Greenbook2005 PDF
Greenbook2005 PDF
Greenbook2005 PDF
State of Florida
Department of Transportation
MAY 2005
EDITION
MAY – 2005
EDITION
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents
Topic # 625-000-015 May - 2005
Manual of Uniform Minimum Standards
for Design, Construction and Maintenance
for Streets and Highways
Table of Contents
Topic # 625-000-015 May - 2005
Manual of Uniform Minimum Standards
for Design, Construction and Maintenance
for Streets and Highways
MAY – 2005
DISTRICT 1 DISTRICT 2
Committee Members
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DISTRICT 3 DISTRICT 4
Committee Members
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DISTRICT 5 DISTRICT 6
Committee Members
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Committee Members
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Committee Members
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Committee Members
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CHAPTER SUBCOMMITTEES
Committee Members
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Committee Members
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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this Manual is to provide uniform minimum standards and criteria for the
design, construction, and maintenance of all public streets, roads, highways, bridges,
sidewalks, curbs and curb ramps, crosswalks (where feasible), bicycle facilities,
underpasses, and overpasses used by the public for vehicular and pedestrian traffic as
directed by Sections 334.044(10)(a) and 336.045, Florida Statutes.
In the following statutory excerpts, the term "Department" refers to the Florida Department
of Transportation.
(4) All design and construction plans for projects that are to become part of the
county road system and are required to conform with the design and construction
standards established pursuant to subsection (1) must be certified to be in
substantial conformance with the standards established pursuant to subsection (1)
that are then in effect by a professional engineer who is registered in this state.
These standards are intended to provide basic guidance for developing and maintaining a
highway system with reasonable operating characteristics and a minimum number of
hazards.
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Standards established by this Manual are intended for use on all new construction projects
off the state highway and federal aid systems. It is understood that the standards herein
cannot be applied completely to all reconstruction and maintenance type projects.
However, the standards shall be applied to the extent that economic and environmental
considerations and existing development will allow.
When this Manual refers to guidelines and design standards given by current American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) publications, these
guidelines and standards shall generally be considered as minimum criteria. The
Department may have standards and criteria that differ from the minimum presented in this
Manual or by AASHTO for streets and highways under its jurisdiction. A county or
municipality may substitute standards and criteria adopted by the Department for some or
all portions of design, construction, and maintenance of their facilities. Department
standards, criteria, and manuals must be used when preparing projects on the state
highway system or the national highway system.
Criteria and standards set forth in other manuals, which have been incorporated by
reference, shall be considered as requirements within the authority of this Manual.
This Manual is intended for use by qualified engineering practitioners for the
communication of standards and criteria (including various numerical design values and
use conditions). The design, construction, and maintenance references for the
infrastructure features contained in this Manual recognize many variable and often complex
process considerations. The engineering design process, and hence the associated use of
this Manual, incorporates aspects of engineering judgment, design principles, science, and
recognized standards towards matters involving roadway infrastructure.
Users of this Manual are cautioned that the strict application of exact numerical values,
conditions or use information taken from portions of the text may not be appropriate for all
circumstances. Individual references to design values or concepts should not be used out
of context or without supporting engineering judgment.
The contents of this Manual are reviewed annually by the Florida "Greenbook" Advisory
Committee. Membership of this committee is established by the above referenced Section
336.045(2), Florida Statutes. Notification of revisions or additions to the Manual will be
distributed to all registered Manual holders and dated. Comments, suggestions, or
questions may be directed to any committee member.
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POLICY
• Each public street and highway, and all activities thereon, shall be assigned to
the jurisdiction of some highway agency. Each highway agency should establish
and maintain a program to promote safety in all activities on streets and
highways under its jurisdiction.
• Highway safety shall be considered and given a high priority in order to promote
the achievement of the maximum safety benefits for given expenditures and
efforts.
• The provision for safe, high-quality streets and highways, and maximum transit
opportunities should take priority over the provision for the maximum highway
mileage obtainable for the available funds.
OBJECTIVES
• Develop and maintain a highway system that provides the safest practicable
environment for motorists, cyclists, pedestrians, and workers.
• Provide streets and highways with operating characteristics that allow for
reasonable limitations upon the capabilities of vehicles, drivers, cyclists,
pedestrians, and workers.
• Provide uniformity and consistency in the design and operation of streets and
highways.
