33

CHAPTER 4

LINEAR SCHEDULING METHOD (LSM) AND ITS

APPLICATIONS

4.1 BASICS OF LINEAR SCHEDULING

The LSM is a graphical technique in which the locations or the

length of the linear project is indicated on the horizontal axis and durations of
activities of the project is represented on the vertical axis. This method of
representing linear schedule is also termed as distance – time scheduling.
Each activity is plotted one after the other based on the order of activities in
the section of the project sequentially on this graph. The starting time and
location of the activity is shown as the start point of the activity on the graph
and the ending time and location of the activity is shown as the end point in
the linear schedule graph. In short activities are represented as sloping lines
based on the start coordinate and the end coordinate. The basics of LSM can
be understood by taking the activities of a typical section of a road as
mentioned in section 1.3. Let us assume that the road section comprises of
four activities namely the subgrade represented A1,subbase represented by
A2, base course represented by A3 and surface course represented by A4 as
shown in Figure 4.1 which span the entire length of the project. Complying
with the rules of networking, the CPM would have represented them as
activities following one after the other as shown in Figure 4.2. The LSM
representation following the same relationship between activities shall be as
per Figure 4.3. In this figure each successive activity has been considered to
begin only after the completion of the previous activity. Hence the total
 34

project completion time DP should have been equal to DA1 + DA2 + DA3+ DA4,
wherein DA1 is the duration of activity A1, DA2 is the duration of activity A2 ,
DA3 is the duration of the activity A3 and DA4 being the duration of activity
A4. But in reality succeeding activities of a linear project do not wait until the
completion of the previous activity but start after a minimum buffer time and
distance is allowed to satisfy the job requirements. This relationship between
activities is represented in Figure 4.4, which cannot be represented by a
network diagram. Now considering the project time as per Figure 4.4, the
total duration of the project shall be from the start of the first activity upto the
end of the last activity. This duration shall be much smaller compared to the
earlier computation as per the CPM schedule. As activities are related in
terms of distances covered with time taken, the progress rates of activities can
be determined by the ratio of length to time. For instance, in the linear
scheduling plot shown in Figure 4.4, it is observed that the progress rate of the
activity A1 should be L/DA1 km/day to complete the activity A1 in time DA1.
Similarly activities A2,A3 and A4 should progress at rates respective to their
durations so as to complete the project in the scheduled time DP. Further, if
the total time DP is to be optimised as per the constraints experienced in the
project, linear scheduling has the flexibility to do so by increasing or
decreasing the progress rate of each activity and the buffer distance between
activities. These changes can be depicted on the LSM to arrive at the total
project time.

A4
A3
A2 A4
A1 A2 A3
A1

Figure 4.1 Sections of a Road Figure 4.2 Network Diagram

 35

Having understood the fundamentals of LSM, and as per

assumptions in the CPM that resources are unlimited, an algorithmic approach
to determine critical paths and floats shall be as explained in the next sections
(Harmelink 1998).

DA4

A4 DA4
DA3

A3 A4
DA3
DA2 A3

Duration A2 Duration DA2

A2
( days ) DA1 ( days )

A1
A1 DA1

Location ( km ) Location ( km)

L L

Figure 4.3 Duration Plot Figure 4.4 Distance – Duration

as per CPM Plot as per LSM

4.2 SCHEDULING WITH LSM

The methodology to plot the linear schedule as per the actual nature
of relationship between activities and to determine the critical activity path
and floats in a linear project comprises of the following steps:

a) Plotting the activity sequence list,

b) Determination of the least time interval and least distance

intervals by upward pass method,

c) Determination of the critical and non-critical segments in

activities by downward pass method,

d) Determination of floats available in activities.

 36

Activity Sequence Plot

Let us consider the project explained in Figure 4.1, with four

activities A1,A2,A3 and A4. The start and end time of all these activities are
plotted on the linear schedule as indicated in Figure 4.5.Once the activities are
plotted sequentially as per their order, the least time interval (LTI) and the
least distance interval (LDI) is automatically exposed as indicated in Figure
4.5. This is the greatest advantage when applied to linear projects.

Critical
Segments 8

A4 A4
D CA4
A3 6
A3 4
Duration LDI LTI 7 5 DCA3
(days ) Critical vertex Duration
( days )
Target
activity A2 D CA2
A2

Links 3
- 2
Origin Non-Critical
A1 A1
activity segments D
CA1 1
1
Location (km) Location (km)
L - L

Figure 4.5 Activity Sequence and Figure 4.6 Downward Pass

Upward Pass

Determination of LDI and LTI with Upward Pass

Having drawn the activity sequence list on the linear schedule, the
LTI and the LDI between consecutive activities are determined to find out the
critical and non critical activities of the project. In the activity sequence list
plotted in Figure 4.5, the first activity is taken as the origin activity and the
succeeding activity as the target activity. The criticality of the activities is
determined by starting with the first activity designating that as the origin
activity and the immediate succeeding activity as the target activity. The LTI
 37

and LDI between the origin activity and the target activity considered are
determined. Similarly in the next stage, the target activity previously
considered becomes the origin activity and the next immediate succeeding
activity becomes the target activity. The LTI and LDI for the fresh set of
activities are determined once again. Like wise the LTI and LDI are
determined for all set of activities until the last activity is reached. It is to be
noted in a linear schedule that not only the entire activity can be critical but
also portions of activities can be critical as the activities are progressing
continuously and spanning the entire length of the project.

