rise in the values of Casson parameter achieved.
This fluid flow resembles the Newtonian fluid flow in default
of the yield stress. From figure 3 and 4 the complexities occur
in the velocity distribution as a result of elevation in β has
been illustrated. Chhabra and Richardson (1977) pointed out
that the physical properties of non-Newtonian fluids are
normally temperature dependent. The temperature
difference is likely to be important in improving the Gr
values. The greater values of Gr and β evidently increase the
non linearities of the flow curve.
Figure 7. Temperature distribution of various nanoparticles

Figure 8 explains the influence of Prandtl number, φ and
time. Increasing the values of Prandtl number, results in the
temperature drop. This is because of the less physical
strength in the thermal conductivity. On the other hand,
temperature shoots up rapidly for the elongated time.
Rise in the amount of nanoparticle concentration elevates the
thermal conductivity of the base fluid. Due to high thermal
conductivity, the thinner momentum boundary layer and
thicker thermal boundary layer are observed. These
circumstances reduce the speed of the flow and increase the
Figure 4. Velocity distributions of SiO 2 for different values of temperature in SiO 2 nanofluid which is depicted in figure 6
Casson parameter and 8.
98 | F a s c i c u l e 1
elevation of skin friction coefficient. Higher values of Casson

parameter display the growth in viscous drag due to the
significant change in dynamic viscosity.
Figure 11 emphasizes the influence of Nusselt number on
SiO2 nanoparticles with 2% volume fraction and Prandtl
number values enhance the energy transport from high
temperature region to low temperature region. Thus it is
evident that there is a remarkable increase in the Nusselt
number values.
Figure 8. Influence of φ , t and Pr on temperature distribution of

SiO 2
Figure 11. Variation in the Nusselt number in SiO 2 for different Pr

CONCLUSIONS
A bulk of theoretical and experimental investigation carried
out on nanofluids. However, very few researchers reviewed
the SiO2 –water nanofluids. In addition to that there is no
contribution in non-Newtonian (Casson fluid) behaviour of
Figure 9. Skin friction coefficient for different nano particles
nanofluids through a porous medium. This study analyses this
phenomena and concludes with the following stupendous
inferences.
 Among the five nanoparticles including metallic and
non-metallic nanoparticles, SiO2 displays the highest
velocity, lowest skin friction and temperature.
 Enhancing Prandtl number values produce the greatest
improvement in the Nusselt number but lessen the
temperature and velocity field.
 Uplifting Grashof number and Casson parameter
provides some irregularities in the flow pattern. Near to
the plate surface, it is noted that the velocity is growing
Figure10. Influence of φ, K, β and Gr on Skin friction coefficient of and it is decaying while the fluid far away from the
SiO 2
surface.
 Volume fraction of nanoparticles (amount of
The shear stress of the flow towards the plate experiences the
nanoparticles dispersed in the conventional fluid)
velocity gradient and fluid flow retardation. From figure 9,
escalate the temperature and slow down the speed.
SiO2 nanoparticles exhibit the lowest skin friction comparing
 Velocity and temperature field rapidly increases for a
to the other nanoparticles on account of viscosity fluctuation
large time scale.
at 3% volume fraction, K= 1, β= 3.6, Gr= 3 and Pr= 7 .
 The flow speed is stimulated when the permeability is
Figure 10 depicts the influence of different parameters on the
getting larger. Increment in K, β and Gr display the rise
skin friction coefficient. Thermal conductivity of the
conventional fluid greatly improved when the large amount in viscous drag. When there is an increase in the volume
of nanoparticles dispersed. Consequently, there is a drop in fraction coefficient, the skin friction is significantly
the viscous drag. Rise in the permeability leads to the increase reduced.
Acknowledgement
in the number of pores or the size of pores in the porous
One of the authors, K. Deepa immensely expresses the gratitude
medium. Owing to this fact, the fluid approaches the plate to Anna University, Chennai for supporting this research work
surface easily which improves the friction between the plate with the financial assistance through “Anna Centenary Research
and the fluid. An increase in the Grashof number results in the Fellowship”.
99 | F a s c i c u l e 1
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stretching sheet with suction or injection, Journal of
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100 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Oluwayomi Ife AKINYEMI, 1.Titus Adeyemi ALONGE,
1.
Olumuyiwa Idowu OJO, 2.Oyetola OGUNKUNLE
GEO-SPATIAL TREND MAPPING OF SOME ANNUAL CLIMATE VARIABLE

FOR SOUTH WEST NIGERIA
Agricultural Engineering Department, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, NIGERIA
1.
Mechanical Engineering Science Department, University of Johannesburg, SOUTH AFRICA

2.
Abstract: The concept of climate has gained much relevance because of its dynamic and complex nature and the significant
influence it has on various aspects of the environment including the increasing threat of global climate change. The varying pattern
does not encourage the stable practice of agriculture, thereby causing an increase or decrease in their yield. Data were collected
from Nigeria Meteorological Agency (NIMET) for rainfall, temperature and relative humidity data for the period of 38 years and
were analyzed in order to generate geo-spatial trend maps of climate variability to aid smart agricultural crop production. The
mean temperature, average rainfall and average relative humidity for each year of the study period were calculated. Imagery shape
file was also extracted from South West Nigeria maps. The weather data and Imagery shape file were then imported into Arc GIS
9.0 for geo-spatial maps for Rainfall, Temperature and Relative Humidity. The analysis showed prolonged variability in average
annual rainfall received over the climatic zone across the three climatic factors. The results indicated a temperature higher than
27°C cause under-development of anthers and loss of viability of pollen. Higher temperature disturbs the photosynthesis and
respiration and these may result in low production. Rainfall pattern reveals that rainfall in South West has been highly varied.
Relative humidity pattern between the years tends to either increase or decrease in the result by (±3) with a relative stability in the
last 5 years of this study period thereby aiding the easy prediction of the shelf life of agricultural products.
Keywords: climate factors; climatic variability; agricultural production; south-west of Nigeria
INTRODUCTION (1996) asserts that a practical response strategy is to improve

The last several decades have witnessed warmer adaptation to climate variability, including extreme events.
temperatures across the globe, with more rapid warming Smith (1997) maintains that adaptation is necessary to avoid
observed during the last half of the 20th century compared impacts that can otherwise occur gradually and may be
with the first (Jones et al., 2001). Agriculture in Nigeria is a irreversible. That is, increasing the robustness of infrastructure
branch of the economy in Nigeria providing employment for designs and investments can reap immediate benefits
about 30% of the population as at 2010 (Sanusi, 2010). Heavy through improved resilience to climate variability and
rainfall events have increased, longer and more intense extreme atmospheric events. Adaptation is viewed as a
droughts have occurred. crucial step to strengthen local capacity to deal with
The adverse effects of food insecurity have already been felt forecasted and unexpected climatic conditions (Smith et al.,
in the South Western of Nigeria. Currently, and over the next 1996).
few decades, climate change impacts on agriculture are more Nigeria, by virtue of its location, enjoys a warm tropical
likely to arise from increased climate variability and increased climate with relatively high temperatures throughout the
frequency and intensity of extreme events, rather than from year and two seasons; the rainy or wet season that lasts from
changes in mean climatic conditions. It has produced several mid-March to November in the south and from May to
effects on food security thereby resulting in scarcity of some October in the north; and the dry season that occupies the
items not produced in this part of the country. With all these rest of the year. However in a country where the temperatures
adverse effect of climate on agriculture been stated, do not fluctuate regularly, constant elements such as rainfall
addressing climate concerns through adaptation will be and relative humidity are heavily relied on to differentiate
advantageous to agriculture (FAO, 2006). between the season and climate zones.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) notes The climate of the country is influenced by the interaction of
that adaptability through changes in “processes, practices or two air masses: the relatively warm and moist tropical marine
structures” is a crucial element in reducing potential adverse mass which originates over the Atlantic ocean and is
impacts or enhancing beneficial impacts of Climate change associated with southwest winds in Nigeria and the relatively
(IPCC 2001). Adaptation is regarded as a vital component of cool, dry and relatively stable tropical continental air mass
climate change impacts and vulnerability assessment that originates from the Sahara Desert and is associated with
(Skinner et al., 2001). In the context of development, Burton the dry, cool and dusty North-East Trades (harmattan).
101 | F a s c i c u l e 1
In the south, it’s a different case as the long wet season that to cope with the environmental changes in the context of
starts in mid-March and last till July is a season of heavy rains farm management and precision farming.
and high humidity. Plants and pasture are fresh and green DATA AND METHODOLOGY
grasses and weeds grow rapidly and look attractive. Plant — Description of study area
development depends on high atmospheric humidity in the South West Nigeria, as shown in Figure 1, constitute of six
sense that many plants have the ability to directly absorb states namely, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ekiti, Ondo and Lagos. The
moisture from unsaturated air of high humidity. area falls between longitude 2° 31ʹ and 6° 00ʹ East and latitude
This percentage tells how close the air is to being saturated. If 6° 21ʹ and 8° 37ʹ North with a total land area of 77,818 Km2 and
the relative humidity is 50%, the air contains half the water a projected population of 28,767,752 in 2002. The states are
vapour required for it to be saturated. If the amount of water part of few states that participated in Agricultural production
vapour in the air increases, the relative humidity increases, in Nigeria. The study area is bounded in the East by Edo and
and if the amount of water vapour in the air decreases, the Delta states, in the North by Kwara and Kogi states, in the west
relative humidity decreases. However, relative humidity is by the Republic of Benin and in the south by the Gulf of
dependent on air temperature, too. If the water vapour Guinea (Agboola, 2004). Between March and October, the
content stays the same and the temperature drops, the prevalent winds in the region is the moist maritime South-
relative humidity increases. If the water vapour content stays west monsoon which blows inland from the Atlantic Ocean,
the same and the temperature rises, the relative humidity this is the period of rainy season. November to February is the
decreases. This is because colder air doesn’t require as much period of dry season when the dry laden winds blow from the
moisture to become saturated as warmer air (Monteith and Sahara desert. The mean annual rainfall of about 1,205 mm,
Unsworth, 2008). fell within an approximate period of 109 days with two rainfall
According to 2004 estimate the value of agriculture peaks in June and September.
production constituted 30.8%; industry, 43.8% and services
25.4%, of the nation GDP, respectively. The nation’s GDP real
growth rate stood at 7.1% (CIA World Factbook, 2004).
Temperature rise is likely to result in reduced food production
within the next couple of decades in regions already facing
food insecurity. To determine the correlating effects of these
two climatic factors, a model will be used to study the
processes taking place in the soil-plant-atmosphere
continuum and carry out scenario testing. This approach
permits revisiting of the past, simulating the present and
predicting the future, thus, made it flexible in all situations.
With an upgraded capability to environmental parameters,
proper management intervention could be done to minimize
risk in the future. The rainfall pattern can simply be accessed
using simulation models. Another issue is the spatial and
temporal dimension of water productivity. A spatio-temporal
analysis could broaden the role of models in exploring
improved water use in agriculture (Ines et al., 2002). The use
of Geographic Information System (GIS) and crop models
permits more efficient analysis because the temporal and
spatial dimensions could be examined at once.
This study focused on the assessment of climate variation in
South Western region of Nigeria based on the variations in Figure 1: Map of the study area (Southwest, Nigeria).
Adapted from Ojo and Olawale, 2014
rainfall, relative humidity and temperature within the period
1970-2007. The aim is to assess climate change in south-west — Data collection and analysis
of Nigeria as it may likely affect agricultural crop production. The data used for this project were secondary and were
This study helps to address the research gap by providing an collected from Nigeria Meteorological Agency (NIMET). The
assessment of the overall effect of climatic variability on data cover relative humidity, temperature and rainfall of the
agricultural production through analysis of some climatic south-west of Nigeria from 1970 to 2007. The data were
conditions data associated with crop production. recorded on monthly basis, that is, from January to
Rainfall, temperature and relative humidity seems to be the December. Imagery shape file was also extracted for the study
main contributor to agricultural crop production in the south area. Rainfall data was subjected to various statistical
western part of Nigeria. The analysis will help farmers on how techniques to arrive at valuable result.
102 | F a s c i c u l e 1
The correlation analysis was used to determine the pattern in

