UNIT- I

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION
INTRODUCTION
 A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at one
voltage level to ac electric power at another voltage level
through the action of a magnetic field.
 There are two or more stationary electric circuits that are
coupled magnetically.
 It involves interchange of electric energy between two or more
electric systems
 Transformers provide much needed capability of changing the
voltage and current levels easily.
 They are used to step-up generator voltage to an appropriate
voltage level for power transfer.
 Stepping down the transmission voltage at various levels for
distribution and power utilization.
WHAT IS TRANSFORMER
 A transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of
which an electrical power is transferred from one
alternating current circuit to another electrical circuit
 There is no electrical contact between them

 The desire change in voltage or current without any

change in frequency
 Symbolically the transformer denoted as

NOTE :

It works on the principle of mutual induction

STRUCTURE OF TRANSFORMER

 The transformer two inductive coils ,these are electrical

separated but linked through a common magnetic current
circuit
 These two coils have a high mutual induction

 One of the two coils is connected of alternating voltage .this

coil in which electrical energy is fed with the help of source
called primary winding (P) shown in fig.
 The other winding is connected to a load the electrical energy
is transformed to this winding drawn out to the load .this
winding is called secondary winding(S) shown in fig.
 The primary and secondary coil wound on a ferromagnetic
metal core
 The function of the core is to transfer the changing magnetic
flux from the primary coil to the secondary coil
 The primary has N1 no of turns and the secondary has N2 no of
turns the of turns plays major important role in the function of
transformer
WORKING PRINCIPLE
 The transformer works in the principle of mutual induction

“The principle of mutual induction states that when the two coils are
inductively coupled and if the current in coil change uniformly then the
e.m.f. induced in the other coils. This e.m.f can drive a current when a
closed path is provide to it.”

 When the alternating current flows in the primary coils, a

changing magnetic flux is generated around the primary coil.
 The changing magnetic flux is transferred to the secondary coil
through the iron core
 The changing magnetic flux is cut by the secondary coil, hence
induces an e.m.f in the secondary coil
 Now if load is connected to a secondary winding, this e.m.f
drives a current through it
 The magnitude of the output voltage can be controlled by the
ratio of the no. of primary coil and secondary coil

The frequency of mutually induced e.m.f as same

that of the alternating source which supplying to the
primary winding b
CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER
 These are two basic of transformer construction
 Magnetic core

 Windings or coils

 Magnetic core

 The core of transformer either square or rectangular type in

size
 It is further divided into two parts vertical and horizontal

 The vertical portion on which coils are wounds called limb

while horizontal portion is called yoke. these parts are
 Core is made of laminated core type constructions, eddy
current losses get minimize.
 Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5mm)
are used
 Transformer Classification

 In terms of number of windings

 Conventional transformer: two windings
 Autotransformer: one winding
 Others: more than two windings

 In terms of number of phases

 Single-phase transformer
 Three-phase transformer

 Depending on the voltage level at which the winding is operated

 Step-up transformer: primary winding is a low voltage (LV)
winding
 Step-down transformer : primary winding is a high voltage (HV)
winding
WINDING
 Conducting material is used in the winding of the transformer
 The coils are used are wound on the limbs and insulated from
each other
 The two different windings are wounds on two different limbs

 The leakage flux increases which affects the performance and

efficiency of transformer
 To reduce the leakage flux it is necessary that the windings
should be very close to each other to have high mutual
induction
CORE TYPE CONSTRUCTION

 In this one magnetic circuit and cylindrical coils are used

 Normally L and T shaped laminations are used
 Commonly primary winding would on one limb while
secondary on the other but performance will be reduce
 To get high performance it is necessary that other the two
winding should be very close to each other
SHELL TYPE CONSTRUCTION

 In this type two magnetic circuit are used

 The winding is wound on central limbs

 For the cell type each high voltage winding lie between two
voltage portion sandwiching the high voltage winding
 Sub division of windings reduces the leakage flux

 Greater the number of sub division lesser the reactance

 This type of construction is used for high voltage

EMF EQUATION
EMF EQUATION

E2/E1=K TRANSFORMATION RATIO

IDEAL TRANSFORMERS
An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding
and an output winding. It has the following properties:

 No iron and copper losses

 No leakage fluxes
 A core of infinite magnetic permeability and of infinite
electrical resistivity
 Flux is confined to the core and winding resistances are
negligible
IDEAL TRANSFORMERS

An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding

and an output winding.

fM

The relationships between the input voltage and the output voltage,
and between the input current and the output current, are given by the
following equations.
v p t  i s t 
In instantaneous quantities  a
v s t  i p t 
IDEAL TRANSFORMERS

v p t  i s t  N p
  a
v s t  i p t  N s

Vp I
In rms quantities  s a
Vs I p

Np: Number of turns on the primary winding

Ns: Number of turns on the secondary winding
vp(t): voltage applied to the primary side
vs(t): voltage at the secondary side
a: turns ratio
ip(t): current flowing into the primary side
is(t): current flowing into the secondary side
DERIVATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP

d p  t 
df M t  …………….. (1)
v p t    Np
dt dt
d  t  df t  …………….. (2)
v s t   s  N s M
dt dt
v p t  N p
  a ………………......……….. (3)
v s t  N s
Dividing (1) by (2)

From Ampere’s law N p i p t   N s i s t 

i s t  N p …………………..……….. (4)
 a
i p t  N s

v p t  i s t  N p ………………….. (5)
Equating (3) and (4)   a
v s t  i p t  N s
POWER IN AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER

Real power P supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit

Pin  V p I p cos  p
 p  s  
Real power coming out of the secondary circuit
Vp 
Pout  V s I s cos  s    
 aI p cos   V p I p cos   Pin

 a 
Thus, the output power of an ideal transformer is equal to its input power.

The same relationship applies to reactive Q and apparent power S:

 Is 
Qin  V p I p sin   aVs   cos   Vs I s sin   Qout
 a 
S in  V p I p  V s I s  S out
PHASOR DIAGRAM ON NO LOAD
THEORY OF OPERATION OF SINGLE-PHASE REAL TRANSFORMERS

Leakage flux: flux that goes through one of the transformer windings
but not the other one
Mutual flux: flux that remains in the core and links both windings
THEORY OF OPERATION OF SINGLE-PHASE REAL TRANSFORMERS

f P  f M  f LP
f S  f M  f LS

fp: total average primary flux

fM : flux linking both primary and secondary windings
fLP: primary leakage flux
fS: total average secondary flux
fLS: secondary leakage flux
 MAGNETIZATION CURRENT

E1

When an ac power source is connected to a transformer, a current flows

in its primary circuit, even when the secondary circuit is open circuited.
This current is the current required to produce flux in the ferromagnetic
core and is called excitation current. It consists of two components:
1. The magnetization current Im, which is the current required to
produce the flux in the transformer core
2. The core-loss current Ih+e, which is the current required to make up
for hysteresis and eddy current losses
 THE MAGNETIZATION CURRENT IN A REAL TRANSFORMER
When an ac power source is connected to the primary of a transformer, a
current flows in its primary circuit, even when there is no current in the
secondary. The transformer is said to be on no-load. If the secondary current is
zero, the primary current should be zero too. However, when the transformer
is on no-load, excitation current flows in the primary because of the core
losses and the finite permeability of the core.
Ic
E1
Excitation current, Io o

Magnetization current IM
(current required to produce flux
in the core) IM Io

Core-loss current Ih+e f

(current required to make up for
hysteresis and eddy current losses) IM is proportional to the flux f
Ic = Ih+e = Core loss/E1
IDEAL V/S PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER
 A transformer is said to be ideal if it satisfies the
following properties, but no transformer is ideal in
practice.
 It has no losses

 Windings resistance are zero

 There is no flux leakage

 Small current is required to produce the magnetic field

While the practical transformer has windings resistance ,

some leakage flux and has lit bit losses
PHASOR DIAGRAM ON LOAD
RESISTIVE LOAD
INDUCTIVE LOAD
LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER

 Copper losses :
It is due to power wasted in the form of I2Rdue to
resistance of primary and secondary. The magnitude of
copper losses depend upon the current flowing through
these coils.

The iron losses depend on the supply voltage while the copper depend
on the current .the losses are not dependent on the phase angle between
current and voltage .hence the rating of the transformer is expressed as
a product o f voltage and current called VA rating of transformer. It is
not expressed in watts or kilowatts. Most of the timer, is rating is
expressed in KVA.
Hysteresis loss :
During magnetization and demagnetization ,due to hysteresis
effect some energy losses in the core called hysteresis loss
Eddy current loss :
The leakage magnetic flux generates the E.M.F in the core
produces current is called of eddy current loss.
THE EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER
Modeling the copper losses: resistive losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the core, represented in the equivalent circuit by RP and RS.
Modeling the leakage fluxes: primary leakage flux is proportional to the
primary current IP and secondary leakage flux is proportional to the
secondary current IS, represented in the equivalent circuit by XP (=fLP/IP) and
XS (=fLS/IS).
Modeling the core excitation: Im is proportional to the voltage applied to the
core and lags the applied voltage by 90o. It is modeled by XM.
Modeling the core loss current: Ih+e is proportional to the voltage applied to
the core and in phase with the applied voltage. It is modeled by RC.
THE EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER
Although the previous equivalent circuit is an accurate model of a transformer,
it is not a very useful one. To analyze practical circuits containing transformers,
it is normally necessary to convert the entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a
single voltage level. Therefore, the equivalent circuit must be referred either to
its primary side or to its secondary side in problem solutions.

