Physics For Engineers: Electromagnetism

Physics For Engineers
Electromagnetism
Andhee M. Jacobe
Second Semester 2018-2019

Preliminaries Electrostatics Electric Field Electric Potential Capacitance Current and Resistance Circuits Circuit Analysis Theorems
Outline
Preliminaries
Electrostatics
Electric Field
Electric Potential
Capacitance
Current and Resistance
Circuits
Circuit Analysis Theorems

Electromagnetism
Definition (Electromagnetism)
Electromagnetism refers to the branch of physics dealing with
electromagnetic forces. Electromagnetic force is a type of physical
interaction that happens between electrically charged particles.
Definition (Charged Particles)
Charged particles, or point charges, or simply charges can be classified
into three: positive charge, negative charge, or a neutral charge. A
neutral charge is simply a particle with equal amount positive and
negative charge, i.e. the net charge is zero.
Definition (Electric Charge)
The most common carriers of charge are the electrons and protons.
Protons are treated to have positive charges while electrons are deemed
to have negative charges (though in fact, both have positive and negative
components). Charge is denoted as q and is measured in terms of
coulombs which we denote as C.
Electromagnetism
Definition (Protons and Electrons)

The proton is usually deemed as the positive component of an atom, it
has a mass of 1.6726 × 10−27 kg and a charge of ε = 1.6022 × 10−19 C.
The electron on the other hand is the negative component of an atom
and has a mass of 9.1094 × 10−31 kg and a charge of −ε C.
• Historically, electromagnetic forces are separated into two types:
electric forces and magnetic forces. It is found however that both
forces are just different manifestations of a single force.
• Electric charged is a conserved quantity.
• One may charge an object by transferring or removing electrons. It
may be through conduction (direct contact) or induction (close
aproach of another object).

Electrostatics
Definition (Electrostatics)
Electrostatics refer to the branch of electromagnetism dealing with
electric charges at rest. In such case, charged particles are in the state of
static equilibrium.
Definition (Coulomb’s Law)
Opposite charges attract, similar charges repel each other. The
magnitude of the electrostatic force (electric force between two charges
in static equilibrium in a vacuum) is given by the equation:
q1 q2 1 q1 q2
Fe = k = (1)
r2 4π0 r 2
where q1 and q2 are the charges, r is the distance (of centers) between
the charges, and k is the Coulomb constant equal to 8.9876 × 109
N·m2 ·C−2 and 0 = 8.8542 × 10−12 square coulombs per joule-meter
(known as vacuum permittivity).
Electrostatics
Definition (Coulomb’s Law)

In cases where medium is not vacuum, the Coulomb’s Law becomes
1 q1 q2 k q1 q2
Fe = 2
= (2)
4π r K r2
where is the material permittivity and K is the dielectric constant. For
vacuum, K = 1 while for air, K = 1.0006.

Sample Problems
1. Two equally charged balls are 3 cm apart in air and repel each other
with a force of 40µN. Compute the charge on each ball.
2. Four equal point charges (3 µC) are placed at the corners of a
square with 40 cm sides. Find the force on any of the charges.
3. How much stronger is the electrostatic force between a proton and
electron than the gravitational force between them?

Electric Field
Definition (Test-Charge)
A test-charge is a very small charge (both in magnitude and physical
size) which is used in measuring different electric quantities in an electric
system. By convention, test-charges are always assumed to be positive
(unless otherwise specified).
Definition (Electric Field)

An electric field is a field in which a test-charge experiences an electrical
force. Its direction is the same as the direction of the force experienced
by the test-charge. The strength E of an electric field is given as:
Fe
E= (3)
q
where Fe is the electrostatic force and q is charge of the test-particle.

Electric Field
Note that the electric field (it’s strength to be more precise) is

independent of the test-charge. That is, it depends on the other point
charge(s).
X The strength of an electric field due to a single point charge q and r
units away from the test-charge Q is
Fe 1 q
E= = (4)
Q 4π r 2
X When the electric field is induced by multiple point charges, the
strength (intensity) of the electric field at a point is the resultant of
the individual electric field intensities due to the point-charges.

Sample Problems
1. An electron is projected out along the positive x-axis with an initial

speed of 3.0 × 106 m/s. It goes 45 cm and stops due to a uniform
electric field in the region. Find the magnitude and direction of the
field.
2. A point-charge of −3.0 × 10−5 C is placed at the origin of a plane.
Find the strength and direction of the electric field at x = 5.0 m on
the x axis.
3. Determine the acceleration of a proton in a uniform electric field of
strength 0.50 kN/C.

Electric Potential
Definition (Electric Potential Energy)

Electric potential energy is the energy that charged particles such as
electrons and protons have because of their own electric charges and
their relative position to other charged particles.
Recall: Work Done By Conservative Forces
W = ∆KE = −∆PE
The Change in Potential Energy
∆PE = −qEd (5)
where d is the distance wherein charge q was moved into. The work is
done by the electric field with strength E .