total rainfall over time for the weather station in the study
area. The data were processed using Microsoft Excel software.
Microsoft Excel was used to calculate mean of maximum and
minimum temperature, average rainfall and average relative
humidity for each year from 1970 to 2007 respectively.
Imagery shape file was also imported into Arc GIS 9.0 for map
productions for rainfall, temperature and relative humidity.
Correlation analysis was also carried out using temperature
data of 38 years to determine the variations in temperature
and establish the temperature trend in the study area.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
— Variations in rainfall, temperature and relative
humidity in South West Nigeria
The impact of climate change on crop yield is generally
estimated from a combination of the effects of climate
models on the physical crop growth pattern (Müller et al.,
2011). Climate change, if not properly assessed, will obviously
jeopardize farming sustenance of the rural people in Africa,
particularly where inadequate access to agricultural
knowledge and technology of climate will hamper their
ability to adapt and plan (Lobell et al., 2008, Salami and Figure 2b: Geo-spatial variation map of annual Rainfall
Matthew, 2009). for South West of Nigeria
Trend analysis of the data set over the study time was
Total rainfall of the area was characterized by two distinct
therefore obtained to determine the recent and current trend
peaks: one in 1985 and the other (highest) peak in 1991. This
in temperature as it provides indication of the increase or
shows that these years were the wettest year within the
decrease of good climatic conditions.
period under study.
— Rainfall Pattern
Generally, the total rainfall of the area decreased in the period
The result of this study show that rainfall variations and
1970-1973 and increase in year 1974. There was also slight
pattern in South west is worthy of close examination, as its
decline in years 1976, 1977, 1982, 1983 and 1994. There was a
variations over time is remarkable.
sharp increase after year 1978; this was more experienced in
The results showed that there was a high variation of
year 1985 till about year 1992 with a sharp decline in year
precipitation in the Southwest. The trend of total annual
1993. Within this period there was an interesting variation of
rainfall for the periods is shown in Figure 2a.
rainfall as it experienced a rise and fall. The total rainfall
160 continued to increase and decline in the period 1994-2007.
The geo-spatial variation map of annual rainfall for the study
150 area is shown in Figure 2b. The mean total annual rainfall is
highest for year 1991 (152 mm) while it is lowest for year 1977
140
RAINFALL (mm)
(88 mm). The implication of this is that rainfall in South west

130 varies in amount from year 1970-2007. Therefore, it is not
expected that equal amount of rainfall can fall from one year
120
to another. Annual rainfall range indicates the variability of
110 annual rainfall and hence denotes how reliable the rainfall is
in terms of its persistence as a constant and stable
100 replenishing source of water in south western region. It was
90 also observed that there was decreased crop production in
the years with less precipitation.
80 Agricultural produce were very scarce and the yields were
1982
1985
1988
1970
1973
1976
1979
1991
2000
2003
2006
1994
1997
reduced as compared to the years with high precipitation

rates. Agricultural production in South Western part of Nigeria
YEAR
is largely fed by rainfall; any decrease in precipitation rate will
Figure 2a: Trend line for yearly mean rainfall variation have unfavourable impact on agricultural production and
largely reduce the crop yields as relatively reported by
Chikezie et al., 2015).
103 | F a s c i c u l e 1
— Temperature Pattern mean annual temperature of the study area was stable with
The mean yearly temperature variation is shown in Figure 3a. slight fluctuations in years 1987, 1998 and 2007 within the
The lowest average temperature value of 23°C was recorded period.
within the period under study in year 2007. The minimum — Relative humidity pattern
value of 26°C was recorded in years 1971, 1974, 1975, 1976, The relative humidity trend is shown in Figure 4a. It can be
1978 and 1980, which shows that these years were relatively observed that there is a slight difference in the trend pattern
cooler. from year to year. However, the trend of relative humidity
varies at the early stage of the study period 1970-1972. There
28 was a stable trend over the period 1973-1975. The (highest)
28 peak relative humidity was in year 1979, with other high
values recorded in the year 1976 and 1978. Also the lowest
27
years were years 1983, 1992, 1993, 1998, 2000 and 2002
TEMPERATURE (°C)
27 relatively 79%. Other varies trend falls within the highest value
26 and the lowest. This shows the variation of relative humidity
within a predictable range for agricultural practices. The geo-
26 spatial variation of map of annual relative humidity for South
25 West is shown in Figure 4b.
25 86
24
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)
85
24
84
23
83
1982
1985
1988
1970
1973
1976
1979
1991
2000
2003
2006
1994
1997
82
YEAR
81
Figure 3a: Trend line for mean yearly temperature variation
80
79
78
1982
1985
1988
1970
1973
1976
1979
1991
2000
2003
2006
1994
1997
YEAR
Figure 4a: Trend line for mean yearly relative humidity variation
Figure 3b: Geo-spatial variation map of annual temperature for

South West Nigeria
The maximum value of 28°C was however recorded in years
1987 and 1998, indicating that it was a relatively warmer years.
Temperature in south west has been slightly varied. The
varying period was the early years of the study period 1970-
1980. The geo-spatial variation map of annual temperature Figure 4b: Geo-spatial variation of map of annual relative humidity
for South West Nigeria is shown in Figure 3b. In general, the for South West
104 | F a s c i c u l e 1
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION [9] Lobell D B, Burke M B, Tebaldi C, Mastrandrea M D, Falcon

The results establish variability and change in zonal rainfall, W P and Naylor R L. 2008. Prioritizing climate change
adaptation needs for food security in 2030 Science 319
temperature and relative humidity experienced in agricultural 607–10.
production in Nigeria. [10] Monteith, J. and Unsworth, M. 2008. Principles of
The study has revealed the effects that climatic variables, such environmental physics. Academic Press, California, USA. 3rd
as rainfall, relative humidity, temperature have on agriculture Edition. pp 116 - 139.
in the study area. The analyses have shown prolonged [11] Müller C, Cramer W, Hare W L and Lotze-Campen H. 2011.
variability in average annual rainfall received over the climatic Climate change risks for African agriculture Proc. Natl Acad.
Sci. USA 108 4313–5.
zone across the three climatic factors considered and such [12] Olumuyiwa Idowu Ojo and Saheed Olabanjo Olawale
variation and changes were statistically established. Such (2014). Assessment of Weather Variability Impact on
prolong variability also extend its socioeconomic importance Cassava Yield in South Western Nigeria. LAUTECH Journal
to the ground water resources and hydrological sector. of Engineering & Technology, Vol. 9, number 2. ISSN: 1597-
Rainfall, temperature and relative humidity showed 0000.
[13] P. D. Jones, T. J. Osborn, K. R. Briffa. 2001. The Evolution of
transitions from dry to wet conditions in the change point Climate over the Last Millennium. Science; 292(5517): 662 –
analyses between 1970 and 2007 as there were observed 667. DOI: 10.1126/science.1059126.
jumps with no imbalance in averaged zonal rainfall [14] Salami AT, Matthew OJ (2009). Challenges of Effective
distribution, temperature and relative humidity across the Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Nigeria: The
climatic periods. Role of Education. A paper presented at 5th World
Environmental Education Congress (WEEC), May 10 -14, at
The results will assist in planning ahead in order to avert
Montreal, Canada.
problems such as early drought associated with climatic [15] Sanusi Lamido Sanusi. 2010. Growth Prospects for the
variables in the study area. Besides reducing over Nigerian Economy. Convocation Lecture delivered at the
dependence on rain-fed agriculture, it is recommended that Igbinedion University Eighth Convocation Ceremony,
farmers should plant drought resistant crops or early Okada, Edo State, November 26, 2010.
maturing crop varieties especially in the extremely southern [16] Skinner, M. and Smith, B. (2001). Adaptation options in
Agriculture to Climate Change: A typology, mitigation and
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105 | F a s c i c u l e 1
XII
ISSN: 2067-3809
1.
Galina PATAMANSKA, 2Elena GRANCHAROVA
HYDRAULIC MODELING FOR BETTER OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF

EXISTING IRRIGATION CANAL
Institute for Soil Science, Agrotechnologies and Plant Protection „N. Pushkarov“, Sofia, BULGARIA
1-2.
Abstract: Mathematical simulation model is a suitable tool for understanding the hydraulic behavior of an open irrigation canal
and obtaining information on actual hydraulic parameters of water flow. In this paper, a simulation model of an open irrigation
canal created using hydraulic software HEC-RAS is presented. The model was calibrated with observed flow data in steady state
conditions and optimal roughness value and actual canal carrying capacity were determined. Сomputer simulations for different
values of roughness and operating discharge were carried out in order to diagnose the condition of the lining and defining the
limits of the hydraulic parameters of the studied canal.
Keywords: irrigation canal, simulation model, hydraulic modeling, diagnostics, analysis
INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS

In irrigation systems the flow parameters are measured in a  Description of software used
limited number of points along the canal course, which does In this study, the freeware software HEC-RAS, Version 4.1
not provide sufficient information for effective management (Hydrologic Engineering Center - River Analysis System)
- supply of needed water for irrigation of the agricultural developed by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, is selected to
crops without deficiency or excess spillage. create a simulation model of the study canal. Using this
Mathematical simulation model is a suitable tool for software, one-dimensional hydraulic calculations are
understanding the hydraulic behavior of the open irrigation performed in a branched network of natural and / or artificial
canal and for obtaining information about the actual values channels. The software system includes a user interface,
of the flow parameters. As a result of the hydraulic analysis of steady flow model, unsteady flow model and modules that
the flow in the canal carried out with a model, complete provide graphical and tabular presentation of the results. It
information is obtained about the changes in water levels can simulate steady and unsteady flows in open channel. For
along the canal occurring after each change of water supply the steady state conditions, water surface profile can be
at the head of the canal and/ or change of the water simulated in critical, supercritical and mixed flow regimes (US
discharge in the canal off takes (Baume et al,.1994). The Army Corps of Engineers, 2010).
roughness factor is an essential parameter of the For conducting hydraulic modeling and simulation of the
mathematical models of the open canals as it participates in water surface profile in irrigation canal data are required for
the calculations of the friction slope and influences the its geometry, the boundary conditions, the water discharge,
hydraulic parameter determination accuracy. Models should the canal roughness, geometric description of the hydraulic
be calibrated by roughness parameter. structures along the canal course, such as gates, culverts,
Computer analysis can be very useful in assessing the existing weirs. Introducing the geometry of the canal includes
situation of an old irrigation system with open canals and in defining the profile of the canal bed of the study reach by
searching for possible solutions to improve water management. setting series of cross-sections that longitudinally define its
With the calibrated steady flow model, in terms of roughness shape.
hydraulic studies and assessing the influence of operating For the calculation of the longitudinal water surface profile at
conditions can be carried out. steady flow, the one-dimensional equation of energy
In this paper, a simulation model of an open irrigation canal (Bernoulli equation) is integrated by the standard step
created using hydraulic software HEC-RAS is presented. The method. In order to be able to start the calculation, a
model was calibrated with observed flow data in steady state discharge upstream of the canal and a stage downstream are
conditions and optimal roughness value and actual canal set as boundary conditions. For the interior points the stage
carrying capacity was determined. Сomputer simulations for is estimated keeping the water discharge constant.
different values of roughness and operating discharge were As results of canal flow simulation the following hydraulic
carried out in order to diagnose the condition of the lining parameters: depth/ water surface elevation, energy grade line
and defining the limits of the hydraulic parameters of the elevation, friction slope, flow velocity, critical depth/critical
studied canal. depths line elevation, water volume in the canal and others
can be determined.
107 | F a s c i c u l e 1
The roughness coefficient cannot be measured directly and a simplified geometry and the cross sections can be
therefore it is necessary to determine it by other methods. introduced with four points and a value of the coefficient of
One of the methods used to assess the roughness is by roughness. Since two of the canal sections are not completely
simulation with a mathematical model. The classic approach lined, they were introduced with six points and changes in
for evaluation and calibration of the parameter roughness is the lining are recorded by entering two values of the
associated with modeling of the steady flow in the canal roughness coefficient for the lined and unlined part of the
(Malaterre et al, 2010). bank (Figure 2a). As boundary conditions rating curve at the
The computational procedure is iterative and simulations head of the canal and critical depth at the end were set.
with the irrigation canal model are carried out for a series of
roughness values. For the determination of the roughness
coefficient, the values of the hydraulic parameters in the
observation points along the irrigation canal course and the
numerical results of the computer experiments are compared
according to a certain criterion. Nguyen and Fenton
investigate the application of three main types of target
function and show that least squares minimization gives the
best results (Nguyen and Fenton D., 2004). The best match
between the observed and calculated values for the hydraulic
parameter, according to the selected criterion, determines
the optimal roughness value.
 Description of the studied canal
The studied canal is a first part of an existing irrigation canal -
the main canal M1-1 of „Sredna Tundja“ irrigation system, in
length 7.586 km, which starts from an attachment facility from
the Binkus bent on the Tundzha river from an elevation of 185
m to a distribution shaft in the region of village Gavrailovo
7.586 km in length (fig. 1.) The canal is designed up to
discharge 41 m3/s.
The canal has trapezoidal cross-section and consists of 3
sections, two of them lined with concrete 2.642 km and 3.403 Figure 2 - Canal cross sections
km in length with 2 m bottom width, a side slope of 1.5, the Calibration of HEC-RAS model of the M1-1 canal for
average bottom. roughness coefficient n.
The HEC-RAS model of the M1-1 canal was calibrated using
data for observed inlet water discharge and one depth at the
end of the canal before the distribution shaft in the area of
the village of Gavrailovo. Calibration data was selected from
the daily operational information for canal depth
measurements during the period from 14th of May to 29th of
July 2012 under steady state of canal conditions.
The model has been used to simulate the steady flow in the
canal M1-1 for increasing values of the roughness coefficient
of the lined part of the canal cross sections in the range of
0.014 to 0.04 and the roughness coefficient equal to 0.035 for
the unlined part and the rocky section in the steady state
conditions. The initial value of the roughness for concrete
Figure 1 - Map of main canal M-1-1 of „Sredna Tundja“ irrigation lined canal and grassed surface of unlined part of the banks
system and vicinity area (www.topomaps.info) were selected in tables published in (Chow, 1959). A total of
RESULTS 20 experiments were conducted.
Hydraulic simulation model of the studied canal was created The simulated and measured values of the depth in the end
using hydraulic software HEC-RAS. It was built on the basis of of the canal for different values of the roughness coefficient
the design parameters of main irrigation canal M 1-1. When are presented in Table 1. The simulated depth hydrographs
creating the simulation model a realistic representation of the were compared with observed depth hydrograph using
existing situation was sought. To reproduce the real linear regression. No significant deviation between the
geometry of the canal, three cross sections are set - at the measured and estimated values is available and high
canal inlet, at the head of rocky canal section and at the head correlation (R2˃0.9) between the observed and simulation
of lined canal section in the canal end. The irrigation canal has depths was achieved for the respective water discharges. An
108 | F a s c i c u l e 1
optimum value of the roughness n = 0.037 is determined for condition of the lining and study the parameters of flow in
which the correlation coefficient is the highest (Figure 3). canal and determining their limits. For several values of the
Table 1. Measured and simulated depth hydrographs roughness coefficient of the lined part of the cross section:
for different values of the roughness coefficient n=0.017, 00.025, 0.035, 0.037 and inlet water discharge 18.5
Qin - inlet discharge, ho - measured depth in canal end, hs - m3/s, a steady flow in the canal was simulated.
simulated depth in canal end, n- roughness coefficient The analysis of the modeling results shows the influence of
Qin , hs, m the roughness on the flow parameters in the irrigation canal.
ho , m
m3/s n=0.014 n=0.025 n=0.035 n=0.037 Figure 5 shows a longitudinal profile along the canal axis and
3.5 0.83 0.69 0.76 0.81 0.82
water surface profiles for the different values of roughness
9.5 1.39 1.15 1.24 1.31 1.33
coefficient. Increasing the roughness in the canal leads to an
12.5 1.61 1.33 1.42 1.49 1.51
increase in canal depths. With further increases in roughness,
15.68 1.66 1.48 1.58 1.65 1.67
the depths in the canal will reach the maximum of 3.3 m, set
18.44 1.78 1.59 1.69 1.77 1.78
at design with the height of the lining. Therefore, in the poor
condition of the irrigation canal lining the operating
Main canal M1-1 "SrednaTunja" Irrigation discharge should be reduced.
System
1.9 The simulated water surface profiles obtained can be used as
Simulated values of depth, m
1.7 reference for estimating the roughness in the presence of

R2=0.9874 updated data for observed depths at characteristic points
1.5
1.3 along the canal course.
1.1 190
Q=18.5 m3/s
NS Sredna Tundja Canal M1-1
Legend
0.9
WS n=0.035
WS n=0.037
WS n=0.025
0.7
WS n=0.017
188
Canal Bed
Levee
0.5 186
0.5 1 1.5 2
Measured values of depth, m 184
Elevation (m)
Figure 3 - Comparison of measured values of depth in the tail of

182
canal versus simulated values for roughness coefficient n 180
=0.037 using linear regression

By simulations of steady flow in the canаl for estimated 178
optimum value of the roughness n = 0.037 and increasing 176
values of the inlet water discharge the current canal carrying

capacity of 20 m3/s is determined, as water discharge for 174
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Main Channel Distance (m)
5000 6000 7000 8000
which the depth in the lined canal section reaches the

maximum 3.3 m, determined by the height of the lining. A Figure 5 - Water surface profiles for different values of
50% reduction in capacity shows a significant worsening of roughness coefficient n= 0.017, 0.025, 0.035, 0.037 and water
the operational performance of the canal. discharge Q = 18.5 m3/s
CONCLUSIONS
canal m1-1_calibration Plan: n=0.037q=20 21/11/2016 Using the HEC-RAS hydraulic software, a simulation model of
the M-1-1 canal of „Sredna Tundja“ irrigation system was
. .037 .
189.0 0
4
0
4
Legend established, which was calibrated under steady-state
188.5
EG PF 1
conditions with available operating data for observed depths.
188.0
WS PF 1 The results obtained in the hydraulic model studies have
Elevation (m)
187.5
Crit PF 1 shown:
187.0
Ground For roughness coefficient equal to 0.037 there is a good
186.5
186.0
Levee match to the simulated with the measured values of the
185.5
Bank Sta
depth at the end of the canal at a high degree of correlation
185.0
(R2= 0.987).
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
By determining the estimated value of the canal roughness,
Station (m)
an actual value of the canal carrying capacity 20 m3/s can be
Figure 4 - Canal cross section plot for roughness coefficient n determined. A 50% reduction in capacity shows a significant
=0.037and inlet discharge Qin =20 m /s. 3 worsening of the operational performance of the canal.
Simulation of steady flow in the canal for different value of With the increase of the coefficient of roughness, which
roughness coefficient n. simulates the deterioration of the lining, the depth in the
With the model of canal M1-1 simulations were conducted canal increases and it can reach the maximum determined
for different values of roughness in order to diagnose the during design.
109 | F a s c i c u l e 1
The results of computer analysis can be used in the redesign

and rehabilitation of existing canals and to select the
appropriate procedure for the operational management.
Note
26 – 28 October, 2017.
References
[1] Baume, J. P., Hilmy S., Malaterre P.-O., Jacques R., (1994),
Development and Field-Installation of a Mathematical
Simulation Model in Support of Irrigation Canal
Management. IIMI, Research Paper, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
[2] Chow, V. T. 1959. Open channel hydraulics. McGraw-Hill,
Inc. New York, N.Y.
[3] US Army Corps of Engineers, (2010). HEC-RAS User Manual.
Hydrologic Engineering Center, Version 4.1.
[4] US Army Corps of Engineers, (2010), HEC-RAS Hydraulic
Reference Manual. Hydrologic Engineering Center, Version
4.1.
[5] Mishra, A., Anand A., Singh R., N. S. Raghuwanshi (2001).
Hydraulic modelling of Kangsabati main canal for
performance assessment. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng, ASCE 127(1) 27-
46.
[6] Malaterre, P.O., Baume J.P., Jean-Baptiste N., Sau J. (2010).
Calibration of open channel flow models: a system analysis
and control engineering approach. In Proc. SimHydro
2010:“Hydraulic modeling and uncertainty“, 2-4 June 2010.
[7] Nguyen T. H, Fenton, D. J. (2004) Identification of roughness
in open channels. Proc. of 6th International Conference on
Hydro-Science and Engineering, Brisbance, Australia, June
2004.
[8] Timbadiya, P. V., Patel P. L., Porey R.D, (2012), Calibration of
HEC-RAS model prediction of flood for lower Tapi River,
Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 4, pp. 847-850.
ISSN: 2067-3809
110 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Cosmin SPIRCHEZ, 1.Alina LUNGULEASA, 2.Maria PRUNĂ, 1. Liviu GACEU,
1.
Raluca FORFOTĂ, 1.Irina DUMITRACHE
RESEARCH ON THE CALORIFIC VALUE OF THE HARDWOOD SPECIES