Figure (a) is the equivalent

circuit of the transformer
referred to its primary side.

Figure (b) is the equivalent

circuit referred to its secondary
side.
APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF A TRANSFORMER
APPLICATION AND USES

 The transformer used in television and photocopy

machines
 The transmission and distribution of alternating power is
possible by transformer
 Simple camera flash uses fly back transformer

 Signal and audio transformer are used couple in

amplifier

Todays transformer is become an essential part of

electrical engineering
ALL-DAY EFFICIENCY

-> is defined as the ratio of the energy (kilowatt-hours)

delivered by the transformer in a 24-hour period to the
energy input in the same period of time.
-> to determine the all-day efficiency, it is necessary to know
how the load varies from hour to hour during the day.

Example:

The transformer of example 18 operates with the following

loads during a 24-hr period: 1 ½ times rated kva, power
factor = 0.8, 1hr; 1 ¼ times rated kva, power factor = 0.8,
2hr; rated kva, power factor = 0.9, 3hr; ½ rated kva, power
factor = 1.0, 6hr; ¼ rated kva, power factor = 0.8; no-load,
4hr. Calculate the all-day efficiency.
Solution:

Energy output, kw-hr Energy losses, kw-hr

2
W1 = 1.5 x 5 x 0.8 x = 6.0 (1 ½) x 0.112 x 1 =
0.252
W2 = 1.25 x 0.8 x 2 = 10.0 (1 ½)2 x 0.112 x 2 =
0.350
W3 = 1 x 5 x 0.9 x 3 = 13.5 1 x 0.112 x 3 = 0.336
W6 = 0.5 x 5 x 1.0 x 6 = 15.0 (1/2)2 x 0.112 x 6 =
0.168
W8 = 0.25 x 5 x 1.0 x 8 = 10.0 (1/4)2 x 0.112 x 8 =
0.056
____
Total. . . . . . . . 54.5 Iron = 0.04 x 24 =
0.960
_____
Total. . . . . . . . .. . . . 2.122

All-day Efficiency = (1 – 2.122/54.5 + 2.122) x 100 = 96.25%

 UNIT - II

TESTING OF
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
&
AUTOTRANSFORMER
 Short Circuit
 Open Circuit

 Transformer

 Short Circuit Test

 Open Circuit Test

 Conclusion

 Source
 A short circuit is an electrical circuit that allows
a current to travel along an unintended path,
often where essentially no (or a very low)
electrical impedance is encountered.
 In circuit analysis a short circuit is a connection
between two nodes that forces them to be at the
same voltage.
 In an ideal short circuit, this means there is no
resistance and no voltage drop across the short.
 In real circuits, the result is a connection with
almost no resistance. In such a case, the current
that flows is limited by the rest of the circuit.
 An electrical circuit is an "open circuit" if it lacks a
complete path between the terminals of its power
source; in other words, if no true "circuit" currently
exists, because for instance a power switch is turned
off.
 The electrical opposite of a short circuit is an "open
circuit", which is an infinite resistance between two
nodes.
 The open circuit test, or "no-load test", is one of the
methods used in electrical engineering to determine
the no load impedance in the excitation branch of a
transformer.
.
 A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy
by inductive coupling between its winding circuits.
 A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying
magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying
magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or
voltage in the secondary winding.
 In electrical engineering, two conductors are referred to as
mutual-inductively coupled or magnetically coupled when they
are configured such that change in current flow through one
wire induces a voltage across the ends of the other wire
through electromagnetic induction. The amount of inductive
coupling between two conductors is measured by their mutual
inductance.
 These two tests are performed on a transformer to
determine:-(i) equivalent circuit of transformer
(ii) voltage regulation of transformer
(iii) efficiency of transformer.

 The power required for these Open Circuit test and

Short Circuit test on transformer is equal to the
power loss occurring in the transformer.
 A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are
connected in LV side of the transformer as shown in
the figure below.
 The voltage at rated frequency is applied to that LV
side with the help of a variac of variable ratio auto
transformer.
 The HV side of the transformer is kept open. Now with
help of variac applied voltage is slowly increase until
the voltmeter gives reading equal to the rated voltage
of the LV side.
 After reaching at rated LV side voltage, all three
instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter and
Wattmeter readings) are recorded.
 The ammeter reading gives the no load current Ie.
 As no load current Ie is quite small compared to rated
current of the transformer, the voltage drops due to this
electric current then can be taken as negligible.
 Since, voltmeter reading V can be considered equal to
secondary induced voltage of the transformer. The input
power during test is indicated by watt-meter reading.
 As the transformer is open circuited, there is no output
hence the input power here consists of core losses in
transformer and copper loss in transformer during no load
condition.
 The no load current in the transformer is quite small
compared to full load current so copper loss due to the
small no load current can be neglected.
 Hence the wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to core
losses in transformer.
LET US CONSIDER WATTMETER READING IS PO.
 These values are referred to the LV side of
transformer as because the test is conduced on LV
side of transformer. These values could easily be
referred to HV side by multiplying these values
with square of transformation ratio.
 Therefore it is seen that the open circuit test on
transformer is used to determine core losses in
transformer and parameters of shunt branch of the
equivalent circuit of transformer.
OPEN CIRCUIT POWER FACTOR

Poc
PF  cos  
Voc I oc

Open circuit Power Factor Angle

Poc
1
  cos
Voc I oc
 A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in
HV side of the transformer as shown in figure.

 The voltage at rated frequency is applied to that HV side

with the help of a variac of variable ratio auto
transformer.
 The LV side of the transformer is short circuited .
Now with help of variac applied voltage is slowly
increase until the ammeter gives reading equal to
the rated current of the HV side
 After reaching at rated current of HV side, all three
instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter and
Watt-meter readings) are recorded
 The ammeter reading gives the primary equivalent
of full load current IL.
 As the voltage, applied for full load current in short
circuit test on transformer, is quite small compared
to rated primary voltage of the transformer, the core
losses in transformer can be taken as negligible
here.
 Let’s, voltmeter reading is VSC . The input power
during test is indicated by watt-meter reading.
 As the transformer is short circuited, there is no
output hence the input power here consists of copper
losses in transformer
 Since, the applied voltage Vsc is short circuit voltage
in the transformer and hence it is quite small
compared to rated voltage so core loss due to the small
applied voltage can be neglected.
 Hence the wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to
copper losses in transformer.
LET US CONSIDER WATTMETER READING IS PSC .
 These values are referred to the HV side of
transformer as because the test is conduced on HV
side of transformer.
 These values could easily be referred to LV side by
dividing these values with square of transformation
ratio.
 Therefore it is seen that the Short Circuit test on
transformer is used to determine copper loss in
transformer at full load and parameters of
approximate equivalent circuit of transformer.
POWER FACTOR OF THE CURRENT

Psc
PF  cos  
Vsc I sc
Angle Power Factor

Psc
1
  cos
Vsc I sc
 the open circuit test on transformer is used to
determine core losses in transformer and
parameters of shunt branch of the equivalent
circuit of transformer.

 the Short Circuit test on transformer is used to

determine copper loss in transformer at full load
and parameters of approximate equivalent circuit
of transformer.
 ’

TRANSFORMERS
INTRODUCTION -

 The Sumpner's test (back to back test) is the very

practical, convenient, efficient and minimum power
consumption test which is done without actual
loading to find regulation and efficiency of large
power transformer.
 Two
Basic
Tests

Open Short
Circuit Circuit
Test Test

Test to determine the iron Test to determine the

loss/core losses. In this test copper losses. In this
the secondary of the test the secondary of the
transformer is kept open transformer is kept
circuited. short-circuited.
ALREADY TWO TESTS..!