Additional general and specific objectives related to various topics and activities are
listed throughout this Manual. Where specific standards or recommendations are not
available or applicable, the related objectives shall be utilized as general guidelines.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
The following terms shall, for the purpose of this Manual, have the meanings respectively
ascribed to them, except instances where the context clearly indicates a different meaning.
Definitions of Terms v
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Definitions of Terms ix
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Definitions of Terms x
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CHAPTER 1
PLANNING
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CHAPTER 1
PLANNING
A INTRODUCTION
Planning, as discussed in this section, is not to be confused with the broader transportation
system's planning and project programming which normally precedes the design,
construction, and maintenance of highways.
Developing and maintaining an efficient highway system requires careful planning by each
unit in a highway agency. This includes both planning for the design and construction of
streets and highways and planning for operating the facilities. Overall planning would
include a consideration for all aspects of design, construction, and operations (including
maintenance) affecting the resulting characteristics of streets and highways. These
characteristics will be significantly affected by the degree to which the various demands
and requirements on the highway system are satisfied in the initial planning and design.
Successful highway design requires that the role of each new facility in the overall highway
system be clearly delineated. The determination and clear definition of the function and
classification of each street and highway is also required. Safety and efficiency of new
facilities is predicated, to a large extent, on corridor selection and provisions for adequate
right of way, alignment, and access control. Initial planning and design should also
consider provisions for future modifications and upgrading required by changes in speed,
volume, or standards.
Plans for actually operating a new street or highway should be considered in the initial
planning and should be closely coordinated with the design of the facility. Development of
plans and procedures for successfully operating an existing highway system must include a
consideration of all activities affecting the operating characteristics of each street and
highway.
Planning, designing, operating, and maintaining a highway system has become more
complex in recent years. These disciplines must now address the needs of increased
public transit and pedestrian traffic, increasing bicyclist use, the growing number of elder
road users, and the mobility needs of the disabled. This begins in planning and continues
throughout the design and operational process.
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B CONFLICTING CRITERIA
Development of safe streets and highways for all modes of surface transportation (autos,
trucks, bicycles, pedestrians, transit vehicles, etc.) should receive the highest priority in the
design process. This objective may tend to be compromised by other conflicting
requirements and demands upon the highway system. The following criteria should be
considered and resolved in the initial planning and design of streets and highways to avoid
a sacrifice of required safety characteristics.
In determining the benefit/cost ratio for any proposed facility, the economic
evaluation should go beyond the actual expenditure of highway funds and the
capacity and efficiency of the facility. Overall costs and benefits of various
alternatives should include an evaluation of the probable environmental, community,
and social impact and their effect upon highway quality and cost.
Allocation of sufficient funds for obtaining the proper corridor and adequate right of
way and alignment should receive the initial priority. Future acquisition of additional
right of way and major changes in alignment are often economically prohibitive. This
can result in substandard streets and highways with permanent hazards.
Reconstruction or modification under traffic is expensive, inconvenient, and
hazardous to the highway user. This increase in costs, hazards, and inconvenience
can be limited by initial development of quality facilities.
B.2 Access
Demand for access to streets and highways by adjacent property owners can
produce problems. Although the public must have reasonable access to the
highway network, it is necessary to have certain controls and restrictions. Allowing
indiscriminate access can seriously compromise the safety capacity and level of
service of a street or highway, consequently reducing its utility and general
economic value.
The proper layout of the highway network and the utilization of effective land use
controls (CHAPTER 2 - LAND DEVELOPMENT) can provide the basis for regulating
access. The actual access controls should conform to the guidelines given in
CHAPTER 3 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN.
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Planning and design of streets and highways should include provisions for the
performance of required maintenance. The planning of the expected maintenance
program should be coordinated with the initial highway design to ensure
maintenance activities may be conducted without excessive traffic conflicts or
hazards.
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Quality and value of a community is directly influenced by the layout and design of
streets and highways. Quality of the network determines the freedom and efficiency
of movement. Inadequate design of the network and poor land use practices can
lead to undesirable community separation and deterioration. Specific design of
streets and highways has a large effect upon the overall aesthetic value which is
important to the motorist and resident.
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A determination of the function and operational requirements, and a clear definition of the
classification of each new facility are required prior to the actual design.
C.1 Function
Design of each new street or highway is based upon its function in the highway
system. Operational requirements that must be satisfied to fulfill this function are
dependent upon the following factors:
C.1.a Volume
Types and relative volumes of highway users expected to use the street or
highway influence trip characteristics and design features.