Transilvania University of Braşov, ROMANIA
1.
Institute for Research in Construction Technology and Equipment Bucharest, ROMANIA

2.
Abstract: Romania is a country with a great potential in the field of biomass energy. At the level of 2016, an area of 229973 km2
was used for agricultural and forestry purpose of which the forest area was 4.7%. The lands covered by the forest are widely
exploited and the waste resulting from the processing of cut wood is often left to degrade producing water pollution. Renewable
energy resources represent one of the replacement variants for fossil fuels in Romania and worldwide with high development
perspectives in the future. Presently, biomass contributes by approximately 12% to the production of primary energy in worldwide
and in the developing countries this occupies 40-50% of the necessary energy. Biomass resources presently represent the raw
material resulted from wood processing, agricultural, municipal waste and animal dejections. The determination of the calorific
value for wood is similar to that of coal (as solid fuel) and with little differences as compared to liquid fuel (benzene) or gaseous
one (natural gas, biogas).
Keywords: biomass, hardwood, calorimetric bomb, calorific value
INTRODUCTION Presently, a great part of the energy necessary for humankind

In the year 2000, the estimated contribution of the biomass is produced from fossil fuels. Fuel can be found under three
to the European Union’s energy supply was of 1900 PJ. This forms, respectively fossil fuel, nuclear fuel and renewable fuel.
contribution was of approximately two thirds of the entire Researchers from all countries applied a multitude of projects
energy production achieved by renewable resources in the in order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions (Astburg. 2000) .
European Union. In approximately 50 years, according to European Union
For bioenergy, the following tendencies have been observed: statistics, all fossil fuels in the world will be exhausted. It is
— Heat: In the year 1990, the production of thermal energy from predicted that the entire world will suffer from a huge energy
biomass was of approximately 1500 PJ; deficit which must be covered by production of alternative
— Electricity: the production of electric energy from biomass energy (Eisentraut. 2012). The biggest risk of fossil fuel use is
was of 54 PJ in the year 1990 and increased to 166 PJ in represented by the toxic emission discharged in the
1999 ( an increase of 9% per year); atmosphere.
— Fuel: the present contribution of biofuels is of The production and consumption of fuel materials ensured
approximately 25 PJ, almost negligible in the overall the quality of living necessary for humankind. The biomass
production of bio-energy. reserves differ throughout the territory of the European
Despite the modest role of bio-fuel in terms of energy, the Union, as well as worldwide. The forest spreading area varies
production and use of biomass increased rapidly in the last 10 from 27. 6 million hectare in Sweden to 117 hectares in
years. The production of bio-diesel increased from 80 Ktons in Cyprus. Worldwide, the forest fund occupies approximately 4
1993 to 780 Ktones in 2001. The production of ethanol in the billion hectares, the biggest quantity being distributed on the
European Union increased from 48 to 216 ktones in the same territory of the Russian Federation- 809 million hectares, Brazil
period. France, Spain and Sweden are the three main players 478 million hectares, Canada 310 million hectares, U.S.A. 303
on the European energy market (Berkesy. 2011). million hectares, China 197 million hectares.
Up to the present, six member states of the European Union Biomass is a renewable energy source by its renewal year after
wish to enforce tax programs to support the use of bio-fuel year; it is widely spread worldwide and possesses great costs
(Austria, Belgium, Germany, Spain, Italy and Sweden). In these as compared to fossil fuel. Biomass resources of which fuel
charts biofuels are exempt from taxes, as compared to fossil material is produced. It may include wood, wood waste,
fuels used for transportation. agricultural cereals and waste resulted from their production,
Renewable energy resources represent one of the municipal waste, and animal dejections (Beldean. 2004).
replacement variants for fossil fuels in Romania and Biomass under vegetal form is a complex compound and
worldwide with high development perspectives in the future. differs from a species to another. It contains all form of
In Romania, it is estimated an energy consumption of 34.9 vegetal matter, growing on the surface of the earth, in the
Mtoe (million tones oil equivalent) until 2020. Biomass covers water or above the water, as well as substances produced by
more than 60% of the entire renewable energy sources, biological development (Lunguleasa 2007.2008).
respectively 190-200 PJ/year. (Gherghicescu,1997).
111 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Research performed in the field of energy proves that The assessment procedure of the calorific value of the wood
electrical energy and heat can be produced from biomass by mass refers first to all to the preparation of the raw material
conversion processes. In 2009, biomass ensured and the equipment, then to the proper said assessment and
approximately 10% (50 EJ) (1EJ=1018 J) of the entire primary finally to the obtainment of the final result. The preparation of
energy produced worldwide. the wood mass for testing consists of sampling a small part of
Biomass takes part in the carbon cycle in nature by use of a approximately 0.6 – 0.8 grams of the entire material
carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide participates to the weighted with a precision of 0.0002 g. The sample must be
photosynthesis processes during the growth, but it is the clean originating from freshly cut wood because old wood
component determining a more complete burning during does not have all volatile and flammable substances, fact that
wood combustion (Aghamohammadi. 2011). might influence its calorific value. This sample is placed in a
Presently, biomass contributes by approximately 12% to the porcelain crucible and placed in a laboratory autoclave to
production of primary energy in worldwide and in the allow drying at a temperature of 103±2 oC.
developing countries this occupies 40-50% of the necessary The obtainment of the anhydric state of the wooden mass is
energy. checked by successive weighting until the difference
Romania holds a surface of 6300 thousand hectares between the two successive weightings becomes smaller
representing 27% of the existing territory. than the double of weighting precision or covers for a piece
Biomass resources presently represent the raw material of such size of at least 2 hours of keeping the piece in the
resulted from wood processing, agricultural, municipal waste autoclave.
and animal dejections (Cleveland. 2009). After drying, the samples are kept in exsiccator to cool down
Biomass differs from the other renewable sources by the fact and maintain the humidity content until its placement into
that it represents a rich raw material which can be the calorimetric bomb.
transformed by various conversion processes in liquid,
gaseous and solid fuel. Biomass is divided in 4 categories
described in the Regulation SR EN 14961-1:
— Forestry production: wood, waste resulted from wood
cutting, sawdust, shrubs;
— Waste resulted from agricultural production, cereal waste.
— Energetic cereals: crops from short term processing, starch
crops (corn, wheat, barley), sugar crops (sugarcane, sugar
beet), fodder crops (grass, alfalfa), oleaginous crops
(sunflower, soy, safflower)
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The determination of the calorific value for wood is similar to
that of coal (as solid fuel) and with little differences as
compared to liquid fuel (benzene) or gaseous one (natural
gas, biogas). Figure 1 - Equipment for the assessment of the calorific value of
the wood biomass with calorimetric bomb with own soft
The equipment used for the determination of the calorific
In industrial practice there are manufacturing by remains
value of the wood biomass was the calorimeter with
from all wood species that can be processed. Therefore, in the
explosive burning type XRY-1C, manufactured by Shanghai
research process the indigenous broadleaf category was
Changji Geological Instrument Co. din China (Fig1).
used: Acer Pseudoplatanus and Salix Alba.
Before performing the proper said attempt, the calorimetric
The inferior calorific value of wood is determined on basis of
bomb is calibrated with benzoic acid with a known calorific
higher calorific value: by means of the ratio:
value (usually 26 463 kJ/kg (1kJ/kg=1J/g) with slight
PCIi=PCSs-6·(U+9·h) [kJ/kg] (2)
differences of maximum ±3% as compared to this value) in
where: PCs- superior calorific value (kJ/Kg); U- dampness of
order to assess the k calorific coefficient of the calorific
the wood sample (Kg/Kg); h- hydrogen content of the wood
equipment.
(t −t ) sample (3.6%).
PCSs = k ∙ � f i � − The preparation of the equipment for the trial refers to the
ml (1)
qs − qb [kJ/kg]; checking of the water quantity from the calorimeter or hod
where: k – calorific coefficient determined by calibration with Cu (so as not to exceed by 1-2 mm the lid of the calorimetric