WHY DO WE NEED SUMPNER’S TEST

TO DETERMINE THE SAME THINGS …..??
 In O.C. test, there is no load on the transformer while in S.C.
circuit test only fractional load gets applied. In all O.C. and S.C.
tests, the loading conditions are absent. Hence the results are
inaccurate.
 In open and short circuit test iron losses and copper losses are
determined separately but in actual use both losses occurs
simultaneously.
 The temperature rise in the transformer is due to total loss that
occurs simultaneously during actual use, it cant be determined by
O.C and S.C tests.
 SUMPNER’S
TEST

Its a improved method of testing transformer

efficiency & other parameters. This test gives the
value of total loss accurately as it occurs when it is in
actual use. Sumpner's test or back to back test
requires two transformers. Both transformers are
connected to supply in such a way that one
transformer is loaded on another.
Circuit diagram of
Sumpner’s test :
 OPERATIONS OF SUMPNER’S
TEST :

 1st the primaries of the

two identical
transformers are
connected in parallel
across the supply V1 and
secondary's are
connected in series
opposition.
 The switch S2 is opened
and switch S1 is closed.
Now the no load current
I0 flows in primaries and
I2 is zero.
ADVANTAGES
 The power required to carry out the test is small.
 The transformers are tested at full-load
conditions.
 As the test results gives the value of core and
copper losses occurring simultaneously so heat
run test can be conducted on two transformers.
 The secondary current(i.e I2) can be varied to
any value using regulating transformer. Hence
we can determine the copper losses at full load
condition or at any load.

Drawbacks
Only limitation is that two identical transformers
are required. In practice exact identical
transformers cannot be obtained and as two
transformers are required, the test is not
economical.
 CONCLUSION:

In many electrical machines its seen that sumpner's

test or back to back test is done in one or other way.
As it is important to test every electrical machines at
its rated capacity and its inconvenient for machines of
large rating to actually fully load the equipment's and
test. So for all electrical machines some form of back
to back test becomes important.
PARALLEL OPERATIONS OF
TRANSFORMER

For supplying a load in excess of the rating of an existing

transformer, two or more transformers may be connected in
parallel with the existing transformer. The transformers are
connected in parallel when load on one of the transformers is
more than its capacity. The reliability is increased with parallel
operation than to have single larger unit. The cost associated
with maintaining the spares is less when two transformers are
connected in parallel.
• It is usually economical to install another
transformer in parallel instead of replacing the
existing transformer by a single larger unit. The
cost of a spare unit in the case of two parallel
transformers (of equal rating) is also lower than
that of a single large transformer. In addition, it
is preferable to have a parallel transformer for
the reason of reliability. With this at least half
the load can be supplied with one transformer
out of service.
CONDITION FOR PARALLEL OPERATION
OF TRANSFORMER

• For parallel connection of transformers, primary

windings of the Transformers are connected to
source bus-bars and secondary windings are
connected to the load bus-bars.
• Various conditions that must be fulfilled for the
successful parallel operation of transformers:
• Same voltage Ratio & Turns Ratio (both primary
and secondary Voltage Rating is same).
• Same Percentage Impedance and X/R ratio.
• Same KVA ratings.
• Same Frequency rating.
• Same Polarity.
 1.SAME VOLTAGE RATIO & TURNS RATIO

• If the transformers connected in parallel have slightly

different voltage ratios, then due to the inequality of
induced emfs in the secondary windings, a circulating
current will flow in the loop formed by the
secondarywindings under the no-load condition, which may
be much greater than the normal no-load current.
• The current will be quite high as the leakage impedance is
low. When the secondary windings are loaded, this
circulating current will tend to produce unequal loading on
the two transformers, and it may not be possible to take the
full load from this group of two parallel transformers (one
of the transformers may get overloaded).
• A small voltage difference may cause sufficiently high
circulating current causing unnecessary extra I2R loss.
• The ratings of both primaries and secondary’s should be
identical.
2. SAME PERCENTAGE IMPEDANCE AND
X/R RATIO

• If two transformers connected in parallel with

similar per-unit impedances they will mostly share
the load in the ration of their KVA ratings. Here Load
is mostly equal because it is possible to have two
transformers with equal per-unit impedances but
different X/R ratios. In this case the line current will
be less than the sum of the transformer currents and
the combined capacity will be reduced accordingly.
• A difference in the ratio of the reactance value to
resistance value of the per unit impedance results in
a different phase angle of the currents carried by the
two paralleled transformers; one transformer will be
working with a higher power factor and the other
with a lower power factor than that of the combined
output. Hence, the real power will not be
proportionally shared by the transformers.
• The current shared by two transformers running in
parallel should be proportional to their MVA ratings.
• The current carried by these transformers are inversely
proportional to their internal impedance.
• From the above two statements it can be said that
impedance of transformers running in parallel are
inversely proportional to their MVA ratings. In other
words percentage impedance or per unit values of
impedance should be identical for all the transformers
run in parallel.
 SAME POLARITY

• Polarity of transformer means the instantaneous direction of

induced emf in secondary. If the instantaneous directions of induced
secondary emf in two transformers are opposite to each other when
same input power is fed to the both of the transformers, the
transformers are said to be in opposite polarity.
• The transformers should be properly connected with regard to their
polarity. If they are connected with incorrect polarities then the two
emfs, induced in the secondary windings which are in parallel, will
act together in the local secondary circuit and produce a short
circuit.
• Polarity of all transformers run in parallel should be same otherwise
huge circulating current flows in the transformer but no load will be
fed from these transformers.
• If the instantaneous directions of induced secondary emf in two
transformers are same when same input power is fed to the both of
the transformers, the transformers are said to be in same polarity.
SAME PHASE SEQUENCE

 The phase sequence of line voltages of both the

transformers must be identical for parallel
operation of three-phase transformers. If the
phase sequence is an incorrect, in every cycle
each pair of phases will get short-circuited.

 This condition must be strictly followed for

parallel operation of transformers.
SAME KVA RATINGS

• If two or more transformer is connected in parallel, then load sharing

% between them is according to their rating. If all are of same rating,
they will share equal loads
• Transformers of unequal kVA ratings will share a load practically
(but not exactly) in proportion to their ratings, providing that the
voltage ratios are identical and the percentage impedances (at their
own kVA rating) are identical, or very nearly so in these cases a total
of than 90% of the sum of the two ratings is normally available.
• It is recommended that transformers, the kVA ratings of which differ
by more than 2:1, should not be operated permanently in parallel.
• Transformers having different kva ratings may operate in parallel,
with load division such that each transformer carries its
proportionate share of the total load To achieve accurate load
division, it is necessary that the transformers be wound with
• the same turns ratio, and that the percent impedance of
all transformers be equal, when each percentage is
expressed on the kva base of its respective transformer. It
is also necessary that the ratio of resistance to reactance
in all transformers be equal. For satisfactory operation
the circulating current for any combinations of ratios and
impedances probably should not exceed ten percent of
the full-load rated current of the smaller unit.
OTHER NECESSARY CONDITION FOR
PARALLEL OPERATION

• All parallel units must be supplied from the same

network.
• Secondary cabling from the transformers to the point of
paralling has approximately equal length and
characteristics.
• Voltage difference between corresponding phase must
not exceed 0.4%
• When the transformers are operated in parallel, the fault
current would be very high on the secondary side.
Supposing percentage impedance of one transformer is
say 6.25 %, the short circuit MVA would be 25.6 MVA
and short circuit current would be 35 kA.
• If the transformers are of same rating and same percentage
impedance, then the downstream short circuit current would be 3
times (since 3 transformers are in Parallel) approximately 105 kA.
This means all the devices like ACBs, MCCBs, switch boards should
withstand the short-circuit current of 105 kA. This is the maximum
current. This current will get reduced depending on the location of
the switch boards, cables and cable length etc. However this aspect
has to be taken into consideration.
• There should be Directional relays on the secondary side of the
transformers.
• The percent impedance of one transformer must be between 92.5%
and 107.5% of the other. Otherwise, circulating currents between the
two transformers would be excessive.
ADVANTAGES OF TRANSFORMER
PARALLEL OPERATION

1) Maximize electrical system efficiency:

• Generally electrical power transformer gives the maximum
efficiency at full load. If we run numbers of transformers in
parallel, we can switch on only those transformers which will
give the total demand by running nearer to its full load rating
for that time.
• When load increases we can switch no one by one other
transformer connected in parallel to fulfil the total demand. In
this way we can run the system with maximum efficiency.
2) Maximize electrical system availability:
• If numbers of transformers run in parallel we can take
shutdown any one of them for maintenance purpose.
Other parallel transformers in system will serve the load
without total interruption of power.
3) Maximize power system reliability:
• If nay one of the transformers run in parallel, is tripped due to
fault other parallel transformers is the system will share the
load hence power supply may not be interrupted if the shared
loads do not make other transformers over loaded.
4) Maximize electrical system flexibility:
• There is a chance of increasing or decreasing future demand of
power system. If it is predicted that power demand will be
increased in future, there must be a provision of connecting
transformers in system in parallel to fulfil the extra demand
because it is not economical from business point of view to install
a bigger rated single transformer by forecasting the increased
future demand as it is unnecessary investment of money.
• Again if future demand is decreased, transformers running in
parallel can be removed from system to balance the capital
investment and its return.
DISADVANTAGES OF TRANSFORMER
PARALLEL OPERATION

 Increasing short-circuit currents that increase necessary

breaker capacity.
 The risk of circulating currents running from one transformer
to another Transformer. Circulating currents that diminish
load capability and increased losses.
 The bus ratings could be too high.