Figure 4.5 represents the origin and target activities and the least
time (LTI) and least distance (LDI) that are determined between consecutive
activities of the sample linear project. It is seen from Figure 4.5 that the least
time interval is the shortest duration between the consecutive activities which
can be connected vertically without crossing any other intermediate activity
and the least distance interval is the shortest distance between the consecutive
activities with respect to its least time interval. The lines representing the least
distance intervals are called as links and their intersection with
the activities forming vertices are called as critical vertices as indicated in
Figure 4.5.

Downward Pass

Once the least time, least distance intervals, links and critical
vertices are finalised, the critical and non-critical segments are identified. In
other words activities or segments of activities in linear projects having floats
or without floats are determined. In the downward pass of the LSM as per
backward pass of the CPM, a path is traced from the end of the last activity
back in time. This path may intersect a critical vertex or trace back to the start
point of the activity based on the nature of relationships between activities. If
the path happens to meet a critical vertex it then takes an horizontal direction
along the link to the end point or another critical vertex of the previous
 38

activity and then is continued back in time once again. If the path does not
intersect any critical vertex and instead continues upto the starting point of the
activity the path is traced horizontally from this starting point until it meets
the next activity at another critical vertex or the endpoint of the preceding
activity back in time. In this case if the path traced does not meet any other
critical vertex then the path is shifted to the end point of the preceding activity
back in time and is traced down once again as mentioned above until it
reaches the start point of the first activity. It is also possible that the path may
also shift to the endpoint of the activity previous to the preceding activity
when two or more activities end at the same point. Eventually, the longest
path obtained connecting the start points, end points and critical vertices
connected by the controlling links defines the critical path of the project in a
linear schedule.

Figure 4.6 represents the downward pass which defines the critical
and non-critical segments of the activities of the project. Following the
procedure explained above, it is seen from Figure 4.6 that activity A4 is
totally on the critical path from point 7 to point 8. A portion of the activity A3
between points 5 and 6 is on the critical activity path. Again, activity A2 is
totally on the critical activity path between 3 and 4. A portion at the beginning
of the activity A1 is also controlling between points 1 and 2. Thus the
duration associated with these segments determines the optimal project
duration with the assumed durations DCA1, DCA2, DCA3 and DCA4 as indicated in
Figure 4.6.

Float Calculation

The determination of critical segments by the downward pass

method enables us to understand that the progress rates of these segments
cannot be altered if the project were to be completed in the scheduled time, as
they are the activities or the portions of the activities without any float.
 39

Having determined the critical segments that have no floats, it becomes

important to quantify the progress rates of the non-critical segments. These
can be determined as progress rates as per original schedule and the least
possible progress rates based on the critical path.

4.2.1 Initial Non – Critical Segments and Floats

In order to determine the floats for activities which have the initial
portions as non-critical, the planned start point, the critical vertex point at
which the activity becomes critical and the earliest possible start point
considering the available float of this activity are determined. The critical
vertex points are already obtained as in the upward pass method and the
earliest possible start point is determined by adding the starting duration of
the preceding activity by the LTI between the activity in consideration and the
preceding activity. In case of a continuous series of initial non-critical
segments, increments are made from the preceding earliest possible start
points and not from the start point of the preceding activity. The floats of
initial non-critical segments which can have earlier starts are represented with
a negative sign such as -A3 as shown in Figure 4.7.

A4 (LPC,DLC)
Duration Duration A4 +A3
( days ) (LPC,DPC)
A3 (days)
(LIVC , DIVC )
(LPS,DPS) A3
-A3
A2 A2 +A1

(LPS,DES)
A1 A1
(L TVC,DTVC)

Location (km) Location (km)

L L

Figure 4.7 Initial Non-Critical Figure 4.7 Terminal Non-

Segments Critical Segments
 40

Thus in Figure 4.7, if (LPS, DPS), (LPS,DES) and (LIVC, DIVC) are the
coordinates of the planned starting, earliest possible starting and critical
vertex of any activity, then the progress rates and the floats of the activity at
the initial portions can be written in km/day as shown below in Equations
(4.1), (4.2) and (4.3).

i) Planned progress rate (PRp) = LIVC - LPS / DIVC - DPS (4.1)

ii) Least possible progress rate (PRl) = LIVC - LPS / DIVC - DES (4.2)

iii) Float rate (FR) = PRp - PRl (4.3)

Where, LPS - The planned starting location of any activity

LIVC - The location at critical vertex point of any initial non-
critical segment
DES - The earliest possible starting duration of any activity
DPS - The planned starting duration of any activity
DIVC - The duration at critical vertex of any initial non-critical
segment

Therefore float rates of activities in any initial non critical segment

in general can be determined by the difference of planned progress rate of the
activity to least possible progress rate of the activity.

4.2.2 Terminal Non - Critical Segments and Floats

In order to determine the floats for activities which have the

terminal portions as non critical, the location and duration at planned
completion, the critical vertex point at which the activity becomes non critical
and the latest possible completion time of the activity are determined. The
critical vertex points are already obtained as in the upward pass method and
 41

the latest possible end point is determined by reducing the ending duration of
the succeeding activity by least time interval between the activity in
consideration and the succeeding activity. In case of a continuous series of
terminal non critical segments deductions are made from the succeeding latest
possible end points and not from the end point of the succeeding activity. The
floats of terminal non-critical segments which can have later finish times are
represented with a positive sign as +A1 and +A3 as shown in Figure 4.8.