Electric Potential
Definition (Electric Potential)
Electric potential or simply potential, is the amount of electric potential
energy per unit charge. We denote potential as V and in mathematical
symbols:
PE
V = . (6)
q
Evidently, the unit of potential is joules per coulomb which we will call
volts V.
Definition (Potential Difference)

Potential difference between points a and b (a to b) simply the potential
at b minus the potential at a. So for a charge q moving from a to b due
to the effect of an electric field / electrostatic force is mathematically
represented as:
Vba = Vb − Va (7)

Electric Potential
Potential difference is more fondly called the voltage.
The foregoing definitions give rise to the following relations:
1. Voltage - Work Relation
Wba
Vba = −
q
2. Voltage - Change in Potential Energy Relation
qVba = ∆PE
3. Voltage - Electric Field Relation
Vba = −Ed
Note that all enumerated formulas here are applicable only for uniform E .

Electric Potential
Sometimes, we are interested in the potential difference between a point
and another point where the electric field intensity is zero. That is, we
are interested in the work done against electric forces in moving a charge
from infinity up to the given point. This potential difference is referred to
as the absolute potential.
Now, for a point-charge q and a point P at distance r from the
point-charge, the absolute potential is given as:
q
V =k (8)
r
If the electric field is induced by multiple point-charges, then
X qi
V = (9)
ri
Remarks: The work done in carrying a charge e to a potential rise
of exactly 1 volt is defined as an electron volt.
Sample Problems
1. A proton is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of

1.0 MV. What is its final speed?
2. A point-charge of 0.2 µC is 30 cm from a point-charge of 3µC in a
vacuum. What work is required to bring the first charge 18 cm
closer to the last charge?
3. An electron has a speed of 6 × 105 m/s as it passes through point A.
At point B, its speed is 12 × 105 m/s. What is the potential
difference between A and B? Which point has the higher potential?

Capacitance
Definition (Capacitor and Capacitance)
A capacitor is a device that is capable of storing charge. Capacitance
refers to the amount of electric charge per unit of potential difference. In
symbols:
q
C= (10)
V
Capacitance is measured in terms of coulomb per volt which we call as
farad F.
For a simple capacitor composed of parallel plates with same area A, and
separated by a small distance d, its capacitance is
A
C = K 0 (11)
d
For the Potential Energy Stored in a Capacitor:
1 1 1 q2
PE = qV = CV 2 = (12)
2 2 2C
Current and Resistance
Definition (Current)
Current I refers to the amount of charge passing through a certain point
for a given amount of time. In symbols:
dq
I = (13)
dt
The unit for current is ampere (A) which is equal to a coulomb per
second.
Definition (Resistance)
Resistance R refers to the property of a conductor/material to oppose
the motion of charges along its constitution. Resistance is measured in
ohms, denoted by Ω which is amount of volts per ampere.

Circuits
Definition (Circuit)
An electric circuit refers to a path in transmitting electric current. A
circuit is referred to as closed when it allows the flow of current while it
is called open if the path is broken.
A circuit contains at least a source of electrical energy we call battery
and the potential difference between terminals of the battery is referred
to as electromotive force (assuming no energy loss).
Definition (Series and Parallel)
A group of electrical objects is said to be in series if all of them is
connected by a single path. They are said to be in parallel if the group of
objects are separated by different path comming from a common point.

Circuit Theorems
1. Ohm’s Law
V = IR (14)
2. Charges in Series
qtotal = q1 = q2 = ... = qn (15)
3. Charges in Parallel
qtotal = q1 + q2 + ... + qn (16)
4. Voltage in Series
Vtotal = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn (17)
5. Voltage in Parallel
Vtotal = V1 = V2 = ... = Vn (18)

Circuit Theorems
6. Capacitors in Series
1 1 1 1
= + + ... + (19)
Ctotal C1 C2 Cn
7. Capacitors in Parallel
Ctotal = C1 + C2 + ... + Cn (20)
8. Resistors in Series
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn (21)
9. Resistors in Parallel
1 1 1 1
= + + ... + (22)
Rtotal R1 R2 Rn

Circuit Theorems
10. Kirchhoff’s Node Rule
Iinput = Ioutput (23)
11. Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule
V1 + V2 + ... + Vn = 0 (24)
In words, the Kirchhoff’s Rules are:

1. The current entering a node or junction must be equal to the
current leaving the said node or junction.
2. The sum of all voltage changes in a loop (closed path) is equal to
zero.

Sample Problems
1. Determine the values of I1 , I2 , I3 and the current in the 12 − Ω
resistor.

Sample Problems
2. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit, the currents through all
resistors, and total power output of the battery.

Sample Problems
3. Find I1 , I2 , I3 and the potential difference between point b to point
e.

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Physics For Engineers

Second Semester 2018-2019

Current and Resistance

Circuit Analysis Theorems