 Paralleling transformers reduces the transformer impedance

significantly, i.e. the parallel transformers may have very low
impedance, which creates the high short circuit currents.
Therefore, some current limiters are needed, e.g. reactors,
fuses, high impedance buses, etc
CONCLUSION

 Loading considerations for paralleling transformers are

simple unless kVA, percent impedances, or ratios are
different. When paralleled transformer turn ratios and
percent impedances are the same, equal load division
will exist on each transformer. When paralleled
transformer kVA ratings are the same, but the percent
impedances are different, then unequal load division will
occur.
 The same is true for unequal percent impedances and
unequal kVA. Circulating currents only exist if the turn
ratios do not match on each transformer. The magnitude
of the circulating currents will also depend on the X/R
ratios of the transformers. Delta-delta to delta-wye
transformer paralleling should not be attempted.
AUTO- TRANSFORMER
WHAT IS TRANSFORMER ??
A transformer is a
static device which is
use to convert high
alternatic voltage to a
low alternatic voltage
and vice versa,
keeping the frequency
same.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
 Transformer works on the
principle of mutual
induction of two coils.
When current in the primary
coil is changed the flux
linked to the secondary coil
also changes. Consequently
an EMF is induced in the
secondary coil.
WHAT IS INDUCTION LAW ??
Faraday’s law states that:
Vs=Ns.dΦ/dt
where VS is the instantaneous
secondry winding voltage.
NS is the number of turns in the
secondary coil.
CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER

Mainly Transformers have

two types of
construction….

• CORE type construction

• SHELL type construction

 A wide variety of transformer designs are used
for different applications.
 Auto-transformer
 Poly-phase transformer
 Instrument transformers
AUTO-TRANSFORMERS
• An autotransformer
(sometimes called auto
step down
transformer)is an
electrical transformer
with only one winding.
The "auto" (Greek for
"self") prefix refers to the
single coil acting on itself
and not to any kind of
automatic mechanism.
THEORY OF AUTOTRANSFORMER

• N1=primary turn(1-3)
• N2=secondary turn(2-3)
• I1=primary current
• I2=secondary current
• V1=primary voltage
• V2=secondary votage

From the above fig. We get

 (I/P=O/P)

OUT PUT
The primary and secondary windings of an
autotransformer are
Connected magnetically as well as electrically.
So the power transferred primary to secondary
inductively as well as conductively.
COPPER SAVING IN AUTO TRANSFORMER
• The same output and voltage transformation
ratio an autotransformer requires less copper
than the 2-winding transformer
TYPES OF AUTOTRANSFORMER
 Step UP Transformer :
A transformer in which
Ns>Np is called a step up
transformer. A step up
transformer is a
transformer which converts
low alternatic voltage to
high alternatic voltage.
 Step DOWNTransformer :

A transformer in which Np>Ns is

called a step down transformer. A
step down transformer is a
transformer which converts high
alternating voltage to low
alternating voltage.
CONVERSION OF 2-WINDING TRANSFORMER INTO
AUTOTRANS FORMER

 ADDITIVE POLARITY (STEP-UP)

 SUBSTRACTIVE POLARITY (STEP DOWN)

ADDITIVE POLARITY

 In
this case common current flow towards the
common terminal
SUBSTRACTIVE POLARITY
 In this case common current flow away from common
terminal
ADVANTAGES
• An autotransformer requires less Cu than a two-winding
transformer of similar rating.
• An autotransformer operates at a higher efficiency than
a two-winding transformer of similar rating.
• An autotransformer has better voltage regulation than
a two-windingtransformer of the same rating.
• An autotransformer has smaller size than a two-
winding transformer of the same rating.
• An autotransformer requires smaller exciting current
than a two-windingtransformer of the same rating.
DISADVANTAGES

• There is a direct connection between the primary and secondary. Therefore,

the output is no longer d.c. isolated from the input.

• An autotransformer is not safe for stepping down a high voltage to a low

voltage. As an illustration.
  Ifan open circuit develops in the common portion of
the winding, then full-primary voltage will appear
across the load. In such a case, any one coming in
contact with the secondary is subjected to high
voltage. This could be dangerous to both the persons
and equipment. For this reason, autotransformers are
prohibited for general use.
• The short-circuit current is much larger than for the two-
winding transformer of the same rating. So that a short-
circuited secondary causes part of the primary also to be
short-circuited. This reduces the effective resistance and
reactance.
APPLICATION
• Autotransformers are used to compensate for voltage
drops in transmission and distribution lines. When
used for this purpose, they are known as booster
transformers.
• Autotransformers are used for reducing the voltage
supplied to a.c.motors during the starting period.
• Autotransformers are used for continuously variable
supply.
• On long rural power distribution lines, special
autotransformers with automatic tap-changing equipment
are inserted as voltage regulators, so that customers at the
far end of the line receive the same average voltage as those
closer to the source. The variable ratio of the
autotransformer compensates for the voltage drop along the
line.
• In control equipment for 1-phase and 3-phase electrical
locomotives.
LIMITATION
 Because it requires both fewer windings and a smaller core,
an autotransformer for power applications is typically lighter
and less costly than a two-winding transformer, up to a
voltage ratio of about 3:1; beyond that range, a two-winding
transformer is usually more economical.
 Like multiple-winding transformers, autotransformers
operate on time-varying magnetic fields and so will not
function with DC.
 A failure of the insulation of the windings of an
autotransformer can result in full input voltage applied to
the output. Also, a break in the part of the winding that is
used as both primary and secondary will result in the
transformer acting as an inductor in series with the load .
CONCLUSION

TO ABOVE STUDY WE CONCLUDE THAT

AUTOTRANSFORMER HAVE LESS AMOUNT OF CU.
LOSS REQUIRED.HIGH EFFICIENCY,POSSIBLE TO
GET SMOOTH AND CONTINUOES VARIATION
VOLTAGE.
 UNIT- III

POLYPHASE TRANSFORMERS
 INTRODUCTION

• The transformers may be inherently 3-

phase,
having three primary windings and three
secondary windings mounted on a 3-legged
core.
• The same result can be achieved by using
three single-phase transformers connected
together to form a 3-phase transformer bank.
 1. BASIC PROPERTIES OF 3-
PHASE TRANSFORMER BANK

• When three single-phase transformers are used to transform a 3-

phase voltage, the windings can be connected in several ways.  the
ratio of the 3-phase input voltage to the 3-phase output voltage
depends not only upon the turns ratio of the transformers, but also
upon how they are connected.

• A 3-phase transformer bank can also produce a phase shift between

the 3-phase input voltage and the 3-phase output voltage. The amount
of phase shift depends upon
- the turns ratio of the transformers
- how the primaries and secondaries are interconnected
 BASIC PROPERTIES OF 3-PHASE
TRANSFORMER BANK

• The phase shift feature enables us to change the number of

phases  a 3-phase system can be converted into a 2-phase, a 5-
phase, a 6-phase, or a 12-phase system by an appropriate choice of
single-phase transformers and interconnections.
 BASIC PROPERTIES OF 3-PHASE
TRANSFORMER BANK

• The basic behavior of balanced 3-phase transformer banks is

basedon the following simplifying assumptions:

(1) The exciting currents are negligible.

(2) The transformer impedances, due to the resistance
and leakage reactance of the windings, are negligible.
(3) The total apparent input power to the transformer
bank is equal to the total apparent output
power.
2. DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION

Fig.1 Delta-delta connection of three

single-phase transformers. The incoming
lines (source) are A, B, C and the outgoing
lines (load) are 1, 2, 3.
DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION

Fig.2 Schematic diagram of a delta-delta

connection
 DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION

• In such a delta-delta connection, the voltages between the respective

incoming and outgoing transmission lines are in phase.

• If a balanced load is connected to lines 1-2-3, the resulting line

currents are equal in magnitude. This produces balanced line currents
in the incoming lines A-B-C.

• The power rating of the transformer bank is three times the rating
of a single transformer.
 DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION
• Example 1
DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION
DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION
DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION
3. DELTA-WYE CONNECTION

Fig.3 Delta-wye connection of three single-

phase
transformers.
DELTA-WYE CONNECTION

Fig.4 Schematic diagram of a delta- wye

connection and associated phasor diagram.
 DELTA-WYE CONNECTION
• The voltage across each primary winding is equal to the incoming
line voltage.

• However, the outgoing line voltage is 3 times the secondary voltage

across each transformer.

• The line currents in phases A, B and C are 3 times the currents in

the primary windings.

•A delta-wye connection produces a 30° phase shift between the line

voltages of the incoming and outgoing transmission lines
 DELTA-WYE CONNECTION

• If the outgoing line feeds an isolated group of loads, the

phase shift creates no problem. But, if the outgoing line has to be
connected in parallel with a line coming from another source, the 30°
shift may make such a parallel connection impossible, even if the line
voltages are otherwise identical.