Therefore in Figure 4.8, if (LPC,DPC), (LPC,DLC) and (LTVC,DTVC) are

the coordinates of the planned ending, possible ending and critical vertex of
the activity, then the progress rates and floats of the activity can be written as
in km/day as shown below in equations (4.4), (4.5) and (4.6).

i) Planned progress rate (PRp)= LPC – LTVC / DPC – DTVC (4.4)

ii) Least possible progress rate (PRl) = LPC – LTVC/ DLC – DTVC ( 4.5)

iii) Float rate (FR) = PRp - PRl (4.6)

Where, LPC - The ending location of any activity

LTVC - The location at critical vertex point of any terminal
non-critical segment
DLC - The latest possible ending duration of any activity
DPC - The ending duration of any activity
DTVC - The duration at critical vertex of any terminal non critical
segment

Therefore in general, float rates for any terminal non critical

segment of activities is given by the difference of planned progress rate to
least possible progress rate of the activity. It is once again to be noted from
 42

the above paragraphs that activities in linear projects can be entirely critical,
or only for portions at the start, end or at any intermediate segment of the
activity based on the parameters controlling it.

4.3 ILLUSTRATION 1

A typical road project with 4 activities as shown in Table 4.1 has

been considered and attempted to be scheduled using the bar charts, CPM
network techniques at first and later by the LSM. The advantages and
effectiveness of the LSM for road projects over the other scheduling
techniques currently in practice is discussed in the next sections.

Table 4.1 Sample Road Project (km 10.00 – km 12.00)

S. Activity Start Duration

Activity End date
No. ID date (days)
Clearing and
1. A 01.01.04 22.01.04 22
Grubbing
Earthwork
2. B 07.01.04 12.02.04 37
Excavation
Embankment and
3. C 31.01.04 21.02.04 22
Subgrade
4. Granular Subbase D 08.02.04 10.03.04 32

4.3.1 Bar Chart Scheduling

A Gantt or Bar chart schedule for the above project in Table 4.1 is
presented in Figure 4.9. From this figure the following information about the
activities can be obtained.
 43

Activity
S.No Activity January 2004 February 2004 March 2004
ID
Clearing 0 22 22
1 A
and Grubbing
37 43
Earthwork
2 B 6
Excavation
30 22 52
Embankment
3 C
and Subgrade
38 32 70
Granular Sub-
4 D
base

Figure 4.9 Bar Chart Schedule of the Sample Road Project

(km 10.00 –km 12.00)

Starting and ending durations of activities : For example, it is

seen that activity A (Clearing and Grubbing) can be started on the 1st day and
completed on the 22nd day. Similar information can be gathered for the
remaining activities and also about the total duration of the project.

Time intervals between activities: The figure indicates that

activity B (Earthwork Excavation ) can be started on the 6th day from the start
of activity A ( Clearing and Grubbing ) and can be completed on the 43rd day
which is 21 days from the completion of activity A. Therefore 6 days are
available as lag time between the starts of activities A (Clearing and
Grubbing) and B (Earthwork Excavation ) and 21 days are available as lag
time between their ends.

Progress of activities : The progress of activity A (Clearing and

Grubbing) on the 11th day should be 50% of the total length or in other words
activity A should have progressed up to Km 11.00 after 11 days. Similar
progress measurements can be made in terms of the percentages of the total
duration of any activity at any instant of time.
 44

In addition to the above information, Figure 4.9 also expresses the

spatial relationship between consecutive activities, i.e., the commencement of
activity B (Earthwork Excavation) on the 7th day of the project when activity
A (Clearing & Grubbing) is still in progress and has already covered a certain
distance. Inspite of such useful information, this method still has the
following shortcomings.

i) Only the duration aspect of the activities is being represented

in Figure 4.9. The distances covered or the location of any
activity at any point of time is not being shown in the above
figure. Hence it lacks a comprehensive visual impact.

ii) Although Figure 4.9 gives information about the lag time
available at the beginning and end of activities, the
representation and computation of floats becomes a tedious
process considering the rescheduling which is done in
practical situations to balance the resources. This problem
becomes all the more complicated when the number of
activities and sections of the road project increases

iii) Due to a large amount of uncertainties in resources and

duration, the progress of some of the sections of the activities
control the total duration of the entire project. These critical
segments and progress rates of the activities at various
sections of the project cannot be represented or computed
from the above figure.

4.3.2 CPM- Network Scheduling

Due to these shortcomings with the bar chart method, an attempt

has been made to schedule the same project with the CPM network method.
 45

From the projected schedule and duration of activities of the sample project in
Tables 4.1 and 4.2, an activity on arrow (AOA) network diagram trying to
indicate the relationships of activities has been attempted in Figure 4.10.

Table 4.2 Project Schedule for CPM Network

Activity ID Node Duration (days)

A 1–2 22
B 3–4 37
C 5–6 22
D 7–8 32

The AOA representation in Figure 4.10 does not comply with the
rules of network scheduling and therefore applying CPM network scheduling
to road projects becomes impossible and hence cannot provide realistic
information about the activities in a road project.