C.1.d Speed
C.1.e Safety
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Degree and type of access permitted on a given facility is dependent upon its
intended function and should conform to the guidelines in CHAPTER 3 -
GEOMETRIC DESIGN. Reasonable access control must be exercised to
allow a street or highway to fulfill its function.
Both current and planned use by public transit influence design features.
Transit vehicles increase capacity on a roadway. There must be the ability to
safely stop along the roadway to board and discharge passengers.
C.2 Classification
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C.2.a.1 Local
C.2.a.2 Collector
C.2.a.3 Arterial
Design and classification of streets and highways should also be based upon
a consideration of highway user expectations. The function of any facility, as
perceived by the user, essentially determines the driver's willingness to
accept restrictions upon speed, capacity, access, or level of service. Basic
classification systems may also be modified by the following variables:
C.2.b.1 Urban
Urban area highway users will generally accept lower speeds and
levels of service. Economic constraints in urban areas are also
generally more severe. Minor modifications in design criteria are,
therefore, appropriate for urban streets.
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C.2.b.2 Major/Minor
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D OPERATION
The concept of operating the existing highway network as a system is essential to promote
safety, efficiency, mobility, and economy. This requires comprehensive planning and
coordination of all activities on each street and highway. These activities would include
maintenance, construction, utility operations, public transit operations, traffic control, and
emergency response operations. Although the behavior of the individual motorist is
somewhat independent, driver actions and response should also be considered as an
integral part of the operation of streets and highways. Coordination of the planning and
supervision of each activity on each facility is necessary to achieve safety and efficient
operation of the total highway system.
D.1 Policy
Each highway agency with general responsibility for existing streets and highways
should establish and maintain an operations department. Each existing street or
highway should be assigned to the jurisdiction of the operations department. The
operations department shall be responsible for planning, supervising, and
coordinating all activities affecting the operating characteristics of the highway
system under its jurisdiction.
D.2 Objectives
D.3 Activities
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special consideration.
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CHAPTER 2
LAND DEVELOPMENT
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CHAPTER 2
LAND DEVELOPMENT
A INTRODUCTION
A major portion of street and highway construction and reconstruction is generated by, and
is accomplished as a result of, land development for residential, commercial, industrial, and
public uses. The general land use layout influences, and is controlled by, connections to
adjacent road networks with different transportation modes. Techniques, principles, and
general layout used for any development also dictate the resulting internal road network.
The arrangement and space allocations for this network may determine whether safe,
efficient, and economical streets and highways are constructed or reconstructed.
Some land development practices do not promote the creation of a high quality road
network. Poor development layouts often result in streets and highways with bad
alignment, insufficient sight distance, and inadequate cross section. Insufficient space
allocations result in cramped, hazardous intersections, narrow roadside clear zones, and
inadequate room for future modifications and expansions. Failure to provide reasonable
control of access causes hazardous operating conditions and a dramatic reduction in the
capacity and economic value of streets and highways.
Although there are many conflicting demands in land development, the provision of an
adequate road network is essential in preserving the social and economic value of any
area. Development controls are needed to aid in the establishment of safe streets and
highways that will retain their efficiency and economic worth. Provisions for adequate
alignment, right of way, setbacks, expansion, and access control are essential.
It is recognized there are many legal, social, and economic problems involved in land use
controls. Proper coordination among the public, various governmental bodies, and public
transit and highway agencies should, however, allow for the solution of many problems.
Implementation of responsible land use and development regulations along with
intergovernmental respect for the goals and objectives of each, will promote a superior,
long term transportation network.
B OBJECTIVES
Provisions for vehicular and pedestrian safety are important objectives to be considered
in land development. Other land development objectives, related to surface transportation,
should include the promotion of smooth traffic flow, efficiency, economy, aesthetics, and
environmental compatibility of the transportation network.
General objectives for land development that should be followed to promote good highway
design include the following:
• Preserve the function of each street and highway (i.e., use of arterial and collector
streets for local circulation seriously compromises safety and capacity)
• Provide for smooth, logical, and energy efficient traffic types and flow patterns
There are many variables involved in land development; therefore, specific standards and
requirements for land use and road network layouts cannot always be applied. Use of
sound principles and guidelines can, however, aid in meeting the objectives of a better road
network. Proper planning and design of the development layout are necessary to provide
a satisfactory road network and to allow for the construction of safe roadways. The
following principles and guidelines should be utilized in the design of the road network, in
the control of access, and in the land use controls and space allocation that would affect
vehicular and pedestrian use.