benzoic acid, expressed in kJ/grad; tf – final temperature, in bomb). The water Ap agitator A from the hod, the computer
degrees; ti – initial temperature, in degrees; ml – wood mass, software C. the exterior thermometer of the calorimeter T and
in kg; qs – heat consumed for the burning of the nickeline wire the gas pressure in the oxygen tank Bo. The test sample 1 is
in kJ; qb – heat obtained by burning of the cotton thread, in connected to the cotton thread 2 and placed in the
kJ. calorimeter crucible 3. The nickeline spiral thread is tied 4 to
the cotton thread after which the protection lid is properly
112 | F a s c i c u l e 1
placed. 5. The crucible is connected to the calorimetric values recorded during this period vary depending on the
bomb’s lid 6 by means of two electrodes 7 and 8 which burning time of the combustible material in the
continue with the connective electric wires of the calorimetric bomb. The number of values may vary in the
calorimetric bomb 9 and 10. By screwing in the lid of the range of 19-42 temperature values recorded during this
calorimetric bomb, the bomb is connected 11 by screw 12 to period.
the oxygen tank, entering 30 atmospheres. The bomb is — The after period ("after") has the purpose of determining
placed in the equipment calorimeter Cu, it is connected by the average temperature variation in the calorimetric pot
means of the two electric wires. The calorimeter’s lid is closed due to heat exchange with the exterior after the burning.
and the thermostat T is placed inside to determine the Just like in the fore period, the temperature is displayed
temperature (Figure1). every half minute for a period of 4-5 minutes, being
Next, the computer software is accessed filling in the type of recorded an average of 8-10 temperature variation values.
test (assessment or calibration), sample name, sample mass
of the nickeline and cotton thread, as well as further necessary
information. After this, the operation for the assessment of
the calorific value begins by selection and activation of the
“START” button from the computer program displayed on the
computer display (Figure2). This is the start moment of the
calorific value assessment.
The final result of wood biomass burning is expressed by
calorific value, notion by which is understood the quantity of
heat obtained by burning of the mass unit. For combustible
materials with high hydrogen and water content such as the
wood biomass, two calorific values can be distinguished,
namely the superior calorific (PCS) and inferior calorific value
(PCI). PCS is determined directly by means of the calorimetric Figure2 - Description of the process
bomb where the water vapors are formed by burning of the for determining the calorific value
hydrogen contained in the wood, as well as the ones formed For acer pseudoplatanus for 0% humidity was obtained the
by decomposition of the water are condensed in the bomb. superior calorific value 18802 kJ/kg. and inferior calorific value
Discharging approximately 2 510.4 kJ (600 kcal) for every kilo 18336 kJ/kg; for 10% humidity was obtained the superior
of condensed water vapors (the so-called condensation heat). calorific value 16805 kJ/kg and inferior calorific value 16618
PCS cannot be used, practically due to the fact that the water kJ/kg; for 20% humidity was obtained the superior calorific
vapors are discharged outside by a funnel and only the PCI value15041 kJ/kg and inferior calorific value 14668 kJ/kg; for
can be used effectively. 50% humidity was obtained the superior calorific value 9749
RESULTS kJ/kg and inferior calorific value 9166 kJ/kg.
The test contains three distinct stages (Figure2), namely: In Figure 3, is presented the variation calorific value function
— the fore period ("fore"). Its purpose being the moisture content for Acer pseudoplatanus.
determination of the temperature variations in the 20000
calorimetric pot due to heat exchange with the exterior 18569 PCS = PCS0 - 176,4*MC
before the burning. During this period, usually lasting 5 16618 16805 PCI = PCI0 -195,1*MC
15000 15041
minutes, the temperature is displayed and read every
Calorific value, kJ/kg
14668
minute using the precision thermocouple meter. The last 9749
temperature from the fore period represents in fact the 10000
9166
first temperature from the main period. The values of the
recorded temperature in this period are usually seven. 5000
After recording the sixth value, the burning of the material
takes place (Figure 2) and it is displayed on the menu bar 0 0 0
(”Burning time”). 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
— The main period ("main") starts by ignition of the sample PCS,kJ/kg
having as consequence the temperature rise in the Humidity,%
PCI,kJ/kg
calorimetric pot due to burning of the wood particle and
heat discharge. In order to determine the final Figure 3 - The graphic calorific value
temperature, the temperature values are displayed every for Acer pseudoplatanus
minute. The final temperature is given by the maximum For salix alba for 0% humidity was obtained the superior
value of the temperature, because after its decrease, the calorific value 20830 kJ/kg. and inferior calorific value 20224
calorimetric pot is not receiving heat from the bomb. The kJ/kg; for 10% humidity was obtained the superior calorific
113 | F a s c i c u l e 1
value 17846 kJ/kg and inferior calorific value 17259 kJ/kg; for [2] Aghamohammadi N., Sulaiman N., Aroua M.K. (2011)
20% humidity was obtained the superior calorific value14862 Combustion characteristics of biomass in South East Asia,
kJ/kg and inferior calorific value 14294 kJ/kg; for 50% humidity Biomass and bioenergy, vol.35;
was obtained the superior calorific value 6364 kJ/kg and [3] Astbury G.R. (2000) A review of the properties and hazards
inferior calorific value 4944 kJ/kg. of some alternative fuels. Process safety and environment
In figure 4 is presented the variation of calorific value function protection, vol. 86, pp. 397-414, 2008.
moisture content for Salix Alba. [4] Beldeanu C.E. (1999) Forestry products and wood study. Ed.
Universităţii "Transilvania", Publishing Braşov;
25000 [5] Beldeanu C.E. (2004) Sanogene characteristic species from
20527 forestry fund. Ed. Universităţii "Transilvania" Publishing,
20000 17846 Braşov;
PCS = PCS0 - 268,1*MC [6] Berkesy C., Begea A., Berkesy L., Crăciun M., Andreica M.,
Calorific valiue,kJ/kg
14862
PCI = PCI0 -326,8*MC
15000 17259 Someşan M. (2011) Aspects of biomass production cominf
14294 from forests. Ecoterra. No.28;
10000 [7] Cleveland J.C. (2009) Dictionary of energy. University of
6364
Boston Press;
5000 [8] Dănilă A., Prună M., Spîrchez C. (2014) Dynamic models
4944 0 identification of the fireproofing wooden waste burning
0 process, International Symposium Istanbul, 28-30 April
0 20 40 60 0 80 2014. Turkey
PCS, kJ/kg Humidity,% [9] Eisentraut A., Brown A. (2012) Technology Roadmap-
PCI, kJ/kg Bioenergy for Heat and Power, Ed. Corlet, Paris;
[10] Lunguleasa A., Costiuc L., Paţachia S., Ciobanu V. (2007)
Figure 4 - The graphic of calorific value for Salix alba Ecological combustion of wood biomass, Ed. Universităţii
CONCLUSIONS "Transilvania" Publishing, Braşov;
— The wood biomass burning is a non-ecological process, [11] Lunguleasa A. (2008) Management of wood biomass
but indispensable to human activity due to the thermal quality, Ed.Universităţii "Transilvania" Publishing, Braşov;
energy it produces; [12] Swithenbank J., Chen Q., Zhang X., Sharifi V.,
— Wood biomass is twice renewable, first by being part of Pourkashamiani M. (2011) Wood would burn, Biomass and
the vegetal world obtained by photosynthesis and bioenergy, vol.3.
secondly by trees recycling the carbon in the nature;
— For Acer Pseudoplatanus for 0% humidity the superior
calorific value is 18802 kJ/kg and for 50% humidity the
superior calorific value is 9749 kJ/kg; for Salix Alba for 0%
humidity the superior calorific value is 20224 kJ/kg; for
50% humidity the superior calorific value is 6364 kJ/kg;
— The research shows that as the humidity of the wood is
lower the superior calorific value is higher.
Note: This paper is based on the paper presented at ISB-INMA
TEH' 2017 International Symposium (Agricultural and
Mechanical Engineering), organized by University
“POLITEHNICA” of Bucharest – Faculty of Biotechnical Systems
Engineering, National Institute of Research-Development for
Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food
Industry – INMA Bucharest, Scientific Research and
Technological Development in Plant Protection Institute
(ICDPP), National Institute for Research and Development for
Products “HORTING” and Hydraulics, Pneumatics Research
Institute INOE 2000 IHP, University of Agronomic Sciences and
Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest (UASVMB) – Faculty of
Horticulture and Romanian Society of Horticulture (SRH), in
Bucharest, ROMANIA, between 26 – 28 October, 2017. ISSN: 2067-3809
References copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
[1] Abbasi S.A., Nipaney P.C., Schaumberg G.D. (1990) Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
Bioenergy potential of eight common aquatic weeds, 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
Biological Wastes, vol.3, No.4, pp. 359-366;
114 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Marius Remus OPRESCU, 2.Sorin Ştefan BIRIŞ , 1. Eugen MARIN, 1.Cristian SORICĂ,
2.
Nicoleta UNGUREANU, 1. Elena SORICĂ, 1.Iulian DUMITRU, 1.Ion GRIGORE, 3.Vică BĂLAN
CONSIDERATIONS ON MECHANICALLY ACTIVE EQUIPMENT FOR