• One of the important advantages of the wye connection is that it

reduces the amount of insulation needed inside the transformer. The
HV winding has to be insulated for only 1/3, or 58 percent of the line
voltage.
 DELTA-WYE CONNECTION

• Example 2
DELTA-WYE CONNECTION

Fig.
5
DELTA-WYE CONNECTION
 4. WYE-DELTA CONNECTION

• The currents and voltages in a wye-delta connection are identical to

those in the delta-wye connection. The primary and secondary
connections are simply interchanged.

• There results a 30° phase shift between the voltages of the incoming
and outgoing lines.
 5. WYE-WYE CONNECTION
• When transformers are connected in wye-wye, special
precautions have to be taken to prevent severe distortion of the line-
to-neutral voltages.
(1) connect the neutral of the primary to the neutral of the source,
usually by way of the ground

Fig.6 Wye-wye connection with neutral of the primary connected to the neutral
of the source.
 WYE-WYE CONNECTION
(2) provide each transformer with a third winding,
called tertiary winding.

Fig.7 Wye-wye connection using a tertiary

winding.
 WYE-WYE CONNECTION

• Note that there is no phase shift between the incoming

and outgoing transmission line voltages of
a wye-wye connected transformer.
 6. OPEN-DELTA CONNECTION

• It is possible to transform the voltage of a 3-phase system by

using only 2 transformers, connected in open-delta.

• The open-delta arrangement is identical to a delta-delta

connection, except that one transformer is absent.

• The open-delta connection is seldom used because the load

capacity of the transformer bank is only 86.6 percent
of the installed transformer capacity.
 OPEN-DELTA CONNECTION

• The open-delta connection is mainly used in emergency

situations. Thus, if three transformers are connected in delta-delta
and one of them becomes defective and has to be removed, it is
possible to feed the load on a temporary basis with the two
remaining transformers.

Fig.8a Open-delta
connection.
 OPEN-DELTA CONNECTION
• Example 3
OPEN-DELTA CONNECTION
• The current Is in lines 1, 2, 3 cannot, therefore, exceed 250
A (Fig.8b). Consequently, the maximum load that the
transformers can carry is

Fig.8b Open-delta connection Associated schematic and phasor

diagram.
OPEN-DELTA CONNECTION
 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

• A transformer bank composed of three single-phase transformers

may be replaced by one 3-phase transformer.

• For a given total capacity, a 3-phase transformer is always

smaller and cheaper than three single-phase transformers.

• Nevertheless, single-phase transformers are sometimes

preferred, particularly when a replacement unit is essential.
THREE-PHASE TO 2-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION

• The voltages in a 2-phase system are equal but displaced

from each other by 90°.

• There are several ways to create a 2-phase system from a 3-

phase source.
(1) Use a single-phase autotransformer having taps at 50
percent and 86.6 percent.
(2) Scott connection.
THREE-PHASE TO 2-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION (ต่อ)
(1) Use a single-phase autotransformer having taps at 50 percent
and 86.6 percent.

Fig.1
5
THREE-PHASE TO 2-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION (ต่อ)

• The ratio of transformation (3-phase voltage to

2-phase voltage) is fixed and given by EAB/EAT =
100/86.6 = 1.15.
THREE-PHASE TO 2-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION

• The Scott connection has the advantage of isolating the 3-phase

and 2-phase systems and providing any desired voltage ratio
between them.

• Except for servomotor applications, 2-phase systems are seldom

encountered today.
THREE-PHASE TO 2-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION
(2) Scott
connection : It
consists of two
identical single-
phase
transformers, the
one having a 50
percent tap and
the other an 86.6
percent tap on the
primary winding.

Fig.1
6
 THREE-PHASE TO 2-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION

Example 5: A 2-phase, 7.5 kW (10 hp), 240 V, 60 Hz motor has an

efficiency of 0.83 and a power factor of 0.80. It is to be fed from a
600 V, 3-phase line using a Scott-connected transformer bank
(Figure 16c).

Calculate
(a) The apparent power drawn by the motor
(b) The current in each 2-phase line
(c) The current in each 3-phase line
THREE-PHASE TO 2-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION
THREE-PHASE TO 2-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION

Fig.16
c
THREE-PHASE TO 2-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION
Scott Connection
 OBJECTIVES
On The Completion Of This Period
You Will Be Able To Know
The Scott Connection
Advantage And Disadvantages

Application Of Scott Connection

 SCOTT CONNECTIONS
 Scott Connections:-a Scott- T-transformer Calso
Called A Scott Connections Is A Type Of Circuit
Used To Derive Three-phase(3- ) Current From A
Two Phase Source Or Vice-verse
 Can Be Used For 3 Phase To Two Phase
Connections Also
 3-P TO 3-P COVERSION
Connection Consists Of A Center –
 Scott-t-t
Tapped 1:1 Ration Main Transformer And
An86.6%(0.5 *1.73)ratio Teaser Trensformer

Cont……
 One End Of The Teaser Transformer Is Joined To The
Center Tap Of The Main Transformer

 Current In Teaser Transformer Is In Phase With

Voltage
 Current Leads The Voltage By 30in Half Portion Of
Main Transformer And Lays The Voltage By 30 In The
Rest Of The Winding
3-PHASE TO 2-PHASE CONVERSION

 This Conversion Is Required To Supply Two Phase Furnaces

 To Link Two –Phase Circait With 3-phase System And Also
To Supply A 3-phase Appartus From A 2-phase Supply
Source
 The Connection reqires 2 transformer Whice May Be
Identical But Having Suitable Tapings
3-PHASE TO 2-PHASE CONVERSION
CONNECTION DIAGRAMS
If The Secondary Of Both The Transformes Have
The Some Unmbe Of Turns ,Then Secondary Voltage
Will Be Equal In Magnitade Thus Resuiting In A
Symmetrical 2-phase ,3-wire Sysem
conn…..
 The No. Of Turns Between A And D Should Be Also
(1.73/2) N, For Making Voltage Turn The Same In
Both Primaries
 Then For Secondary Having Equal Turns The
Secondary Terminal Voltages Will Be Equal In
Magnitude Although In Phase Quadrature
3-PHASE TO 2-PHASE CONVERSION
ADVANTAGES OF SCOTT CONNECTIVE
 The Scott Connection Evenly Distributes a
Balanced Load Between The Phase Of The
Source
 Trans Formers Can Deliver 92.8% Of Their
Capacity
 There Is A Cost Saving Due to the 2-coil T
Connection to the traditional three –Coil Primary
to 3 Coil Secondary Transformer
 With the help Of two transformer 3-phase Supply
Can Be Maintained
DISADVANTAGES OF SCOTT CONNECTION

 The Full Rating Of The Transformers Is Not

Utilized
 The Teaser Trans Former Operates At Only
0.866 Of Its Rated Voltage
 UNIT - IV

POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Construction
 Partsof induction motor
 Rotor construction
 Rotating magnetic field(RMF)
 Principle of operation
 Equivalent circuit
 Power losses
 Power flow in induction motor
 Torque speed characteristics
 Speed control
 Advantage
 Application.
INTRODUCTION
 Induction Motors transform electrical energy
into mechanical energy.
 simple design, Cheap,robust, low-price, easy
maintenance.
 wide range of power ratings: fraction
horsepower to 10 MW
 run essentially as constant speed from no-
load to full load.
 Its speed depends on the frequency of the
power source.
CONSTRUCTION
 The three basic parts of an Induction motor are the
rotor, stator, and enclosure.
 The stator and the rotor are electrical circuits that
perform as electromagnets.
PARTS OF INDUCTION MOTOR
 Slots Tooth

Stator Stamping
Stator has three main parts:

 Outer Frame – It is the outer body of the of the

motor.
It protects the inner part of the machine.
 Stator Core – Built up of high grade silicon steel.
Carries the alternating magnetic field.
 Stator winding – Has a three phase winding.
ROTOR CONSTRUCTION
 The rotor is the rotating part of the
electromagnetic circuit.
 It can be found in two types:
 Squirrel cage
 Wound rotor

 However, the most common type of rotor is the

“squirrel cage” rotor.
Fig.1.Squirrel cage Fig.2.Wound rotor
rotor
SQUIRREL
CAGE
ROTOR
 It consists of a laminated cylindrical core
having semi closed circular slots at the outer
periphery.
 Copper or aluminum bar conductors are placed
in these slots and short circuited at each end by
copper or aluminum rings called short
circuiting rings.
 The rotor winding is permanently short
circuited and it is not possible to add any
external resistance.
 Therotor slots are not parallel to the shaft but
skewed to –

 Reduce humming .

 Provide smoother torque for different positions of

rotor.

 Reduce magnetic locking of stator and rotor.

PHASE
WOUND
ROTOR
 It is also called SLIP RING ROTOR

 Consists of a laminated core having semi closed slots

at the outer periphery and carries a 3-phase insulated
winding.

 The rotor is wound for the same number of poles as

that of stator.