The general layout of the road network establishes the traffic flow patterns and
conflicts, thereby determining the basic safety and efficiency criteria. The design
of the road network should be based on the following principles:
• The layout of street and highway systems should be logical and easily
understood by the user.
• The design and layout of all streets and highways should clearly indicate
their function (arterial, collector, etc.).
• Elements in the local circulation should be adequate to avoid the need for
extensive traffic controls.
• Often there are streets where abuse of posted speed limits becomes an
enforcement problem and can have a negative safety impact on the
circulation within an urban or residential network. In other situations, there
are community concerns with controlling speed levels such as in areas of
concentrated pedestrian activities, those with narrow right of way, areas with
numerous access points, on street parking, and other similar concerns.
Local authorities may elect to use traffic calming design features which are
presented in CHAPTER 15 - TRAFFIC CALMING.
• The road network should be compatible with other transportation modes such
as mass transit and pedestrian and bicycle facilities. Conflicts between
different modes (particularly with pedestrian and bicycle traffic) should be
kept to a minimum.
• The road network layout should be designed to reduce internal traffic and
pedestrian conflicts and eliminate confusion. Particular emphasis should be
directed toward eliminating substantial speed differentials and hazardous
turning and crossing maneuvers. The following principles should be utilized
for conflict reduction:
The utilization of proper control over access is one of the most effective and
economical means for maintaining the safety and utility of streets and highways.
The procedures and controls used for land development significantly affect access
control. The following principles should be utilized in the formation of land use
controls for limiting access:
The provisions for adequate space and proper location of various activities is
essential to promote safety and efficiency. The following guidelines should be
utilized in land use:
• Design for pedestrian and bicycle facilities should comply with CHAPTER 8 –
PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES and CHAPTER 9 – BICYCLE FACILITIES.
There are many demands that tend to conflict with the development of safe and efficient
streets and highways. Meeting the demand for access can frequently destroy the capacity
of a roadway. Pressure to limit the amount of land dedicated for streets and highways
inhibits the construction of an adequate road system. Coordination between highway
agencies and other governmental bodies can, however, assist in improving the procedures
used in land development. Proper coordination should be solicited from legislative bodies,
courts, planning and zoning departments, and transit and other governmental agencies to
aid in guaranteeing a well designed and adequate highway network. Coordination with
transit planners, developers, engineers, architects, contractors, and other private
individuals, which is also beneficial, should be a continuous process.
E CONTROL TECHNIQUES
The acquisition of sufficient right of way is essential to allow for the construction of
adequate streets and highways as specified in CHAPTER 3 - GEOMETRIC
DESIGN and CHAPTER 4 - ROADSIDE DESIGN. The provision of adequate space
for clear roadside, sight distance, drainage facilities, buffer zones, intersections,
transit, sidewalks, frontage roads, and future expansion is also necessary to
develop and maintain safe streets and highways.
The regulatory authority of state and local highway agencies (and other related
agencies) should be sufficient to implement the necessary land use controls. The
following general regulatory requirements and specific areas of control should be
considered as minimum:
• Control of access
• Driveway design
• Right of way and setback requirements for sight distances and clear
zone
Where land purchase or regulatory authority is not available or appropriate, the use
of contractual arrangements or agreements with individuals can be beneficial.
Negotiations with developers, builders, and private individuals should be used,
where appropriate, to aid in the implementation of the necessary controls.