OPENING INTERRUPTED FURROW USED IN TECHNOLOGY OF HOEING
PLANT CULTURES, FRUIT AND VINE PLANTATIONS
1.
National Institute of Research – Development for Machines and Installations
Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry – INMA Bucharest, ROMANIA
2.
University “POLITEHNICA ”Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering, ROMANIA
3.
Mido Rom Electronic SRL, ROMANIA
Abstract: Lately, there is a decrease in arable land surface while the population grows, therefore the need to increase agricultural
production per unit of surface is a must to meet food needs. Water resources are reduced and therefore it is important to promote
techniques and technologies that efficiently utilize water from various sources with low energy consumption. In sapling crops,
directing water along the plant line or uniform storage is achieved with continuous or interrupted (compartmentalized) furrows.
The paper aims to analyse the construction and operation of several types of equipment for opening compartmentalized furrows
and how they work.
Keywords: efficient capitalization of water, technical equipment, interrupted furrow
INTRODUCTION resources in Romania are modest compared to other

For soil supply with additional water to those naturally countries in Europe (11th place for local resources and 21st
received by precipitation, quantities established according to place for the ones formed on its territory) [1]
the pedoclimatic conditions and plant requirements, it is Due to the fact that for the watering of the plants an
necessary to establish additional works in the respective important amount of fresh water is used and their needs are
technologies. higher in dry periods, other sources of water (groundwater,
Due to the fact that the arable area is decreasing as the drainage, wastewater, precipitation water etc.) are needed
population grows, the increase in agricultural production per which by their chemical composition qualitatively
unit of surface remains the main solution to meet the corresponds to plant requirements.
growing demands and better quality of food. The effects of the watering process are felt both economically
The achievement of large agricultural output is influenced by and socially and in environment protection. Watering ensures
several factors (mechanization, fertilization, weed control, the normal development of agricultural crops which leads to
pests, biological soil potential, seed quality), each with its stable revenues, by increasing the photosynthesis process to
importance, but lack of soil water over periods overlapping enriching the atmosphere in oxygen and reducing the
the critical phases in plant development, diminishes the carbon dioxide content, allowing the development of
harvest even compromises it as a result of the drought. microbial activity in the soil and increasing the humus
In Romania, the area with economic irrigable potential is content by producing a quantity of increased by vegetal
estimated at 3 million hectares, of out of which 1.5 million ha debris, avoiding the deterioration of the ecological balance
with high economic efficiency. In this context, irrigation will by improving the drought-affected microclimate. Gravitation
become the most important water consumer in agriculture is the oldest form of irrigation. The surface leakage consists in
and one of the main consumers nationwide, demanding on the fact that water is distributed on the ground by free
average 35-45% of the country's exploitable water resources. flowing on the furrows or strips, while the drain and the
Water resources in Romania are low with a value of about infiltration of water into the soil, take place. In general, the
1660m3 / inhabitant and in other countries in Europe they are lands for watering are modelled by shaping them to ensure a
2.5 times bigger and, therefore, it is important to promote continuous slope imposed by the general characteristics of
techniques and technologies that efficiently capitalize water the leakage, the watering method or the requirements of the
from various sources with low energy consumption, soil agricultural exploitation.
water and its circulation. About 41% of our country's arable The modelling of irrigable agricultural land is of particular
land is affected at some times of the year by excessive importance because this work ensures a uniform distribution
humidity on about half of the arable area and in the same year of water in the soil, whether it is conducted through furrows
longer or shorter droughts are recorded and watering with or strips on the surface of the land, or it is sprayed. Opening
variable rules is required; soil erosion phenomena are the interrupted furrows is necessary in the following
manifested on 35% of the total agricultural area. Water situations:
115 | F a s c i c u l e 1
— on landscaped lands for sprinkling with fixed or mobile recommend the best constructive solution that can be
installations and with uneven or sloping streams causing considered.
water leakage and pouring into microdepreses; RESULTS
— on lands with kneaded microrelief with small slopes, not The open furrow work is known as soil processing by
arranged for irrigation and in which rainwater flows rapidly ridgeplowing (soil modelling) and was initially made with the
downstream, being not used by the plant and producing help of some trailed animals.
the phenomenon of erosion [2]. This operation is done with a machine that works in
MATERIAL AND METHOD aggregate with a tractor, the machine on which is mounted
Watering is both an important technological sequence in the equipment for continuous furrows or specialized equipment
crop culture agro technology, as well as the most important for making interrupted furrows.
technical means of eliminating the water of the soil, The machine equipped for the execution of the continuous
constituting the infrastructure of sustainable development. furrows is made up of ridgeplows which make the tringhiular
Technologies to combat the effects of climate change have section of the furrow and the modifiers that make the
evolved to reduce the water consumption of plants (dripping, parabolic section and the finishing of the furrow; the machine
micro-spraying). of the superior capitalization of water by equipped for the execution of the interrupted furrows is
reducing losses and associating with other works (fertilization, composed of the same ridgeplows, the rotors with blades
herbicides, etc.) and using other sources of water waste from and a mechanism for controlling the rotors for interruption of
animals or rural, urban and industrial environment). the furrows and the execution of some digestions (plugs);
To meet water requirements, it is necessary to adopt new both equipment is mounted on a frame with supporting
technologies that reduce water consumption by associating wheels. The number of workstations is selected based on the
with other works, storing water from other sources, sowing pattern, the section spacing and the row between the
distributing water near plant roots, increasing watering processed rows (on each interval or at two intervals). The
efficiency etc. The rational use of water in agriculture implies most commonly used seed sowing scheme is 6 or 8 rows and
prioritization of water use in critical situations (droughts. etc.), the maximum number of machined intervals is 5 and 7
the adoption of measures to impose the application of respectively, which must coincide with the number of
reference models, the application of innovative solutions for workstations.
reducing water losses, the quality control of water for the In the case of continuous or interrupted furrows, it is
reduction of environment pollution. A superior valorisation of important to obtain an enlarged section of the furrow (Figure
the water from the rainfall and also of the water obtained by 1) to transport and accumulate a larger volume of water
the sprinkler irrigation method is obtained by modelling the respectively.
soil surface.
In the case of continuous or interrupted furrows, it is intended
to obtain as many sections of the furrow as necessary to carry
and accumulate as much water as possible. Interrupted
brasses are executed to reduce the erosion phenomenon
resulting from rainfall, slope or creep. Depending on the
sowing scheme, interrupted watering grooves can be
performed on sowing crops between plant rows, alternately
or on each interval.
Furrows used in agriculture are of great importance for
agricultural production and are a major component of the
Figure 1 - Continuous compartmented furows after rain [2]
agricultural ecosystem [3] [4] [5] and [7].
It is estimated an increase in agricultural production per
hectare by 20% in agricultural crops with broken furrows. This
is explained by the infiltration of a larger amount of water at
the plant roots and by the reduction of the soil erosion
phenomenon [1]. Water management along the plant line or
uniform storage is achieved with continuous or interrupted
furrows (compartments).
For the constructive and functional analysis of mechanically
operated equipment for open furrows used in owing crops
technology and viticol and fruit plantations, it is necessary to
study the constructive characteristics of these equipments, Figure 2 - Equipment for continuous open furrows [2]
the functioning of the working parts and the working process Aspects during working with a broken open furrow are
carried out by them so that at the end to be able to shown in Figure 3-6.
116 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Figure 3 - Open furrow machine compartmented into each row

interval [6]
Figure 8 - Driving mechanism [6]
The adriving mechanism aims to unlock the pallet rotor to
form the ground plug on the furrow. It consists of the
following main parts:
— camshaft support;
— camshaft;
— lever / cable and locking bolt.
The control mechanism of the rotor blades in order to
Figure 4 - The open-beam machine is divided into three ranges interrupt the furrows on variable lengths correlated with the
slope of the ground is driven by the rotating wheel (Figure 8).
The rotation motion is transmitted by means of a chain
transmission (Figure 9) to a cam shaft positioned next to each
work section.
During the rotation movement, the camshaft will operate the
lever / cable mechanism from each section in the direction of
unlocking the blade by means of the locking bolt and by
rotating the blade, the furrow plug will be made at
Figure 5 - Open furrow machine divided over a single interval [8] predetermined distances. The rotors will have three or four
pallets of trapezoidal shape being pressed on the bottom of
the furrow by two spring-mounted bends or spring-loaded
spring bends. The time when the rotation of one of the pallets
will be blocked by a bolt it will scrape the bottom and the side
walls of the furrow by mobilizing a quantity of soil in front of
it.
When the eccentric cam is operating the lever mechanism,
the bolt retracts. releases the rotor with the blades, which
Figure 6 - Open furrow machine compartimented rotates one step leaving a ground plug with a base width
over a single interval [9] between 20 and 40 cm and the height equal to the depth of
the furrow . While the blade rotor rotates with a 90 ° bolt
released by the camming action, it returns to the previous
position blocking the next rotor blade and then repeating the
cycle. The device provides for the modelling of the watering
compartments on the intervals between the plant ranges in
two ways: alternatively a range with a furrow and a furrow
interval or consecutive interval, depending on the sowing
pattern, the soil type and the root zone [6].
Figure 7 - Work unit with splitting furrow equipment [10]:

1. Equipment frame for opening watering furrows; 2. Pallets rotor;
3. Support arm; 4. Lever system; 5. Roller cam; 6. Resort traction;
7. Adjusting pipe; 8. Adjustment nut; 9. Guide; 10. Surface support;
11.Rod; 12. Compression resort; 13. Joint; 14. Lock bolt guide; Figure 9 - Chain transmission for driving the rotor control
15. Bolt lock mechanism [6]
117 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Since lately. temperatures have been growing at increasing CONCLUSIONS

intervals, watering of trees and vines is becoming a necessity. In order to provide the soil with additional water to those
In FIGURE 10 is presented the equipment for modelling the naturally received by precipitation, it is necessary to develop
soil in furrows divided into vineyard plantations, technologies adapted to the new pedoclimatic conditions.
simultaneously in two furrows per interval PCMV2.2 + EMBC2- Technologies to combat the effects of climate change have
0. at a distance of 20-40 cm in order to accumulate water from evolved to reduce the plants water consumption (dripping,
precipitation in the soil on the surface to which the droplets micro-spraying), high water utilization by reducing losses and
fall, avoiding water leakage outside the cultivated perimeter associating with other works (fertilization, herbicides. etc.)
or accumulation in depression areas on land with a slope of and using other sources of water waste from animals or rural,
up to 5% on mild, medium or heavy texture, showing a depth urban and industrial).
of at least 250 mm at a near humidity by the minimum ceiling. A superior capitalization of water from precipitation, as well
The equipment consists of the following main components: as of water obtained by sprinkler irrigation method is
2 plows (left. right), a device for making split compartments obtained by shaping the soil surface in the form of
provided with a control mechanism and optionally with two continuous or interrupted furrows. It is estimated an increase
knife arrows if the simultaneous carrying of the pigs is desired. in agricultural production per hectare by 20% in agricultural
The plows are mounted on the plow frame in the lateral sides crops with lands so shaped.
corresponding to the plowing in the bellows with the furrow Note: This paper is based on the paper presented at ISB-INMA
overhanging inside the row, having the support of the TEH' 2017 International Symposium (Agricultural and
Mechanical Engineering), organized by University
deformed bodies towards the inside of the frame. “POLITEHNICA” of Bucharest – Faculty of Biotechnical Systems
The device for making compartmented furorows consists of Engineering, National Institute of Research-Development for
the following main parts: the control mechanism, the rotor Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food
support. the blade rotor and the presser mechanism of the Industry – INMA Bucharest, Scientific Research and
rocker blades. The adjustment of the swath compartmenting Technological Development in Plant Protection Institute
mechanism will allow the creation of soil plugs along the (ICDPP), National Institute for Research and Development for
furrow at different distances (1.5. 3 or 6 m). Institute for Processing and Marketing of the Horticultural
The driving mechanism consists of spur gear, transmission Products “HORTING” and Hydraulics, Pneumatics Research
and drive mechanism. The spur gear is provided with steel Institute INOE 2000 IHP, University of Agronomic Sciences and
spurs on the belt to increase the grip on the ground, avoiding Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest (UASVMB) – Faculty of
skidding. For the transport position, the spur gear will be Horticulture and Romanian Society of Horticulture (SRH), in
Bucharest, ROMANIA, between 26 – 28 October, 2017.
locked in a vertical position. The transmission is of the chain References
type and has the role of transmitting the movement from the [1] Biolan I., Serbu I., Mardare F., Biolan C.(. 2015) – Modern
spur gear to the camshaft. The driving mechanism is techniques of irrigation of agricultural crops. AGIR
designed to block the blade rotor to form the ground plug on Publishing House;
[2] Biolan I.. Serbu I.. Tusa G.C.. Mardare F.(.2016) - Agricultural
the furrow. Irrigation-Technology. AGIR Publishing House;
[3] Guo X.N., Hu T.S., Tan G.M., (2009) - Farmland drainage
standard based on multi-attribute analysis. Transactions of
the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering. 25(2009)
64-70;
[4] He X.C., Shao D.G., Liu W.Y. (2006) - Research progress and
prospect of resource utilization of farmland
drainage.Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural
Engineering. 22(2006) 176-179;
[5] Li Y.H. (2016) - A review of environmental effect and
ecosystem function of farmland drainage
ditch.Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information.
(2016) 244;
[6] AQUAPROIECT S.A. (2017) - Project: Device for modelling
the soil in compacted furrows in two constructive solutions.
Contract no. 4639/2017-I.N.M.A;
[7] Song C.J., Li Q., Wang Y.,( 2014) - Research overview of
ecosystem effect of farmland drainage ditch.Modern
Agricultural Sciences and Technology. 2(2014) 201-203.
[8] www.elsevier.com/locate/agwat
[9] http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0378377409000754/1-s2.0-
S0378377409000754-main.pdf?_tid=8d834490-623d-
11e7-8b80-
00000aab0f02&acdnat=1499340396_162626dd2180dbed
58d5727f8eaf263c
Figure 10 - Equipment for soil modelling in furrows [10] http://www.revagrois.ro/PDF/2009_1_502.pdf
compartmented on fruit and vineyard plantations. simultaneously
in two furrows per interval. PCMV2.2 + EMBC2-0 [6]
118 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
Mirela Nicoleta DINCĂ, 1.Mariana FERDEȘ, 1.Gigel PARASCHIV, 1.Nicoleta UNGUREANU,
1.
Bianca ZĂBAVĂ, 1.Mariana IONESCU, 1.Georgiana MOICEANU
RECOVERY OF ORGANIC WASTE THROUGH COMPOSTING PROCESS