 The three finish terminals are connected together

forming a star point and the three star terminals are
connected to three slip rings fixed on the shaft.
ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD
 When a 3 phase stator winding is connected to a 3
phase voltage supply, 3 phase current will flow in the
windings, which also will induced 3 phase flux in the
stator.
 These flux will rotate at a speed called a synchronous
speed, ns. The flux is called as rotating magnetic field
 Synchronous speed: speed of rotating flux

120 f
ns 
p
 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD
• Balanced three phase windings,
i.e. mechanically displaced 120
degrees form each other, fed by
balanced three phase source
• A rotating magnetic field with
constant magnitude is produced,
rotating with a speed

120 f e
nsync  rpm
P
Where fe is the supply frequency and
P is the no. of poles and nsync is
called the synchronous speed in
rpm (revolutions per minute)
ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD
ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
• When a 3 phase stator winding is connected to a 3 phase voltage
supply, 3 phase current will flow in the windings, hence the stator is
energized.
• A rotating flux φ is produced in the air gap. The flux Φ induces a
voltage ea in the rotor winding (like a transformer).
• The induced voltage produces rotor current, if rotor circuit is closed.
• The rotor current interacts with the flux φ, producing torque. The rotor
rotates in the direction of the rotating flux.
INDUCTION MOTOR SPEED
• At what speed will the IM run?
– Can the IM run at the synchronous speed, why?
– If rotor runs at the synchronous speed, which is the
same speed of the rotating magnetic field, then the
rotor will appear stationary to the rotating magnetic
field and the rotating magnetic field will not cut the
rotor. So, no induced current will flow in the rotor
and no rotor magnetic flux will be produced so no
torque is generated and the rotor speed will fall
below the synchronous speed
– When the speed falls, the rotating magnetic field will
cut the rotor windings and a torque is produced
INDUCTION MOTOR SPEED
• So, the IM will always run at a speed
lower than the synchronous speed
• The difference between the motor speed
and the synchronous speed is called the
Slip
nslip  nsync  nm
Where nslip= slip speed
nsync= speed of the magnetic field
nm = mechanical shaft speed of the
motor
THE SLIP

nsync  nm
s
nsync
Where s is the slip
Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying
the above eq. by 100, notice that the slip is a ratio and
doesn’t have units
INDUCTION MOTORS AND TRANSFORMERS
• Both IM and transformer works on the
principle of induced voltage
– Transformer: voltage applied to the primary
windings produce an induced voltage in the
secondary windings
– Induction motor: voltage applied to the stator
windings produce an induced voltage in the rotor
windings
– The difference is that, in the case of the induction
motor, the secondary windings can move
– Due to the rotation of the rotor (the secondary
winding of the IM), the induced voltage in it does
not have the same frequency of the stator (the
primary) voltage
FREQUENCY
• The frequency of the voltage induced in
the rotor is given by P  n
fr 
120
Where fr = the rotor frequency (Hz)
P = number of stator poles
n = slip speed (rpm)
P  (ns  nm )
fr 
120
P  sns
  sf e
120
FREQUENCY
• What would be the frequency of the rotor’s
induced voltage at any speed nm?

fr  s fe
• When the rotor is blocked (s=1) , the
frequency of the induced voltage is equal
to the supply frequency
• On the other hand, if the rotor runs at
synchronous speed (s = 0), the frequency
will be zero

E QUIVALENT CIRCUIT
The induction motor is similar to the transformer with the exception that its secondary
windings are free to rotate

As we noticed in the transformer, it is easier if we can combine these two circuits in one circuit but there are some
difficulties
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 When the rotor is locked (or blocked), i.e. s =1, the
largest voltage and rotor frequency are induced in the
rotor, Why?
 On the other side, if the rotor rotates at synchronous
speed, i.e. s = 0, the induced voltage and frequency in
the rotor will be equal to zero, Why?

ER  sER 0
Where ER0 is the largest value of the rotor’s induced voltage
obtained at s = 1(loacked rotor)
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 The same is true for the frequency, i.e.
fr  s fe
 It is known that
X   L  2 f L
 So, as the frequency of the induced voltage in the rotor
changes, the reactance of the rotor circuit also changes
Where Xr0 is the rotor reactance
X r  r Lr  2 f r Lr
at the supply frequency
(at blocked rotor)  2 sf e Lr
 sX r 0
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 Then, we can draw the rotor equivalent circuit as
follows

Where ER is the induced voltage in the rotor and RR is

the rotor resistance
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 Now we can calculate theErotor current as
IR  R

( RR  jX R )
sER 0

( RR  jsX R 0 )
 Dividing both the numerator and denominator by
s so nothing changes we get
ER 0
IR 
RR
(  jX R 0 )
s
Where ER0 is the induced voltage and XR0 is the rotor
reactance at blocked rotor condition (s = 1)
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 Now we can have the rotor equivalent circuit
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 Now as we managed to solve the induced voltage
and different frequency problems, we can
combine the stator and rotor circuits in one
equivalent circuit
Where

X 2  aeff
2
X R0
R2  aeff
2
RR
IR
I2 
aeff
E1  aeff ER 0
NS
aeff 
NR
POWER LOSSES IN INDUCTION MACHINES
 Copper losses
 Copper loss in the stator (PSCL) = I12R1
 Copper loss in the rotor (PRCL) = I22R2

 Core loss (Pcore)

 Mechanical power loss due to friction and
windage
 How this power flow in the motor?
POWER FLOW IN INDUCTION MOTOR
POWER RELATIONS

Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 Vph I ph cos 

PSCL  3 I12 R1

PAG  Pin  ( PSCL  Pcore )

PRCL  3I 22 R2
Pconv  PAG  PRCL
Pconv
Pout  Pconv  ( Pf  w  Pstray )  ind 
m
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 We can rearrange the equivalent circuit as
follows

Actual Resistance
rotor equivalent to
resistance mechanical load
POWER RELATIONS

Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 Vph I ph cos 

PSCL  3 I12 R1
R2 PRCL
PAG  Pin  ( PSCL  Pcore )  Pconv  PRCL  3I 2
2 
s s
PRCL  3I 22 R2
PRCL (1  s)
Pconv  PAG  PRCL  3I 22 R2 (1  s) 
s s
Pconv  (1  s) PAG
Pconv (1  s) PAG
Pout  Pconv  ( Pf  w  Pstray )  ind  
m (1  s)s
POWER RELATIONS
PAG Pconv
1 1-
s

PRCL
s
PAG : PRCL : Pconv
1 : s : 1-s
TORQUE, POWER AND THEVENIN’S
THEOREM
 Thevenin’s theorem can be used to transform the
network to the left of points ‘a’ and ‘b’ into an
equivalent voltage source VTH in series with
equivalent impedance RTH+jXTH
TORQUE, POWER AND THEVENIN’S
THEOREM

jX M XM
VTH  Vf | VTH || Vf |
R1  j ( X 1  X M ) R12  ( X 1  X M )2
RTH  jX TH  ( R1  jX1 ) // jX M
TORQUE, POWER AND THEVENIN’S
THEOREM
 Since XM>>X1 and XM>>R1

XM
VTH  Vf
X1  X M
 Because XM>>X1 and XM+X1>>R1

2
 XM 
RTH  R1  
 X1  X M 
X TH  X 1
TORQUE, POWER AND THEVENIN’S
THEOREM
VTH VTH
I2  
ZT  R2 
2

 TH
R    ( X TH  X 2 ) 2

 s 
Then the power converted to mechanical (Pconv)
R2 (1  s)
Pconv  3I2
2
s
And the internal mechanical torque (Tconv)
2 R2
Pconv Pconv 3I
2 PAG
 ind    s 
m (1  s)s s s
TORQUE, POWER AND THEVENIN’S
THEOREM
2
 
 
3  VTH   R2 
 ind     s 
s 
  
2
 R  R2   ( X  X )2
  TH s  TH 2 
 

2  R2 
3V  
TH
 ind 
1  s 
s  R2 
2

 RTH    ( X TH  X 2 ) 2
 s 
MAXIMUM TORQUE
 Maximum torque occurs when the power
transferred to R2/s is maximum.
 This condition occurs when R2/s equals the
magnitude of the impedance RTH + j (XTH + X2)

R2
 RTH
2
 ( X TH  X 2 )2
sTmax
R2
sTmax 
2
RTH  ( X TH  X 2 )2
MAXIMUM TORQUE
 The corresponding maximum torque of an induction
motor equals

1  2
3VTH 
 max   
2s  RTH  RTH
2
 ( X  X ) 2 
 TH 2 
The slip at maximum torque is directly proportional to
the rotor resistance R2

The maximum torque is independent of R2

MAXIMUM TORQUE
 Rotor resistance can be increased by inserting
external resistance in the rotor of a wound-rotor
induction motor.
The
value of the maximum torque remains unaffected
but
the speed at which it occurs can be controlled.
MAXIMUM TORQUE

Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed

characteristic
TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
COMMENTS
1. The induced torque is zero at synchronous speed.
Discussed earlier.
2. The curve is nearly linear between no-load and full
load. In this range, the rotor resistance is much
greater than the reactance, so the rotor current,
torque increase linearly with the slip.
3. There is a maximum possible torque that can’t be
exceeded. This torque is called pullout torque and is
2 to 3 times the rated full-load torque.
COMMENTS
4. The starting torque of the motor is slightly
higher than its full-load torque, so the motor
will start carrying any load it can supply at full
load.
5. The torque of the motor for a given slip varies
as the square of the applied voltage.
6. If the rotor is driven faster than synchronous
speed it will run as a generator, converting
mechanical power to electric power.
 UNIT- V

CHARACTERISTICS
OF
INDUCTION MOTORS
NEED OF DEEP BAR DOUBLE CAGE ROTOR
DEEP BAR ROTOR
DEEP BAR ROTOR
SPEED- TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS
DOUBLE CAGE ROTOR
SLIP- TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS
3 PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR STARTER
STARTER
 NEED OF STARTER

• If a rated stator voltage is applied to the motor at the time of starting,

then the motor will draw heavy starting current.
• This will lead to excess i2R losses in the winding which will overheat
the motor.
• Secondly due to a heavy current drawn from the AC supply voltage
will reduce.
• The heavy starting current may damage the motor windings.
• In order to avoid these problems, we can use some kind of a starter to
start the induction motor safely.
 TYPES OF STARTER
• Stator resistance starter
• Auto transformer starting
• Star-delta starter
• Rotor resistance starter
• Direct on line (DOL) starter
TYPES OF STARTER FOR 3-PH INDUCTION MOTORS

 For slip-ring induction motors:

 Rotor rheostat starter

 For squirrel cage induction motors:

 D.O.L starter
 Stator resistance starter

 Auto transformer starter

 Star delta starter

STATOR RESISTANCE STARTER
• A starter resistance is connected in each line in series with
each phase winding of the stator.
• Initially all the starter resistance are kept in “Start” position so
that they offer their maximum resistance .
• The switch is turned ON to connect the three phase AC supply
to the stator winding.
• Due to starter resistance in series, each phase winding will
receive a reduced voltage. Due to reduction in the value of V1
, the starting current is limited to a safe value.
• As the motor accelerates, the starter resistance is reduced by
moving the variable contact of the resistance towards the
“Run” position.
• In the “Run” position, the starter resistance is shorted out and
full stator voltage is applied across the stator winding.
 AUTO-TRANSFORMER STARTER
• An autotransformer is used to apply a low voltage to the stator
winding at the time of starting. When the motor speed reaches
the desired level, autotransformer is disconnected and motor is
connected directly across the supply.
• The stator of the motor is connected through a 6-way
double throw switch.
• While starting, the switch is thrown to ‘Start’ side so that a
reduced voltage is applied to stator. This keeps the starting
current safe limits.
• Once motor take up the speed, the switch is throw to ‘Run’
side so that full supply voltage is applied to stator.
• A specific advantage of this starter is that reduction in
voltage during starting, can be done to any desired level by
selecting proper tapping of the autotransformer.
AUTO-TRANSFORMER STARTER
 STAR DELTA STARTER

• Most induction motors are started directly on line, but when

very large motors are started that way, they cause a
disturbance of voltage on the supply lines due to large starting
current surges.
• To limit the starting current surge, large induction motors are
started at reduced voltage and then have full supply voltage
reconnected when they run up to near rotated speed.
STAR-DELTA STARTER
 This is very commonly used starter, compared to the other
types of the starters.
 Star-delta starter can be used, provided the stator of the 3-Ø
induction motor is designed for delta connection during its
normal operation.
 At starting, the stator winding is connected in star, therefore the
applied voltage to each phase of winding is 1/√3 of the rated
voltage of the motor.
 When the motor has picked-up the speed(say 70 to 80% of its
normal speed ) the phases of the stator winding are connected
in delta.
 Now full supply voltage is applied across the stator windings.
 This method is cheap but limited to applications where high
starting torque is not necessary e.g., machine tools, pumps,
motor-generator sets etc.

 The method is unsuitable for motors for voltage exceeding

3000 V because of the excessive number of stator turns needed
for delta connection.

 Such starters are employed for starting 3-phase squirrel cage

induction motors of rating between 4 and 20 k W.
ADVANTAGES OF STAR-DELTA STARTER:

 The operation of the star-delta method is simple and rugged

 It is relatively cheap compared to other reduced voltage
methods.
 Good Torque/Current Performance.

 It draws 2 times starting current of the full load ampere of the

motor connected
 MOTOR STARTING CHARACTERISTICS OF
STAR-DELTA STARTER:

• Available starting current: 33% Full Load Current.

• Peak starting current: 1.3 to 2.6 Full Load Current.

• Peak starting torque: 33% Full Load Torque.

 DISADVANTAGES OF STAR-DELTA
STARTER:

• Low Starting Torque, only 33% starting torque

• Break In Supply – Possible Transients
• Six Terminal Motor Required (Delta Connected).
• It requires 2 set of cables from starter to motor.
• The delta of motor is formed in starter and not on motor
terminals.
• Applications with a load torque higher than 50 % of the motor
rated torque will not be able to start using the start-delta
starter.
• Low Starting Torque: reduction of the line voltage by a
factor of 1/√3 (57.7%) to the motor and the current is reduced
to 1/3 of the current at full voltage, but the starting torque is
also reduced 1/3 to 1/5 of the DOL starting torque .
 MOTOR STARTING CHARACTERISTICS ON
DOL STARTER:

• Available starting current: 100%.

• Peak starting current: 6 to 8 Full Load Current.
• Peak starting torque: 100%
 ADVANTAGES OF DOL STARTER:

• Most Economical and Cheapest Starter

• Simple to establish, operate and maintain
• Simple Control Circuitry
• Easy to understand and trouble‐shoot.
• It provides 100% torque at the time of starting.
• Only one set of cable is required from starter to motor.
• Motor is connected in delta at motor terminals.
 DISADVANTAGES OF DOL STARTER:

• It does not reduce the starting current of the motor.

• High Starting Current: Very High Starting Current
(Typically 6 to 8 times the FLC of the motor).
• Mechanically Harsh: Thermal Stress on the motor, thereby
reducing its life.
• Voltage Dip: There is a big voltage dip in the electrical
installation
• High starting Torque: Unnecessary high starting torque,
even when not required by the load.
 SUITABILITY

• DOL is Suitable for:

• Small water pumps, compressors, fans and conveyor belts.
• Motor rating up to 5.5KW
• DOL is not suitable for:
• The peak starting current would result in a serious voltage
drop on the supply system
• Motor rating above 5.5KW
ROTOR RESISTANCE STARTER

•This starter is used with a wound rotor induction motor. It

uses an external resistance/phase in the rotor circuit so that
rotor will develop a high value of torque.
•High torque is produced at low speeds, when the external
resistance is at its higher value.
•At start, supply power is connected to stator through a
three pole contactor and, at a same time, an external rotor
resistance is added.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DOL/STAR DELTA
/AUTOTRANSFORMER
Sr DOL Starter Star delta starter Auto transformer
. starter
1 Used up to 5 HP Used 5 HP to 20HP Used above 20 HP

2 Does not decrease Decreases the starting current Decreases the starting
the starting current by 1/3 times current as required

3 It is cheap It is costly It is more costly

4 It connects directly It connects the motor first in It connects the motor
the motor with star at the time of starting in according to the taping
supply for starting delta for running taken out from the auto
as well as for transformer
running
DETERMINATION OF
INDUCTION-MOTOR PARAMETERS
 DC Test
 Determines R1
 Connect any two stator leads to a variable-voltage DC
power supply
 Adjust the power supply to provide rated stator
current
 Determine the resistance from the voltmeter and
ammeter readings

249
 VDC
RDC 
I DC

250
FOR A Y-CONNECTED STATOR

251
RDC  2 R1, wye
RDC
R1, wye 
2
FOR A DELTA-CONNECTED STATOR

252
R1  2 R1 2
RDC   R1
R1  2 R1 3
R1  1.5RDC
DETERMINATION OF
INDUCTION-MOTOR PARAMETERS
 Blocked-Rotor Test
 Determine X1 and X2
 Determines R2 when combined with data from the
DC Test
 Block the rotor so that it will not turn
 Connect to a variable-voltage AC supply and adjust
until the blocked-rotor current is equal to the rated
current

253
254
SIMPLIFIED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

255
Neglect the exciting current under blocked-rotor
conditions – remove the parallel branch
IEEE test code recommends that the blocked-rotor
test be made using 25% rated frequency with the
test voltage adjusted to obtain approximately rated
current.
A 60-Hz motor would use a 15-Hz test voltage.
The calculated reactance is corrected to 60-Hz by
multiplying by 60/15. 256

Calculated resistance is correct.

