Mathematics in Java Returns the polar angle of the rectangular

coordinates (x,y).
Most of what you need for math in Java is in
the Math class. So, to access these methods, ceiling Math.ceil(value)
you prepend the name Math to the method. Most Returns the smallest whole number greater
mathematics functions, such as sin, cos, exp, are than or equal to a.
written as Math.sin,Math.cos, Math.exp.
The list below summarizes what is available. cosine Math.cos(value)
Returns the trigonometric cosine of an
CONSTANTS angle.

e: Math.E exp Math.exp(value)

Returns a double representation of the Returns the exponential number e(2.718...)
base of the natural logarithm. raised to the power of a.
Pi: Math.PI
Returns a double representation of the floor Math.floor(value)
ratio of the area of a circle to its diameter. Returns the "floor" or largest whole number
infinity: Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY less than or equal to a.
Returns a double representation of
positive infinity. logarithm Math.log(value)
-infinity: Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY Returns the natural logarithm (base e)
Returns a double representation of of value. To get base 10 logarithm,
use Math.log(value)/Math.log(10).
negative infinity. "
not a number: Double.NaN
max Math.max(value_1,value_2)
Returns a double representation of an
Returns the greater of value_1 and value_2.
IEEE NaN. The NaN is often generated
during floating point calculations to signify
min Math.min(value_1,value_2)
an exceptional situation. For
example, Math.sqrt(-1) will return a Returns the lesser of value_1 and value_2.
NaN, since Java does not know implicitly
power Math.pow(value_1,value_2)
about complex numbers.
Returns value_1 to the power of value_2.
FUNCTIONS random number Math.random()
Returns a pseudo-random number between
abs Math.abs(value) 0.0 and 1.0.
Returns the absolute integer value of a.
round Math.round(value)
arc cosine Math.acos(value) Rounds off a floating point value by first
adding 0.5 to it and then returning the
Returns the arc cosine of a, in the range of
largest integer that is less than or equal to
0.0 through Pi.
this new value.
arc sine Math.asin(value)
sine Math.sin(value)
Returns the arc sine of a, in the range of -
Pi/2 through Pi/2. Returns the trigonometric sine of an angle.

square root Math.sqrt(value)

arc tangent Math.atan(value)
Returns the square root of a.
Returns the arc tangent of a, in the range of -
Pi/2 through Pi/2.
tangent Math.tan(value)
two argument arc tangent Math.atan2(x,y) Returns the trigonometric tangent of an
angle.
Primitive Data Types
The Java programming language is statically-typed, which means that all variables must first be declared before they can be
used. This involves stating the variable's type and name, as you've already seen:

int gear = 1;

Doing so tells your program that a field named "gear" exists, holds numerical data, and has an initial value of "1". A variable's
data type determines the values it may contain, plus the operations that may be performed on it. In addition to int, the Java
programming language supports seven other primitive data types. A primitive type is predefined by the language and is named
by a reserved keyword. Primitive values do not share state with other primitive values. The eight primitive data types supported
by the Java programming language are:

• byte: The byte data type is an 8-bit signed two's complement integer. It has a minimum value of -128 and a
maximum value of 127 (inclusive). The byte data type can be useful for saving memory in large arrays, where the
memory savings actually matters. They can also be used in place of int where their limits help to clarify your code;
the fact that a variable's range is limited can serve as a form of documentation.
• short: The short data type is a 16-bit signed two's complement integer. It has a minimum value of -32,768 and a
maximum value of 32,767 (inclusive). As with byte, the same guidelines apply: you can use a short to save
memory in large arrays, in situations where the memory savings actually matters.
• int: By default, the int data type is a 32-bit signed two's complement integer, which has a minimum value of -
231 and a maximum value of 231-1. In Java SE 8 and later, you can use the int data type to represent an unsigned
32-bit integer, which has a minimum value of 0 and a maximum value of 232-1. Use the Integer class to
use int data type as an unsigned integer. See the section The Number Classes for more information. Static
methods like compareUnsigned, divideUnsigned etc have been added to the Integer class to support the
arithmetic operations for unsigned integers.
• long: The long data type is a 64-bit two's complement integer. The signed long has a minimum value of -263 and a
maximum value of 263-1. In Java SE 8 and later, you can use thelong data type to represent an unsigned 64-bit
long, which has a minimum value of 0 and a maximum value of 264-1. Use this data type when you need a range of
values wider than those provided by int. The Long class also contains methods
like compareUnsigned, divideUnsigned etc to support arithmetic operations for unsigned long.
• float: The float data type is a single-precision 32-bit IEEE 754 floating point. Its range of values is beyond the
scope of this discussion, but is specified in the Floating-Point Types, Formats, and Values section of the Java
Language Specification. As with the recommendations for byte and short, use a float (instead of double) if
you need to save memory in large arrays of floating point numbers. This data type should never be used for precise
values, such as currency. For that, you will need to use the java.math.BigDecimal class instead.Numbers and
Strings covers BigDecimal and other useful classes provided by the Java platform.
• double: The double data type is a double-precision 64-bit IEEE 754 floating point. Its range of values is beyond
the scope of this discussion, but is specified in the Floating-Point Types, Formats, and Values section of the Java
Language Specification. For decimal values, this data type is generally the default choice. As mentioned above, this
data type should never be used for precise values, such as currency.
• boolean: The boolean data type has only two possible values: true and false. Use this data type for simple
flags that track true/false conditions. This data type represents one bit of information, but its "size" isn't something
that's precisely defined.
• char: The char data type is a single 16-bit Unicode character. It has a minimum value of '\u0000' (or 0) and a
maximum value of '\uffff' (or 65,535 inclusive).

In addition to the eight primitive data types listed above, the Java programming language also provides special support
for character strings via the java.lang.String class. Enclosing your character string within double quotes will automatically
 create a new String object; for example, String s = "this is a string";. String objects are immutable,
which means that once created, their values cannot be changed. The String class is not technically a primitive data
type, but considering the special support given to it by the language, you'll probably tend to think of it as such. You'll
learn more about the String class in Simple Data Objects

Default Values

It's not always necessary to assign a value when a field is declared. Fields that are declared but not initialized will be set to a
reasonable default by the compiler. Generally speaking, this default will be zero or null, depending on the data type. Relying
on such default values, however, is generally considered bad programming style.

The following chart summarizes the default values for the above data types.

Data Type Default Value (for fields)

byte 0

short 0

int 0

long 0L

float 0.0f

double 0.0d

char '\u0000'

String (or any object) null

boolean false

Local variables are slightly different; the compiler never assigns a default value to an uninitialized local variable. If you cannot
initialize your local variable where it is declared, make sure to assign it a value before you attempt to use it. Accessing an
uninitialized local variable will result in a compile-time error.
Simple Assignment Operator

= Simple assignment operator

Arithmetic Operators

+ Additive operator (also used for String concatenation)

- Subtraction operator
* Multiplication operator
/ Division operator
% Remainder operator

Unary Operators

+ Unary plus operator; indicates positive value (numbers are positive without this)
- Unary minus operator; negates an expression
++ Increment operator; increments a value by 1
-- Decrement operator; decrements a value by 1
! Logical complement operator; inverts the value of a boolean

Equality and Relational Operators

== Equal to
!= Not equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to

Conditional Operators

&& Conditional-AND
|| Conditional-OR
?: Ternary (shorthand for if-then-else statement)

Type Comparison Operator

instanceof Compares an object to a specified type

Bitwise and Bit Shift Operators

~ Unary bitwise complement

<< Signed left shift
>> Signed right shift
>>> Unsigned right shift
& Bitwise AND
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
| Bitwise inclusive OR