University Politehnica of Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering, ROMANIA
1.
Abstract: Waste treatment involves all chemical, physical and biological processes that have the role of modifying certain
characteristics of the waste in order to reduce their volume and hazardousness, thus facilitating their recovery. Among the available
technologies, composting is presented as one of the most promising options for recycling the organic fraction into a valuable
organic fertilizer called compost. In the present paper are presented the main composting methods, namely: passive composting
in piles, turned windrow composting, passive aerated windrows, aerated static pile and in – vessel composting.
Keywords: waste treatment, composting methods, aerobic fermentation, organic waste
INTRODUCTION substances (humic and fulvic acids), due to their efficiency in

Today, the most urgent environmental problem is global improving soil fertility and stimulating plant growth (Fornes et
warming, the main challenge in the waste management al.. 2012; Zhao et al. 2016). During the first phase of the process,
sector being waste avoidance. Solid waste management, the simple organic carbon compounds are easily mineralised
especially the organic fraction, has become one of the major and metabolised by the microorganisms, producing CO2, NH3,
challenges of the 21st century from an economic, social and H2O, organic acids and heat. The optimum temperature range
environmental protection point of view (Fernandez et al.. for composting is 40–65°C but temperatures above 55°C are
2016). Organic waste, such as agricultural and forestry required to kill pathogenic microorganisms. The temperature
residues and municipal solid waste, has become a major issue variation during composting plays an important role in the
in both developed and developing countries (Rashad et al.. development of microbial communities. During the various
2010). Waste treatment involves all the chemical, physical and stages of the biodegradation phase, the organic compounds
biological processes which have the role to modify certain are decomposed into CO2 and NH3 with O2 consumption
features of the wastes in order to reduce their volume and (Bernal et al.. 2009). In Figure 1, it can be seen the temperature
hazardous character, thus facilitating their recovery curve during the composting process.
(Căpățână & Simonescu. 2006). According to Eurostat statistics,
at the level of EU member states, 15% of the municipal wastes
generated by one person in 2013 were treated by
composting (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat).
Among the methods of biological waste treatment,
composting is the simplest and most efficient technology for
treating the organic fraction. Composting can be defined as
an aerobic process of biochemical decomposition of organic
matter resulting in a stable product without pathogenic Figure 1 – The temperature curve during the composting process
germs that can be used in agriculture (Haug. 1993; Zhang & (Bachert et al.. 2008)
A – degradation; B – transformation; C – maturation
Sun. 2014). The substrate used in the composting process
The pH level of the raw materials used in composting pile is
consists of different sources of organic waste, such as:
also very important. The optimum pH range for microbial
biodegradable waste collected from dwellings and
activity is between 6.5 and 8.0 (Graves et al.. 2010). Water is
households (kitchen waste, garden waste - cut grass, leaves,
another important parameter for the survival of composting
tree bark, debris from trimming trees and hedges, animal
micro-organisms. The moisture content of the compost pile
manure). residues from the processing of vegetables and
fluctuates during the composting as water is lost in
fruits, residues from meat and fish processing, biodegradable
evaporation process. If the substrate subject to composting is
municipal waste (sludge from wastewater treatment plants,
too dry, sprinkling with water must also be ensured during
newspapers, cardboard), waste from wood processing
the decomposition process (Paraschiv et al.. 2017, Graves et al..
(sawdust, wood chips) and residues from agricultural crops
2010).
(Francou et al..2005).
Aeration is another key factor in the composting technology.
Transformation of organic matter during the composting
A correct aeration controls the temperature, eliminates
consists of two complex processes, namely: degradation and
excess humidity and CO2 and provides the O2 required for
humification. Over time, special attention has been given to
biological processes. Optimal O2 concentration is between 15
the humification process, especially the formation of humic
- 20% (Bernal et al.. 2009).
119 | F a s c i c u l e 1
Maturation phase of substrate is the most important method ranges from 3 to 9 weeks (depending on the
operation in the composting technique. The process is taking composted material), after that the maturation phase begins
place in several phases and is decisively influenced by the (Figure 3) (http://esrd. alberta.ca/waste/composting-at-home,
composition, homogeneity and humidity of the organic http://www.swrcb.ca.gov).
substrate used and by the amount of air used in the
decomposition process. The start-up phase of the maturing
phase is the production of raw compost, the purpose of the
operation being on the one hand ventilation and on the other
hand the mixing of the raw materials at different stages of
decomposition. In this phase, fresh compost is in a state of
advanced decomposition, being semi mature. The mature
compost is obtained after all organic components have been
transformed into soil and humus aggregates, appearing in
the form of black, loose and fine soil Figure 3 - Turned windrow composting (Bachert et al.. 2008)
(http://www.icpa.ro/documente). Passive aerated windrows does not require turning, the
Properly storing the finished compost product is the final step aeration being accomplished by passive air movement
of the composting process. The finished compost should be through the perforated pipes placed in the porous layer (peat
stored in a manner that prevents dust or odours from moss, straw or matured compost) at the base of the pile
developing and prevents contamination of the product from (Figure 4). The porous layer can have a height of 15-20 cm and
weeds, leachate or other contaminants a width of 3 m. The main feature of this porous layer is to allow
(http://www.compost.org). a uniform distribution of air in the pipes, but also to insulate
This paper was aimed to present the main composting the pile, which will ensure the optimum temperature during
methods used for organic waste treatment, namely: passive substrate degradation. The top layer (aprox. 15 cm) consists
composting in piles, turned windrow composting, passive of peat moss or matured compost, which has the role of
aerated windrows, aerated static pile and in – vessel retaining moisture and unpleasant odors released during the
composting. decomposition process (Graves et al.. 2010;
MATERIAL AND METHOD http://esrd.alberta.ca/waste/composting-at-home).
Composting methods differ in duration of decomposition,
the potential for stability and maturity, depending on the
type of substrate used (Mengistu et al.. 2017). The main five
methods of composting developed for use in large-scale are
passive composting piles, turned windrow composting,
passive aerated windrows, aerated static pile and in-vessel
systems.
RESULTS
Passive composting pile is the simplest form of composting Figure 4 - Passive aerated windrow (Graves et al.. 2010)
and does not require special equipment, being used in 1 – perforated pipe; 2 – base layer (compost. peat moss or straw base);
principle for composting the leaves. The compost pile should 3 – coating layer (compost or peat moss)
be periodically turned for determining the porosity of the Aerated static pile is one of the most used methods for
substrate. Aeration is done by passive air movement through composting and can last from 3 to 6 months, depending on
the compost pile (Figure 2). This method requires that the pile the substrate used (Figure 5). The main difference between
be small enough to allow the passive air movement, passive aerated windrow and aerated static pile is that the
otherwise the anaerobic zones will form (Graves et al.. 2010). aerated static pile uses blowers that either suction air from the
pile or blow air into the pile using positive pressure (Stentiford.
1996).
Figure 2 - Passive composting in pile (Graves et al.. 2010)

Turned windrow composting involves arranging the substrate
in long and narrow furrows. The width of the compost pile is
established depending on the size of the machine used to
turn the organic material. The time required to finish the Figure 5 - Aerated static pile (Graves et al.. 2010;
active phase of composting process using the windrow http://compostingtechnology.com)
120 | F a s c i c u l e 1
At the base of the composting pile there are located for periodic turning. In the case of rotating drum, the
perforated pipes for aeration connected to blowers that composting time is reduced to 2 – 3 weeks. These two
introduce or suck air from the composted substrate. The systems require less work than windrows because they use an
pipes are covered with a porous material made of wood chips automated turning process or a self-turning mechanism
or straw to allow a uniform air distribution in the pile. The final (Graves et al.. 2010).
coating layer (15 cm) of the compost pile is often made of CONCLUSIONS
mature compost or sawdust to absorb unpleasant odors and Composting cannot be considered a new technology, but
moisture (Graves et al.. 2010; amongst the waste management methods it is gaining
http://compostingtechnology.com/). In this case, the interest as a suitable option for organic waste with economic
composting pile is not turned. The dimensions of such a and environmental benefits. This process reduces the risk of
compost pile are: height between 1.5 and 2.5 m, the width of spreading pathogens and weed seeds and the final product,
3 – 5 m, while the length of the pile is limited by the air called compost, can be used to improve soil quality and
distribution in the pipes, but it should not be more than 21 - fertility.
27 m. Note
In – vessel composting involves the closure of organic waste in This paper is based on the paper presented at ISB-INMA TEH'
a container. Composting process can be done in bins (Figure 2017 International Symposium (Agricultural and Mechanical
6) provided with aeration systems similar to those of aerated Engineering), organized by University “POLITEHNICA” of
static piles or in bins without aeration systems to which it is Bucharest – Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering,
necessary the regular turning of the substrate in order to National Institute of Research-Development for Machines and
maintain the aerobic conditions (Graves et al.. 2010). Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry – INMA
26 – 28 October, 2017.
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122 | F a s c i c u l e 1
1.
M.J. AMBALI, 2.B.O. SHITTU, 3.A.O. BAMBE
IMPROVED PICTURE ARCHIVING AND COMMUNICATION MODEL FOR

MEDICAL IMAGE MANAGEMENT
Department of Computer Engineering Technology Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State, NIGERIA
1-3.
Abstract: Picture Archiving and Communication Systems (PACS) is a technology employed in collection, storage, processing and
retrieval of medical imaging data within the medical world like hospitals and medical diagnostic facilities across separate
geographic locations. PACS breaks down the physical and time barriers associated with traditional film-based image retrieval,
distribution and display. Added features may include compression of the captured images: without losing its functionality and
hence enhance speed of transfer and time of communication, reduced storage space and memory usage. This feature is observed
to be absent in the present model and implementation of picture archiving and communication system. Furthermore, images are
store away with little description of the features and observation of practitioners on the image so stored; this has made PACS very
limited in its uses in telediagnosis and distance teaching (education) of young radiologist. With the identified limitations with the
existing model of PACS, an improved model for PACS was developed. This work developed an improved model for PACS with the
incorporation of new features into the existing model. Its objectives were achieved implementing multimedia PACS; a reduction
in transmission time and storage space requirements of radiological images was noticeable when compared with the existing
model of PACS.
Keywords: medical images; teleradiology; Computed Tomography (CT); telediagnosis; work stations
INTRODUCTION term in 1981. Dr Samuel Dwyer, though, credits Dr Judith M.