B
5
(37)

8
3
7 8
1 2
6 A (22) D (32)

C (22)
24
6

6days 24 days 8 days 32 days

Figure 4.10 AOA Network Diagram

 46

The sample road project has also been attempted to be scheduled

with CPM using the activity on node technique (AON) as shown in
Figure 4.11.

0 22 6 43 30 52 38 70
-16FS -13FS -14FS
A 22 B 37 C 22 D 32

0 22 6 43 30 52 38 70

Figure 4.11 AON Network Diagram

The AON diagram enables us to indicate the earliest and latest

times due to the advantage of representing the finish to start (FS) relationship
between activities. Although the activity on node has the ability to represent
all other activity relationships such as start to start (SS), start to finish (SF)
and finish to finish (FF) relationships, it is noted that the earliest times and
latest times are equal which infers that all activities are critical and the
distance progress information is not available.

4.3.3 Linear Scheduling

Having experienced the above mentioned drawbacks in the bar

chart and CPM/PERT methods for scheduling linear projects, the sample
project is now scheduled using the LSM involving the following steps.

4.3.3.1 Activity Sequencing

i) The activities of the projected schedule shown in Table 4.1 are

listed sequentially.

ii) The sequential activities are drawn on the LSM schedule

corresponding to their start and end dates and locations as per
 47

the projected schedule by calculating the number of calendar

days required for each activity and plotting them on the graph
with locations (km) on the ‘x’axis and duration (days) on the
‘y’ axis.

iii) Figure 4.12 shows the activity sequencing of the sample

project marked with the start and end dates of all the activities
and their locations.

4.3.3.2 Upward Pass

i) LTI is the shortest duration in between consecutive activities

that is obtained by comparing their start and end times. LDI is
the shortest distance between the consecutive activities with
respect to the least time interval considered.

ii) From the least time and the least distance intervals, the critical
vertices are calculated mathematically using slope equations
and links are connected to these vertices.

iii) Figure 4.12 also shows the Upward Pass method for the
sample project with the critical vertex coordinates marked on
it.

4.3.3.3 Downward Pass

i) A path is traced from the end of the last activity back in time
continuously connecting the critical vertices, start points and
endpoints of the activities through the links as shown in
Figure 4.4.
 48

70 70
D
D
52 52
(11.20, 43 )
C
(10.72, 38 ) 43 C
43
38 38 (11.20, 43 )
Critical vertex
(10.72, 38 )
30 30
22 22
Duration B B
(days ) Duration
(days )
A A
6 6
(10.55, 6) (10.55, 6)

10 Location (km) 12 10 Location (km) 12

Figure 4.12 LSM Schedule with Figure 4.13 LSM Schedule with
Upward Pass Downward Pass

ii) The critical and non-critical segments are established upon

completion of the downward pass.

iii) Figure 4.13 explains the downward pass method for the
sample project thus identifying the critical segments as thick
lines and non critical segments as ordinary lines. The
durations and lengths for which each of the activity is critical
is shown in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3 Critical Activity Path (km 10.00 – km 12.00)

Activity Duration Start End

Activity
ID (days) (km) (km)
A Clearing and grubbing 06 10.00 10.55
B Earthwork Excavation 37 10.00 12.00
C Embankment and Sub grade 05 10.70 11.20
D Granular Sub base 32 10.00 12.00
 49

4.3.3.4 Float Rates

The non-critical segments of activities may occur either at the
initial portions of the activities or at the terminal portions of the activities as
indicated in Figure 4.13. The floats of such non-critical segments can be
determined as below.
a) Initial Non-Critical Segments and Floats
1) The planned rates, lowest rates and float rates for beginning non-
critical segments as shown in Figure 4.14 has been presented in Table 4.4. In
activity C, LPS is taken as 10 as it remains the location at planned start and
DES becomes 15 which is obtained by adding the LTI between activity B and C
to DPS. of B.
Table 4.4 Initial Non-Critical Segments and Floats

Planned Lowest Float

Activity (LPS, (LIVC, (LPS,
Rate Rate Rate
ID DPS) DIVC) DES)
km/day km/day km/day
C (10,30) (10.72,38) (10,15) 0.09 0.03 0.06

70 70
D D
62
52 C+ 52

C C
43 43
38 (11.20, 43 ) 38 (11.20, 43 )
(10.72, 38 ) (10.72, 38 ) 37
30 30
C- 22 22
Duration
B Duration B
(days)
(days )
15 A+
A A
6 6
(10.55, 6) (10.55, 6)

10 Location (km) 12 Location (km)

10 12

Figure 4.14 Initial Non-Critical Figure 4.15 Terminal Non-Critical

Segments Segments
 50

b) Terminal Non-Critical Segments and Floats

i) The planned rates, lowest rates and float rates for ending non-
critical segments as shown in Figure 4.15 has been presented in Table 4.5. For
instance in activity A, LPC is taken as 12 as it remains the location at planned
completion and DLC becomes 37 which is obtained by subtracting the LTI
between activity A and B from DPC of B.

