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Dielectric Materials: Properties

and Applications

Content
1. Dielectrics : Properties
2. Fundamental definitions and Properties of electric dipole
3. Various polarization mechanisms involved in dielectric : 3.1 Electronic
polarization, 3.2 Ionic polarization, 3.3 Orientation polarization, 3.4 Space charge
polarization; 3.5 Total polarization
4. Active and Passive Dielectrics
5. Frequency and Temperature on Polarization of Dielectrics : 5.1 Frequency
Dependence, 5.2 Temperature Dependence,
6. Internal field or Local field : 6.1 Definition, 6.2 Derivation, 6.3 Clausius – Mosoti
Equation
7. Dielectrics and Loss Tangent; 7.1 Loss in purified gas; 7.2 Loss in commercial
dielectric ; 7.3 Power loss
8. Dielectric Breakdown: 8.1 Types of dielectric breakdown; 8.2 Remedies for
breakdown mechanisms
9. General Applications
10. Applications of dielectric materials : 10.1 Dielectrics in capacitors, 10.2 Insulating
materials in transformers
11. Ferro-electrics : 11.1 Properties, 11.2 Applications

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Understanding Dielectric:
• Solids which have an energy gap of 3eV or more are termed as
insulators.
• In these materials, it is almost not possible to excite the
electrons from the valence band to conduction band by an
applied field.
• Generally dielectrics are also called as insulators, thereby poor
conductors of electricity. However they allow movement of
some electrons at abnormally high temperatures, causing a
small flow of current.
• Dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high specific resistance
ρ, negative temperature coefficient of resistance (-α), large
insulation resistance.
• Insulation resistance will be affected by moisture, temperature,
applied electric field and age of dielectrics.

Understanding Dielectric:

• Dielectric materials are electrically non-conducting

materials such as glass, ebonite, mica, rubber, wood
and paper.
• All dielectric materials are insulating materials.
• The difference between a dielectric and an insulator
lies in their applications.
• If the main function of non-conducting material is to
provide electrical insulation, then they are called as
insulator. On the other hand, if the main function of
non-conducting material is to store electrical charges
then they are called as dielectrics.

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Properties

• Generally, the dielectrics are non-metallic

materials of high resistivity.
• They have a very large energy gap (more than
3eV).
• All the electrons in the dielectrics are tightly
bound to their parent nucleus.
• As there are no free electrons to carry the
current, the electrical conductivity of dielectrics is
very low.
• They have negative temperature coefficient of
resistance and high insulation resistance.

Fundamental Definitions And Properties Electric

Dipole
• A system consisting of two equal and opposite charges n(+q,
-q) separated by a distance (d) is called an electric dipole.

DIPOLE MOMENT (P)

• The product of the magnitude of the charge (q) and distance
between two charges (d) is called as dipole moment.
• Dipole moment P = qd (coulomb-metre)

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Fundamental Definitions And Properties Electric

Dipole
PERMITTIVITY (ε)
• The permittivity represents the dielectric property of a medium. It
indicates easily polarizable nature of material. Its unit is
farad/metre

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (εr )

• A dielectric characteristic of a material is determined by its
dielectric constant. It is a measure of polarisation of the dielectrics.
Definition
• It is the ratio between absolute permittivity of the medium (ε) and
permittivity of free space (εo).

Dielectric constant = Absolute permittivity (ε) / Permittivity of free

space (εo )
εr = ε / εo

Fundamental Definitions And Properties Electric

Dipole
POLARIZATION
Definition
• The process of producing electric dipoles inside the dielectric by the
application of an external electrical field is called polarization in
dielectrics.
POLARISABILITY (α)
It is found that the average dipole moment field (E).
μ=αE
Where (α) is the polarisability.
α=μ/E
Polarisability is defined as the ratio of average dipole moment to the
electrical field applied. Its unit is farad m2 .

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Active and Passive Dielectrics

The dielectric materials can be classified into active and passive
dielectric materials.
i. Active dielectrics
When a dielectric material is kept in an external electric field, if it
actively accepts the electricity, then it is known as active dielectric material.
Thus, active dielectrics are the dielectrics, which can easily adapt themselves
to store the electrical energy in it.
ii. Passive dielectrics
Passive dielectrics are the dielectrics, which restrict the flow of
electrical energy in them. So, these dielectrics act as insulators.
Examples: All insulating materials such as glass, mica, rubber etc.,

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Basically, there are four mechanisms of polarization:

Electronic or Atomic Polarization
This involves the separation of the centre of the electron cloud around an atom
with respect to the centre of its nucleus under the application of electric field (see (a) in
figure below).
Ionic Polarization
This happens in solids with ionic bonding which automatically have dipoles but which get
cancelled due to symmetry of the crystals. Here, external field leads to small displacement
of ions from their equilibrium positions and hence inducing a net dipole moment (see (b)).
Dipolar or Orientation Polarization
This is primarily due to orientation of molecular dipoles in the direction of applied field
which would otherwise be randomly distributed due to thermal randomization (see (c and
d)) and finally
Interface or Space Charge Polarization
This involves limited movement of charges resulting in alignment of charge dipoles under
applied field. This usually happens at the grain boundaries or any other interface such as
electrode-material interface (see (e and f))

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Dielectrics and Loss Tangent

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Ferroelectric –
A material that shows spontaneous
and reversible dielectric polarization.