R1  R2  RBR ,15
VBR ,15
Z BR ,15 
I BR ,15
PBR ,15
RBR ,15  2
I BR ,15

R2  RBR ,15  R1
257
Z BR ,15  RBR
2
,15  X 2
BR ,15

X BR ,15  Z BR
2
,15  R 2
BR ,15

60
X BR ,60  X BR ,15
15
X BR ,60  X 1  X 2
258
HOW IS THE BLOCKED-ROTOR
IMPEDANCE DIVIDED?
X BR,60  X1  X 2

259
If the NEMA-design letter of the motor is known,
use Table 5.10 to divide the impedances. Otherwise,
divide the impedances equally.
DETERMINATION OF
INDUCTION-MOTOR PARAMETERS
 No-Load Test
 Determine the magnetizing reactance, XM and
combined core, friction, and windage losses.
 Connect as for blocked-rotor test (next slide).
 The rotor is unblocked and allowed to run unloaded
at rated voltage and rated frequency.

260
Electrical connection for the No-Load Test is the
same as for the Blocked-Rotor Test

261
DETERMINATION OF
INDUCTION-MOTOR PARAMETERS
 At no-load, the speed is very close to synchronous
speed – the slip is =0, causing the current in R2/s
to be very small, and will be ignored i the
calculations.
 IM>>Ife, so I0 = IM.

262
The equivalent circuit for the no-load test is shown.

Ignore

263
 S NL  VNL I NL
S NL  PNL
2
 QNL
2

QNL  S NL
2
 PNL
2

QNL  I NL
2
X NL
QNL
X NL  2
I NL
X NL  X 1  X M

Substitute X1 from the blocked-rotor test to

determine the value of XM.
264
EXAMPLE 5.16
 The following data were obtained from no-load,
blocked-rotor, and DC tests of a three-phase,
wye-connected, 40-hp, 60-Hz, 460-V, design B
induction motor whose rated current is 57.8A.
The blocked-rotor test was made at 15 Hz.

265
Blocked-Rotor No-Load DC
Vline = 36.2V Vline = 460.0V VDC = 12.0V
Iline = 58.0A Iline = 32.7A IDC = 59.0A
P3phase = 2573.4W P3phase = 4664.4W

a) Determine R1, X1, R2, X2, XM, and the combined

core, friction, and windage loss.
b) Express the no-load current as a percent of rated
current.

266
Convert the AC test data to corresponding phase
values for a wye-connected motor.

2573.4W
PBR ,15   857.80W
3
36.2V
VBR ,15   20.90V
3
I BR ,15  58.0 A
4664.4W
PNL   1554.80W
3
460V
VNL   265.581V
3
I NL  32.7 A 267
Determine R1

VDC 12.0V
RDC    0.2034
I DC 59.0 A
RDC
R1, wye   0.102 / phase
2

Determine R2
VBR ,15 20.90V
Z BR ,15    0.3603 / phase
I BR ,15 58.0 A
PBR ,15 857.8W
RBR ,15  2
 2
 0.2550 / phase
I BR ,15 (58 A)
R2  RBR ,15  R1, wye  0.2550  0.102  0.153 / phase 268
 Determination of X1 and X2

X BR ,15  Z BR
2
,15  R 2
BR ,15  (0.3603) 2
 (0.255) 2
 0.2545
60 60
X BR ,60  X BR ,15  (0.2545)  1.0182
15 15

From Table 5.10, for a design B machine,

X1 = 0.4XBR,60 = 0.4(1.0182) = 0.4073Ω/phase
X2 = 0.6XBR,60 = 0.6(1.0182) = 0.6109/phase

269
 Determination of XM

S NL  VNL I NL  (265.581V )(32.7 A)  8684.50VA

QNL  S NL
2
 PNL
2
 (8684.50)2  (1554.8)2  8544.19VARS
QNL 8544.19
X NL  2  2
 7.99
I NL (32.7)
X NL  X 1  X M
X M  X NL  X 1  7.99  0.4073  7.58 / phase

270
Determination of combined friction, windage, and
core loss:

PNL  I NL
2
R1, wye  Pcore  Pf , w
1554.8  (32.7) 2 (0.102)  Pcore  Pf , w
Pcore  Pf , w  1446W / phase
b) Express the no-load current as a percent of rated
current.

I NL 32.7
% I NL  100%  100%  56.6%
I rated 57.8
271
CIRCLE DIAGRAM
Tests required

 No load test
 Blocked Rotor test

272
273
274
275
 UNIT-VI

Speed control METHODS

Speed control of three
phase induction motor

277
 Agenda

 Introduction
 Requirement of Speed control

 Types of Methods to control the speed of Induction motor

 Advantages & disadvantages

 Industrial applications of AC drives

 Conclusion

 Research
 INTRODUCTION
 A three phase induction motor is basically a
constant speed motor .
 It is widely used in industry due to low cost and
rugged construction .
 The speed control of induction motor is done at
the cost of decrease in efficiency and low
electrical power factor.
REQUIREMENT OF SPEED
CONTROL
 Speed control means change the drive speed as
desired by the process to maintain different
process parameter at different load .
 Energy Saving.

 Speed control is a different concept from speed

regulation where there is natural change in
speed due change in load on the shaft.
 Speed control is either done manually by the
operator or by means of some automatic control
device.
 Low speed starting requirement.
 METHODS OF SPEED CONTROL OF
INDUCTION MOTORS
 Stator voltage Control
 Stator Frequency Control
 Stator Current Control
 V/F Control
 Static rotor resistance control
STATOR VOLTAGE CONTROL
 Synchronous speed Ns = 120 f
P
 Slip = Ns-N
Ns

 Torque =

 Where E2 is the rotor emf

 Ns is the synchronous speed
 R2 is the rotor resistance
 X2 is the rotor inductive reactance
CONTINUE…..
 Rotor resistance R2 is constant and if slip s is small then sX2 is
so small that it can be neglected. Therefore, T ∝ sE22 where
E2 is rotor induced emf and E2 ∝ V
And hence T ∝ V2, thus if supplied voltage is decreased,
torque decreases and hence the speed decreases.
 This method is the easiest and cheapest, still rarely used
because-
 A large change in supply voltage is required for relatively
small change in speed.
 Large change in supply voltage will result in large change in
flux density, hence disturbing the magnetic conditions of the
motor.
 Variable Terminal Voltage Control

m
TL
ms V decreasing

T
FREQUENCY CONTROL

 Synchronous speed of induction motor Ns = 120 f

P

 where, f = frequency of the supply and P = number of stator

poles.
 Thus, synchronous speed changes with change in supply
frequency, and thus running speed also changes.
 This method is not widely used. This method is used where,
only the induction motor is supplied by a generator (so that
frequency can be easily change by changing the speed of
prime mover).
CONTINUE…..
 By changing the frequency we can control the speed above
and below the rated speed.
 It offers high range of speed control.
STATOR CURRENT CONTROL

 Starting torque of IM Ts is proportional to square of stator

current.
 It is independent of supply frequency.
 It is independent of rotor resistance.
CONTINUES…..
 A constant current for 3 phase IM can be obtained from 3
phase CSI .

 Inductor convert the dc voltage as constant current source.

 CSI regulate the output frequency and hence torque of

induction motor.
HOW SPEED IS CONTROLLED
USING VFD
 Rectifier:
 The rectifier in a VFD is used to convert incoming ac
power into direct current (dc) power.
 DC bus:
 DC output of rectifier flows through the dc link to inverter
input.
 Inverter:
 The “Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor” (IGBT) is a
common choice in modern VFDs.
 The IGBT can switch on and off several thousand times per
second and precisely control the power delivered to the
motor.
 The IGBT uses a method named “pulse width modulation”
(PWM) to simulate a current sine wave at the desired
frequency to the motor.
STATIC ROTOR RESISTENCE
CONTROL
 A slip ring motor or a phase wound motor is an
induction motor which can be started with full
line voltage, applied across its stator terminals.
The value of starting current is adjusted by
adding up external resistance to its rotor circuit.

290
CONTINUE…..
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
AC DRIVES
Advantages of ac drives
 For the same rating, ac drives are lighter in weight as
compared to dc drive.
 AC drive require low maintenance.

 AC drives are less expensive.

 Provides the most efficient means of motor speed control.

 Reduces the thermal and mechanical stresses on the motor.

 Provides low speed motor starting facility.

 Saves more energy

CONTINUE…..
Disadvantage of ac drives
 Power converters for the control of ac motors are more
complex.
 Power converter for ac drives are more expensive.
 Power converters for ac drives generate harmonics in the
supply system and load circuit.
 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

 Induction motors with squirrel cage rotors are the workhorse of

industry .
 When Squirrel cage induction machine is operated directly from the
line voltages an Induction motor is operated at constant speed.
However in the industry we required to vary the speed of an
Induction motor. This can be done by Induction motor drive.
 Fans, Compressor, Pumps, blowers, machine tools like lathe, drilling
machine, lifts, conveyer belts etc.
 CONCLUSION

 In Case of Squirrel cage induction motor the slip cannot

be increase above certain limit, the operating speed range
is very less. By applying the V/F control we can get the
large operating range by keeping V/F ratio constant.