Table 4.5 Terminal Non-Critical Segments And Floats

Planned Lowest Float
Activity (LTVC, (LPC, (LPC,
Rate Rate Rate
ID DTVC) DPC) DLC)
km/day km/day km/day
A (10.55, 6) (12, 22) (12, 37) 0.09 0.05 0.04
C (11.20, 43) (12, 52) (12, 62) 0.09 0.04 0.05

4.4 ILLUSTRATION 2 - COMPARISON OF LSM WITH

A GANTT CHART OUTPUT
The method of scheduling road projects currently in India has been
the use of MSProject software for generating the desired reports. A typical
report of a section of a road scheduled with this software as shown in
Appendix 1has been compared with a linear schedule for the same inputs.
The Gantt chart output for the activity durations and other
constraints keyed in for a typical road project obtained from a leading
constructor using the MS Project software has been shown in Appendix 1.
The first section of the road between km 273.5 km 277.50 shall be discussed
in this work as other sections are typical. From Figure 4.16, it is seen that
each activity is given an ID, a start time, an end time keeping in view its
predecessor relationships with other activities. For instance activity 9
(Earthwork) has been scheduled to start on 01/05/04 and end on 08/06/04
keeping in view its predecessor relationship with activity 10 ( granular sub -
 51

17
233
233
230

NOV 15 &16

217
213
207
13 & 14
200
OCT 194

184 184

DURATION ( Days)
SEP

AUG

JULY

93
93
88
84

77
12
JUNE 77
11 73
70
60 53
10
49
45 9
43
MAY
35 24 25
32 23
19 20 21 22

25

APR

7 6

273.5 274 274.5 275 275.5 276 276.5 277 277.5

LOCATION (Km)

Figure 4.16 LSM Schedule ( km 273.50 – km 277.50)

base) whose scheduled start is 14/05/04 and scheduled completion is

11/06/04. Thus the predecessor relationship of activity 9 has been shown as
10FF - 3 days which means that it has a finish to finish relationship with
activity 10 and has to be completed 3 days before the completion activity 10,
considering all constraints. The predecessor relationship for activity 10 has
been indicated as 11SS - 3 days which implies that this activity in turn has a
 52

start to start relationship with activity 11(dry lean concrete) and thus the
earliest start time possible is 14th of April 2004. Thus an intense road schedule
is prepared considering the predecessor relationships and progresses required
for all the activities.

Table 4.6 Projected Schedule (km 273.50 – km 277.50)

Activity Start
Activity End date
ID Date
6 Diversion @ 276.00 31/03/04 31/03/04
7 Diversion @ 275.34 31/03/04 31/03/04
9 Earthwork 01/05/04 08/06/04
10 Granular Subbase 14/05/04 11/06/04
11 Dry lean concrete 18/05/04 15/06/04
12 Pavement quality concrete 29/05/04 16/10/04
13 Widening and sealing of transverse joints 15/06/04 02/11/04
14 Widening and sealing of longitudinal joints 15/06/04 02/11/04
15 Kerb casting 23/10/04 15/11/04
16 Granular shoulder 23/10/04 15/11/04
17 Opening to traffic 18/11/04 18/11/04
19 Pipe culvert at 274.39 13/04/04 11/05/04
20 Pipe culvert at 274.42 13/04/04 11/05/04
21 Pipe culvert at 274.54 13/04/04 11/05/04
22 Pipe culvert at 274.78 13/04/04 11/05/04
23 Pipe culvert at 275.21 24/04/04 22/05/04
24 Pipe culvert at 276.66 24/04/04 22/05/04
25 Pipe culvert at 277.11 24/04/04 22/05/04

4.4.1 Linear Schedule with LSM (km 273.50 – km 277.50)

The projected schedule of the section of the road between km

273.50 and 277.50, taken from the gantt chart in Appendix 1 has been
 53

indicated in Table 4.6. This projected schedule has now been scheduled by the
linear scheduling method and shown in Figure 4.16. It can be observed that
activities can be shown in the LSM as points, bars, lines and blocks
depending on the nature of the activity, its location and time consumption and
relationship with other activities. For instance activity 6 is shown only as a
point as it is scheduled only for one day on march 31 and at location 276 as
per the schedule. Similarly activity 19, pipe culvert is shown as a bar (vertical
line) at location at 274.391 for a duration of 28 days as per the schedule.
Activities 9 to 17 are shown as sloping lines for the entire length of the
section of the project with their start and end time as per the schedule. Also,
the monsoon period is indicated as a block activity wherein no activity is
scheduled.

4.4.2 Analysis of Outputs

From the above schedules a comparison can be drawn between the

MS project schedule and the LSM schedule.

Although MS project allows the scheduler to program the section of

a road considering all constraints and available resources, it is limited to the
following information for road projects.

Starting and ending time of all activities assumed by the

scheduler depending on the length and activities in the section
of the road project and resources consumed.

The predecessor/successor relationships with all other activities

respecting job logic such as start to start finish to start
relationships as programmed by the scheduler.
 54

Total project completion time or the duration of completion of a

particular section of the road as scheduled by the planner.

Based on the above schedule the constructor proceeds further with

allocation of resources and monitors the progress of the project. Now from the
LSM schedule in Figure 4.16, the following information can be obtained.

The start and end durations of all activities can be indicated as

dates and also as the day on which activity starts or ends on the
vertical axis.

The progress of each activity from the start duration up to the

end duration is indicated as sloping lines, vertical lines or points
based on the location traversed by the activity and the duration
for which it extends on the XY plane.

The critical path or the critical segments of the set of activities

is indicated by thicker lines and the other segments of the
activities with lines of normal thickness.

Also, the floats available for the portions or segments of

activities that are not critical in a road project are shown as
hidden lines.