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Piezoelectric –

A material that develops voltage upon

the application of a stress and develops
strain when an electric field is applied.

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©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

The (a) direct and (b) converse piezoelectric effect.

In the direct piezoelectric effect, applied stress causes a voltage to
appear. In the converse effect (b), an applied voltage leads to
development of strain.

Direct piezoelectric Reverse (converse)

effect piezoelectric effect

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Direct piezoelectric effect

P = d
P = d 

d   o

d: Piezoelectric coupling coefficient
(piezoelectric charge coefficient)

Table: The piezoelectric constant d (longitudinal)

for selected materials
Piezoelectric constant d
Material (C/N = m/V)
Quartz 2.3 x 10-12
BaTiO3 100 x 10-12
PbZrTiO6 250 x 10-12
PbNb2O6 80 x 10-12

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PZT: PbZrO3-PbTiO3 solid solution or lead zirconotitanate

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Table: Properties of commercial PZT ceramics

Property PZT-5H PZT4

(soft) (hard)
Permittivity ( at 1 kHz) 3400 1300
Dielectric loss (tan  at 1 kHz) 0.02 0.004
Curie temperature (Tc, C) 193 328
Piezoelectric coefficients (10-12 m/V)
d33 593 289
d31 -274 -123
d15 741 496
Piezoelectric coupling factors
k33 0.752 0.70
k31 -0.388 -0.334
k15 0.675 0.71

Table: Measured longitudinal piezoelectric coupling coefficient d, measured relative

dielectric constant , calculated piezoelectric voltage coefficient g and calculated voltage
change resulting from a stress change of 1 kPa for a specimen thickness of 1 cm in the
direction of polarization.

Voltage change
Material d (10-13 m/V)* † g (10-4 m2/C)† (mV)†
Cement paste 0.659  0.031 35 2.2 2.2
(plain)
Cement paste with 208  16 2700 8.7 8.7
steel fibers and
PVA
Cement paste with 3.62  0.40 49 8.5 8.5
carbon fibers
PZT 136 1024 15 15
*Averaged over the first half of the first stress cycle
†At 10 kHz

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Piezopolymer

Moonie

Cymbal
Composites with piezoelectric/ferroelectric material
sandwiched by metal faceplates fo enhancing the piezoelectric
coupling coefficient

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Pyroelectric –

The ability of a material to spontaneously

polarize and produce a voltage due to
changes in temperature.

dP d
p   o , Material p(10-6 C/m2.K)
dT dT BaTiO3 20
PZT 380
p = pyroelectirc coefficient PVDF 27
Cement paste 0.002
P = polarization

Px
V=
( - 1)  o

Voltage sensitivity

dV P dx x dP
= 
d ( - 1)  o d (  1)  o d
Compliance Piezoelectric coupling
coefficient d

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Piezoelectric composite

• When any material undergoes polarization

(due to an applied electric field), its ions
and electronic clouds are displaced,
causing the development of a mechanical
strain in the material. polarization.
• This phenomenon is known as the
electrostriction.

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Examples of ceramic capacitors.

(a)Single-layer ceramic capacitor (disk capacitors).
(b) Multilayer ceramic capacitor (stacked ceramic layers).

Types of Dielectric Materials

Dielectric materials can be divided into following groups:
• Solid Dielectrics - are of following types:
– • Mica – is inorganic material and is crystalline in nature.
– • Glass – is inorganic material made by fusion of different oxides.
– • Rubber – is a organic polymer, which can be natural or artificial.
– • Ceramic – is non-metallic organic compound such as silicates

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Types of Dielectric Materials

Liquid Dielectric – includes following:
• Mineral Insulating Oils – obtained from crude petroleum & have
high oxidation resistance.
• Synthetic Insulating oil – are very much resistant to oxidation & fire
hazards.
• Miscellaneous Insulating oils – Vaseline, vegetable oils, silicon oils
belongs to this.
Gaseous Dielectric – includes
• Air
• Nitrogen
• Sulphur hexafluoride
• Inert gases

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