Picture Archiving and Communications System, abbreviated Prewitt for introducing the term. Dr Harold Glass, a medical
as PACS, enables medical images from imaging modalities physicist working in London in the early 1990s secured UK
such as x-rays and scans to be stored electronically and Government funding and managed the project over many
viewed on screens, so that medical practitioners and other years which transformed Hammersmith Hospital in London
health professionals can access the information. In th past, as the first filmless hospital in the United Kingdom. Dr Glass
film has been almost the only medium for capturing, storing, died a few months after the project came live but is credited
and displaying radiological images. Film is a fixed medium with being one of the pioneers of PACS (Bauman, Gell and
with usually only one set of images available. Dwyer, 1996).
Electronic images and reports are transmitted digitally via METHODOLOGY
PACS; this eliminates the need to manually file, retrieve or — Architecture
transport film jackets (Wagner, Morrison, Carrino, Schweitzer Essentially, a PACS network consists of a central server which
and Nothnagel, 2002). The medical images are stored in stores a database containing the images as shown in figure 1.
independent formats such as AVI, portable document file This server is connected to one or more clients via a LAN or a
(PDF) and DICOM. The most common format for image WAN that provide or utilize the images. Web-based PACS is
storage is DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications in becoming more and more common: these systems utilize the
Medicine). Internet as their means of communication (Taira, Breant,
In the past, film has been almost the only medium for Chan, Huang, and Valentino, 1996).
capturing, storing, and displaying radiological images. Film is The software (thin or smart client) is loaded via ActiveX, Java,
a fixed medium with usually only one set of images available. or .NET Framework. PACS workstations offer means of
A PACS consists of four major components: the imaging manipulating the images (crop, rotate, zoom, brightness,
modalities such as Computed Tomography (CT) and contrast and others). Modern radiology equipment,
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), a secured network for modalities, feed patient images directly to the PACS in digital
the transmission of patient information, workstations for form. For backwards compatibility, most hospital imaging
interpreting and reviewing images, and long and short term departments and radiology practices employ a film digitizer.
archives for the storage and retrieval of images and reports. The medical images are stored in an independent format. The
BACKGROUND most common format for image storage is DICOM (Rosslyn,
The principles of PACS were first discussed at meetings of 2001). (Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine), a
radiologists in 1982. Various people are credited with the NEMA standard (Hori, 1996). As shown in the figure below, we
coinage of the term PACS. Cardiovascular radiologist Dr have a central database which stores the images for a short or
Andre Duerinckx reported in 1983 that he had first used the long time as the case may be, the database is populated by
123 | F a s c i c u l e 1
different imaging modalities through the database gate way achieved from intensive study of related cases or examples of
and acquisition gateway, the flow of data is controlled by the past activities.
PACS controller and archive server, the users or client can WORKINGS OF THE PROPOSED MODEL
then log on to use the stored images and data for the purpose The physical layout of PACS as shown in figure 3 is the
of research or consultation or teaching of students as the case physical representation of how several modalities interacts to
may be. This is achieved via a webserver and application form the Picture Archiving and Communication System. The
software installed for such purposes. input modality comprises of the scanners, digitizers, CT scan,
MIR scan and other means of capturing images. The images
are captured from any of the clients or server and are stored
on a dedicated database. Any user at a remote area can have
access to these images wirelessly.
Figure 1: Basic Architecture of a PACS (Rosslyn, 2001)

Figure 3: Physical layout of PACS (Alamu. 2011)
The conceptual frame work of PACS depicts the abstraction
of the whole interaction of individual component of PACS as
shown in figure 4. Abstraction is the ability of a researcher to
bring to light what he thinks in his mind to tangible
representation. In figure 4, all the modalities are grouped into
sections like the, imaging modalities which includes the CT,
MIR and Ultra Sound scanning machines, remote hospital
which is made up of the local server, local client and gadgets
for effective communication, central image archives which
serves as a coordinating points for all the entry and exit of
images in to the PACS. It contains the storage server clusters
and routers to send images to the correct locations. Another
section is the Image display and hard copy printing, this
serves to display the images so stored on the database, and
on extreme situation a print of the image may be ordered. All
these functional parts and their communication is depicted
in Figure 4.
Figure 2: Proposed research framework The flow of work in the Picture Archiving and Communication
— Model Formulation System is depicted in figure 5, the imaging modalities are
An evaluation of the model of the PACS led to the used for capturing the images and are stored in the database
development of a robust model. An improved model was of PACS, the doctors and radiologist input their comment on
proposed and implemented to verify the assumptions the image and diagnosis is done based on the comment of
acquired from the analysis of the scheme. During this stage, a the medical practitioners. If the image captured is to be
further comparison of existing schemes and their frequently used (i.e. by an unstable patient that is it is
architectures, and the new proposed solution were frequently used for consultation), then the image is stored in
compared to extract similarity on the design and the a nearline storage device else it is stored permanently. From
improvement by this work. Analysis of selected cases was the nearline storage, the images can be used for referrals or
124 | F a s c i c u l e 1
for teaching purposes during ward round, the referrals are The technical evolution toward more integrated systems and
done on a secured network. the shift toward Web-based technology are rapidly merging
the two concepts of PACS and teleradiology in global image
management and communication systems. PACS has been of
tremendous help by helping to show patients their radiology
images, by reducing the time spent finding images for review,
by reducing the time spent finding radiology reports, by
making consultations more time efficient. For clinicians whose
practice is heavily dependent on radiology images, such as
orthopedic surgeons and respiratory physicians, the advent of
MPACS has made a substantial difference to the conduct of
their clinics. PACS has made tremendous changes on the
conduct of ward rounds.
References
[1] Alamu F. O. (2011). Development of a Robust Model for
Picture Archiving and Communication System (M. Tech
Thesis),” Submitted to Department of Computer Science
and Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology Ogbomoso,
Nigeria.
[2] Bauman R.A, Gell G, & Dwyer S.J. (1996). Large picture
Figure 4: Conceptual frame work of PACS archiving and communication systems of the world Part 2.
J Digit Imaging, 9, 172–7.
[3] Hori S.C., (1996), Image acquisition,” Sites, technologies, and
approaches”. Radiol Clin North Am. 34, 469–94.
[4] Rosslyn (2001), “Digital Imaging and Communications in
Medicine (DICOM),” National Electrical Manufacturers
Association, PS 3.1-2001, pp iii–iv, 4–12.
[5] Taira R.K., Breant C.M., Chan H.M., Huang L., & Valentino D.J.,
(1996). Architectural design and tools to support the
transparent access to hospital information systems,
radiology information systems, and picture archiving and
communication systems. J Digit Imaging, 9, 1-10.
[6] Wagner S.C., Morrison W.B., Carrino J.A., Schweitzer M.E. &
Nothnagel H (2002). Picture archiving and communication
system: Effect on reporting of incidental findings.
Radiology, 225, 500–5.
Figure 5: Flow chart of the operation of PACS

CONCLUSIONS
Picture archiving and communication systems (PACS) are ISSN: 2067-3809
responsible for solving the problem of acquiring, copyright © University POLITEHNICA Timisoara,
transmitting, and displaying radiologic images. The major Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara,
benefit of PACS resides in its ability to communicate images 5, Revolutiei, 331128, Hunedoara, ROMANIA
and reports to referring physicians in a timely and reliable http://acta.fih.upt.ro
fashion.
125 | F a s c i c u l e 1
XII
ISSN: 2067-3809
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ISSN: 2067-3809

Tome XII [2019]

UNIVERSITY POLITEHNICA TIMISOARA

with kindly supported by:

THE GENERAL ASSOCIATION OF ROMANIAN ENGINEERS (AGIR)

Editor / Technical preparation / Cover design:

Assoc. Prof. Eng. KISS Imre, PhD.

Commenced publication year:

ASSOCIATE EDITORS and

CROATIA Gordana BARIC, University of ZAGREB – ZAGREB

BOSNIA & Tihomir LATINOVIC, University in BANJA LUKA – BANJA LUKA

POLAND Jarosław ZUBRZYCKI, LUBLIN University of Technology – LUBLIN

CHINA Yiwen JIANG, Military Economic Academy – WUHAN

SPAIN César GARCÍA HERNÁNDEZ, University of ZARAGOZA – ZARAGOZA

GREECE Apostolos TSAGARIS, Alexander Technological Educational Institute of THESSALONIKI – THESSALONIKI

The Editor and editorial board members do not receive any

We are very pleased to inform that our journal ACTA TECHNICA

ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin of Engineering

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE MEMBERS

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE MEMBERS & SCIENTIFIC REVIEWERS from:

HUNGARY Imre DEKÁNY, University of SZEGED – SZEGED

POLAND Leszek DOBRZANSKI, Silesian University of Technology – GLIWICE

FRANCE Bernard GRUZZA, Universite Blaise Pascal – CLERMONT-FERRAND

INDIA Sugata SANYAL, Tata Consultancy Services – MUMBAI

CZECH Ivo SCHINDLER, Technical University of OSTRAVA – OSTRAVA

LITHUANIA Egidijus ŠARAUSKIS, Aleksandras Stulginskis University – KAUNAS

FINLAND Antti Samuli KORHONEN, University of Technology – HELSINKI

NORWAY Trygve THOMESSEN, Norwegian University of Science and Technology – TRONDHEIM

CHINA Wenjing LI, Military Economic Academy – WUHAN

2. Lissette CONCEPCIÓN MAURE, Félix Abel GOYA VALDIVIA,

3. P. MANIKANDAN, Faheem Ahmed KHAN – INDIA

4. Habib BENBOUHENNI – ALGERIA

5. S.E. UWADIAE, O.M. EDOKPIAWE – NIGERIA

6. Flavius BUCUR – ROMANIA

7. Oana LUPU – ROMANIA

8. A.M. RAJESH, Mohamed KALEEMULLA, Saleemsab DODDAMANI – INDIA

9. Anca-Elena IORDAN – ROMANIA

10. Petinrin M. OMOLAYO, Adegbola A. ADEYINKA – NIGERIA

11. Ancuţa NEDELCU, Cristina COVALIU, Lucreţia POPA, Radu CIUPERCA,

13. Ruzena KRALIKOVA, Lydia SOBOTOVA – SLOVAKIA

14. Emeka Segun NNOCHIRI, Oluwaseun Adedapo ADETAYO – NIGERIA

16. Mihaela Elena NAGY, Constantin COȚA, Nicolae CIOICA,

17. Gheorghe VOICU, Gabriel Alexandru CONSTANTIN, Elena-Mădălina STEFAN,

19. Loganathan PARASURAMAN, Deepa KRISHNAMURTHY – INDIA

20. Oluwayomi Ife AKINYEMI, Titus Adeyemi ALONGE,

21. Galina PATAMANSKA, Elena GRANCHAROVA – BULGARIA

22. Cosmin SPIRCHEZ, Alina LUNGULEASA, Maria PRUNĂ, Liviu GACEU,

25. M.J. AMBALI, B.O. SHITTU, A.O. BAMBE – NIGERIA

*** MANUSCRIPT PREPARATION – GENERAL GUIDELINES 127

THE USE OF FLAME OF FOREST POD FLOUR IN HIGH DENSITY

INTRODUCTON the major parameters influencing plastic based composites.

8 FFPF content and particle size distribution on the tensile

8 FFPF-HDPE composite was lowest at 2000 µm, followed by

6 FFPF–HDPE composite ductile ability to cutback, leading to

more energy to formalize cracks promulgation at lower sizes

HDPE composite (KJ/m2)

Brinell Hardness Number

METHODOLOGY FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF RISK IN THE STORAGE

INTRODUCTION possible aggravation of the impact according to social,