Comparing the Gantt chart and linear scheduling outputs, the LSM
schedule provides us with better information due to its graphical
representation of its 2 main attributes namely the duration and location of the
activities. The Gantt chart out put shows only the progress of activities as
horizontal bars on the duration side. This is well illustrated considering
activity 12, which shows the exact location of activity 12 during the starting
of the monsoon period i.e. on the 93rd day of the project or as on July 1st 2004.
Similarly it is only possible as per the LSM schedule to indicate the location
 55

of any activity on a particular day during the progress of a project. The

indication of pipe culverts, diversions at various chainages for the scheduled
durations further explains this phenomenon.

Further as it is typical of highway projects to have a combination of

linear and discrete activities, the determination of critical path by network
technique i.e the CPM becomes complex as each linear activity has to be
broken down into a number of sections which is practically impossible and
incomprehensible. This problem is solved by the LSM schedule
representation as it clearly indicates the exact locations and durations for
which activities are critical and the results have been tabulated in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7 Critical Path (km 273.50 – km 277.50)

Activity Duration Start End

Activity
ID (days) (km) (km)
6 Diversion @ 276.00 276.00 276.00
1
7 Diversion @ 275.34 275.34 275.34
9 Earthwork 39 273.50 277.50
10 Granular Subbase 22 274.04 277.07
11 Dry lean concrete 11 273.50 275.07
12 Pavement quality concrete 33 273.50 274.44
Widening and sealing of
13 273.96 277.50
transverse joints
33
Widening and sealing of
14 273.96 277.50
longtitudinal joints
15 Kerb casting 275.24 277.50
13
16 Granular shoulder 275.24 277.50
17 Opening to traffic 1 273.50 276.50
22 Pipe culvert at 274.78 29 274.78 274.78
25 Pipe culvert at 277.11 29 277.11 277.11
56
 57

Therefore the duration obtained by adding up the durations of all

the major critical segments gives the total critical duration of the project
which works out to 214 days as per Figure 4.16. This information which is
vital for the scheduler can be given by the LSM schedule in a single report.

Also, floats available in linear activities have been clearly indicated

in the LSM schedule. The progress rates of critical segments of linear
activities shown as thick lines and the least progress rates of the non critical
segments of linear activities as normal lines have been quantified in Table 4.8.
This is vital information for the project manager to reschedule and reallocate
his resources.

Table 4.9 Sample Road Project (km 14.00 to km 16.00)

Activity Activity Completion Duration at Duration at

Start Date
ID Description Date Start (Ts) end (Tc)
Clearing and
A 09/02/05 28/02/05 0 20
Grubbing
Earthwork
B 21/02/05 09/03/05 12 29
Excavation
Embankment and
C 25/02/05 17/03/05 16 37
Subgrade
D Granular Subbase 18/03/05 07/04/05 37 58
Wet Mix
E 22/03/05 21/04/05 41 72
Macadam
F Kerb Casting 12/04/05 24/04/05 62 75
G Asphalt Works 11/05/05 31/05/05 91 112
Bituminous
H 21/05/05 10/06/05 101 122
Concrete

4.5 PARAMETERS CONTROLLING LINEAR ACTIVITIES

Having understood the basic parameters controlling linear

activities, a study of the critical activities has been made with a sample road
 58

project for a stretch of 2 km. Its projected schedule has been indicated in
Table 4.9 considering all possible conditions activities can be subjected to in a
typical linear project.

Following the stepwise procedure mentioned in the previous

sections, the linear schedule graph is drawn between the distance of the road
to be covered on the ‘x’ axis and the total duration of the project on the ‘y’
axis which is 2km and 122 days respectively. Activities A to H are drawn one
by one on this graph corresponding to their start and completion dates. After
the activity scheduling is represented on the graph, the least time intervals are
determined and the corresponding least distance lines are drawn on the graph
depending upon the difference in Ts and Tc of the consecutive activities. The
critical vertices (if any) can be mathematically calculated using the slope
equation as all other parameters are known for an activity in consideration.

Having quantified the parameters controlling the critical activities,

the critical segments are identified by the tracing a continuous path from the
end of the last activity as explained earlier. The linear schedule thus obtained
has been shown in Figure 4.17. From this figure, it is once again observed that
in linear projects activities can be critical for the entire length of the project or
only for intermediate portions or at the beginning or end of the project. The
distances and durations for which the activities are critical are tabulated in
Table 4.10. From Table 4.10, for instance it is seen that activity B is critical
between km 14.47 and km 14.94 for a duration of 4 days. This means that the
progress of this portion of activity B is critical between km14.47 and km14.94
for 4 days and floats are available for the balance portion of this activity as
shown in the Figure. Similar interpretations can be made for the other
activities also. Also, the project can be completed in 122 days only if the
progress rates of these critical activities or segments are maintained as
scheduled. Therefore the critical activities or segments in a linear schedule
 59

122

H
112

G
101

91

(15.54,72) 75
F 72
DURATION

(Days) 62
E
58

D
(14.38,41)
41
37 37

C 29
(14.94,20)
20
16 B
(14.47,16)
12
A

0
16.00
14.00
LOCATION(km)

Figure 4.17 Linear Schedule of Sample Road Project

(km14.00 – km 16.00)

determine the optimal duration of a linear project just as the critical path
determines the total duration of the project with the CPM.
 60

Table 4.10 Critical Paths for Sample Road Project(km 14.00 to km 16.00)

Activity Start End Duration

Activity Description
ID (km) (km) (days)
A Clearing and Grubbing 14.00 16.00 20
B Earthwork Excavation 14.47 14.94 4
C Embankment and Subgrade 14.00 16.00 21
D Granular Subbase 14.00 14.38 4
E Wet Mix Macadam 14.00 16.00 31
F Kerb Casting 15.54 16.00 3
G Asphalt Works 14.00 16.00 21
H Bituminous Concrete 14.00 16.00 21

Having analyzed the linear schedule in Figure 4.17 and the critical
paths in Table 4.10 for the above illustration, the following inferences are
drawn.

i) As Tc (H) – Tc(G) = Ts (H) – Ts (G), Activity H is totally critical

allowing no floats between them. In other words the end or the last activity in
a linear project becomes totally critical when the difference between its Ts and
the Ts of the preceding activity is equal to the difference between its Tc and
the Tc of the preceding activity. Also, when the least time intervals at the start
and end of a last activity with its preceding activity become equal, their least
distances also become equal, making the last activity entirely critical.

Consequently the first or the starting activity in a linear project also

becomes entirely critical when the least time intervals at the start and end of a
first activity with its succeeding activity becomes equal. Further when the
least time intervals for an intermediate activity with both its succeeding and
preceding activity at its start and end become equal, such an intermediate
activity also becomes entirely critical.
 61

ii) As Tc (H) – Tc(G) = Ts (H) – Ts (G) and Ts(G) >Tc(F), activity

G becomes totally critical allowing no floats. In general an intermediate
activity in consideration becomes totally critical when the least time intervals
between it and its succeeding activity are equal at its start and end and when
the starting duration of this activity is equal to or greater than the ending
duration of the preceding activity. Conversely when the least time interval for
an intermediate activity with its preceding activity becomes equal at its start
and end and if its ending duration is lesser than or equal to the starting
duration of its succeeding activity, such an intermediate activity becomes
entirely critical.

Consequently, an end activity satisfying only the second condition

as mentioned above can make it totally critical (i.e.) when the starting
duration of an end activity is greater than or equal to the ending duration of its
preceding activity. On the contrary, the first activity becomes entirely critical
when its ending duration is lesser than or equal to the start of its succeeding
activity.

iii) As Tc(F)<Ts(G) and Tc(F)-Tc(E)< Ts (F)- Ts (E), activity F

becomes critical at the ending portion for a distance of Lc(F)-Ldc(F) km and
duration Tc(F)-Tdc(F) days. In general an intermediate activity in
consideration becomes critical at its ending portion for a distance of (Lc-Ldc)
km of that activity and for a duration of (Tc-Tdc) days when its completion
time is less than or equal to the start time of its succeeding activity and the
least time interval of this activity with its preceding activity is at their ends.
Further an intermediate activity can also become critical at its end when the
least time intervals are at its end with both its succeeding and preceding
activity.
 62

Consequently an end activity can become critical at its end when it

satisfies only the second condition as mentioned above (i.e.) when its least
time interval with its preceding activity is at their ends.

iv) As Tc(F)-Tc(E)< Ts (F)- Ts (E) and Tc( E) – Tc(D)> Ts(E)-Ts(D),

activity E becomes entirely critical for a distance of Lc(E) – Ls(E) km and
duration Tc(E)-Ts(E) days. In general an intermediate activity in consideration
becomes totally critical for its duration when the least time interval between it
and the succeeding activity is at their ends and least time interval between it
and the preceding activity is at their starts.

Consequently, it is possible for an end activity to be entirely critical

if it satisfies only the second condition mentioned above (i.e.) when the least
time interval between it and its preceding activity is at their starts.

v) As Tc( E) – Tc(D)> Ts(E)-Ts(D) and Ts(D)=Tc(C), activity D

becomes critical at the beginning portion for a distance Lds(D)-Ls(D) km and
duration Tds(D)-Ts(D)days. In general an intermediate activity in
consideration becomes critical at its start when the least time interval between
it and its succeeding activity is at their starts and the start of this activity is
greater than or equal to ending duration of its preceding activity. Also, an
intermediate activity can become critical at its start when its least time
intervals with both its succeeding and preceding activity are their starts.

Consequently, it is possible that the first activity can become

critical at the beginning portion when the least time interval between it and its
succeeding activity is at their starts.

vi) As Ts(D)=Tc(C) and Tc( C) – Tc(B)> Ts(C)-Ts(B), activity C

becomes entirely critical for a distance of Lc(C) – Ls(C) km and duration
Tc(C)-Ts(C) days. In general an intermediate activity can also become totally
 63

critical when its completion time is equal to or less than the start of the
succeeding activity and the least time interval between it and the preceding
activity is at their starts.

vii) As Ts(C)-Ts(B)< Tc( C) – T c(B) and Tc( B) – Tc(A)< Ts(B)-

Ts(A) activity B becomes critical at the intermediate portion for a distance of
Ldc(B)– Lds (B) km and duration Tdc(B) – Tds(B) days. In general if the least
distance interval between the activity in consideration and its succeeding
activity is at their starts and that with the preceding activity is at their ends ,
then an intermediate activity becomes critical at the middle portion for a
period (Tdc -Tds ) days and for a distance (Ldc – Lds ) km.

viii) As activity A is the first activity , it becomes totally critical as

Tc( B) – Tc(A)< Ts(B)- Ts(A).In general the first activity becomes totally
critical when its least time interval with its succeeding activity is at their ends.

From the above analysis of the parameters and its various

conditions, the following general equations can be used to identify the
criticality of the activities in linear projects with continuous full span
activities.

a) The last or ending activities in linear projects become totally

critical for Lc(ae)-Ls(ae)km and for a duration Tc(ae)-Ts(ae) days when

1) Tc (ae) – Tc(ae-1) = Ts (ae ) – Ts (ae-1) (4.7)

or when

2) Ts(ae) > or = Tc(ae-1) (4.8)

or when

3) Tc(ae) – Tc(ae-1 )> Ts(ae )-Ts(ae-1 ) (4.9)

 64

b) Ending activities become critical at its end for a distance Lc(ae)-

Ldc(ae) km for a duration Tc(ae)-Tdc(ae) days when

1) Tc(ae ) – Tc(ae-1 )< Ts(ae )-Ts(ae-1 ) (4.10)

In Equations 4.7 to 4.10, ‘ae’ represents any end activity and ‘ae-1’
represents the preceding activity to any end activity

c) Intermediate activities become critical entirely for Lc(am)-Ls(am )

km for a duration Tc(am )- Ts(am ) days when

1) Tc (am+1) – Tc(am ) = Ts (am+1) – Ts (am ) (4.11)

and

Ts(am ) Tc(am-1) (4.12)

or when

2) Tc(am ) – Tc (am-1) = Ts (am )–Ts (am-1) (4.13)

and

Tc(am ) Ts(am+1) (4.14)

or when

4) Tc (am+1) – Tc(am ) < Ts (am+1) – Ts (am ) (4.15)

and

Tc(am ) -Tc (am-1) > Ts (am ) - Ts (am-1) (4.16)

or when

5) Tc(am ) – Tc (am-1) > Ts (am )–Ts (am-1) (4.17)

and

Ts(am+1) Tc(am ) (4.18)

 65

or when

4) Tc (am+1) – Tc(am ) = Ts (am+1) – Ts (am ) (4.19)

and

Tc(am ) – Tc (am-1) = Ts (am )–Ts (am-1) (4.20)

Intermediate activities become critical at the end for a distance of

Lc(am )-Ldc(am ) km and for a duration Tc(am )-Tdc(am ) days when

1) Tc(am ) – Tc (am-1) < Ts (am ) –Ts (am-1) (4.21)

and

Ts(am+1) Tc(am ) (4.22)

or when

2) Tc (am+1) – Tc(am ) < Ts (am+1) – Ts (am ) (4.23)

and

Tc(am ) – Tc (am-1) < Ts (am )–Ts (am-1) (4.24)

Intermediate activities become critical at the starts for a distance of

Lds(am )-Ls(am ) km and for a duration Tds(am )-Ts(am ) days when

1) Ts (am+1) – Ts (am )< Tc (am+1) – Tc(am ) (4.25)

and

Ts(am ) > or = Tc(am-1) (4.26)

or when

2) Ts (am+1) – Ts (am )< Tc (am+1) – Tc(am ) (4.27)

and
 66

Ts (am )–Ts (am-1) < Tc(am ) – Tc (am-1) (4.28)

Intermediate activities become critical at the middle portions for a

distance of Ldc(am )- Lds(am ) km and for a duration Tdc(am )-Tds(am) days when

1) Ts (am+1) – Ts (am )< Tc (am+1) – Tc(am ) (4.29)

and

Ts (am )–Ts (am-1) > Tc(am ) – Tc (am-1) (4.30)

In Equations 4.11 to 4.30 ‘am ’ represents any intermediate activity,

‘am+1’ represents the succeeding activity to any intermediate activity and ‘am-1’
represents the preceding activity to any intermediate activity.

Starting activities in linear projects become totally critical for

Lc(as)-Ls(as) km for a duration Tc(as)-Ts(as) days when

Tc (as+1) – Tc(as) = Ts (as+1 ) – Ts (as) (4.31)

or when

Ts(as+1) Tc(as) (4.32)

or when

Tc (as+1) – Tc(as) < Ts (as+1 ) – Ts (as) (4.33)

Starting activities in linear projects become critical at their starts for

Lds(as)-Ls(as) km for a duration Tds(as)-Ts(as) days when

Tc (as+1) – Tc(as) > Ts (as+1 ) – Ts (as) (4.34)

In Equations 4.31 to 4.34 ‘as’ represents any starting activity, ‘as+1’

represents the succeeding activity to any starting activity.
 67

Therefore, it is seen from the equations presented in this section

that critical activities in linear projects are totally controlled by the
relationships and values of the parameters discussed. LSM provides us with
vital information as far as scheduling sections of a road project for
smoothened progress rates. Complex methods to deal with LSM for varying
progress rates have also been suggested (Lucko 2009) but may become
difficult for site personnel unless more user friendly software is made
available. Linear schedules are best suited for road projects where appreciable
section distances are available to accommodate crews following each other
maintaining minimum buffer distances.

Highway construction projects typically exhibit work progress

simultaneously in various sections at different locations of the project.
Distance-time scheduling of individual sections in the project may confine
planning only to a portion of the project depending on the size of the project
and does not include all the dimensions of the activity. Hence, the scheduling
approach of constructors needs to be oriented towards achieving their
production objectives and a tool that can assist them in such a situation.