E.4 Education
CHAPTER 3
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
TABLES
TABLE 3 – 1 RECOMMENDED MINIMUM DESIGN SPEED (MPH) ................... 3-61
TABLE 3 – 2 DESIGN VEHICLES ........................................................................ 3-62
TABLE 3 – 3 HORIZONTAL CURVATURE .......................................................... 3-63
TABLE 3 – 3 HORIZONTAL CURVATURE (Continued) ...................................... 3-64
TABLE 3 – 3 HORIZONTAL CURVATURE (Continued) ...................................... 3-64
TABLE 3 – 4 RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM GRADES IN PERCENT................... 3-65
TABLE 3 – 5 MAXIMUM CHANGE IN GRADE WITHOUT USING VERTICAL
CURVE............................................................................................ 3-65
TABLE 3 – 6 SIGHT DISTANCES AND LENGTHS OF VERTICAL CURVES ..... 3-66
TABLE 3 – 7 MINIMUM LANE WIDTHS............................................................... 3-67
TABLE 3 – 8 MINIMUM WIDTHS OF PAVEMENT AND SHOULDERS FOR
TWO (2) LANE RURAL HIGHWAYS............................................... 3-67
TABLE 3 – 9 SHOULDER WIDTHS FOR MULTILANE RURAL DIVIDED
HIGHWAYS..................................................................................... 3-67
TABLE 3 – 10 MEDIAN WIDTH FOR FREEWAYS (URBAN AND RURAL)........... 3-68
TABLE 3 – 11 MEDIAN WIDTH FOR RURAL HIGHWAYS (MULTILANE
FACILITIES) .................................................................................... 3-68
TABLE 3 – 12 MINIMUM WIDTH OF CLEAR ZONE.............................................. 3-69
TABLE 3 – 13 ACCESS CONTROL FOR ALL LIMITED ACCESS
HIGHWAYS..................................................................................... 3-70
TABLE 3 – 14 SIGHT DISTANCE FOR APPROACH TO STOPS.......................... 3-70
TABLE 3 – 15 LENGTH OF TAPER FOR USE IN CONDITIONS WITH FULL
WIDTH SPEED CHANGE LANES................................................... 3-70
TABLE 3 – 16 DESIGN LENGTHS OF SPEED CHANGE LANES FLAT
GRADES - 2 PERCENT OR LESS.................................................. 3-71
TABLE 3 – 17 RATIO OF LENGTH OF SPEED CHANGE LANE ON GRADE
TO LENGTH ON LEVEL ................................................................. 3-72
TABLE 3 – 18 MINIMUM DECELERATION LENGTHS FOR EXIT
TERMINALS .................................................................................... 3-73
TABLE 3 – 19 MINIMUM ACCELERATION LENGTHS FOR ENTRANCE
TERMINALS .................................................................................... 3-74
TABLE 3 – 20A CALCULATED AND DESIGN VALUES FOR TRAVELED WAY
WIDENING ON OPEN HIGHWAY CURVES (TWO-LANE
HIGHWAYS, ONE-WAY OR TWO-WAY)........................................ 3-75
FIGURES
FIGURE 3 – 1 RURAL HIGHWAYS, URBAN FREEWAYS AND HIGH SPEED
URBAN ARTERIALS ....................................................................... 3-79
FIGURE 3 – 2 URBAN HIGHWAYS AND HIGH SPEED URBAN STREETS ......... 3-80
FIGURE 3 – 2A SIGHT DISTANCE ON CURVES .................................................... 3-81
FIGURE 3 – 3 CRITICAL LENGTH VERSUS UPGRADE ...................................... 3-82
FIGURE 3 – 4 LENGTH OF CREST VERTICAL CURVE (Stopping Sight
Distance) ......................................................................................... 3-83
FIGURE 3 – 5 LENGTH OF CREST VERTICAL CURVE (Passing Sight
Distance) ......................................................................................... 3-84
FIGURE 3 – 6 LENGTH OF SAG VERTICAL CURVE (Headlight Sight
Distance) ......................................................................................... 3-85
FIGURE 3 – 7 SIGHT DISTANCES FOR APPROACH TO STOP ON GRADES ... 3-86
FIGURE 3 – 8 DEPARTURE SIGHT TRIANGLE TRAFFIC APPROACHING
FROM LEFT OR RIGHT.................................................................. 3-87
FIGURE 3 – 9 INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE............................................... 3-88
FIGURE 3 –10 SIGHT DISTANCE FOR VEHICLE TURNING LEFT FROM
MAJOR ROAD ................................................................................ 3-89
FIGURE 3 – 11 TERMINATION OF MERGING LANES ........................................... 3-90
FIGURE 3 – 12 ENTRANCE FOR DECELERATION LANE ..................................... 3-91
FIGURE 3 – 13 TYPICAL STORAGE LANE............................................................. 3-92
CHAPTER 3
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
A INTRODUCTION
Geometric design is defined as the design or proportioning of the visible elements of the
street or highway. The geometry of the roadway is of central importance since it provides
the framework for the design of other highway elements. In addition, the geometric design
establishes the basic nature and quality of the vehicle path, which has a primary effect
upon the overall safety characteristics of the street or highway.
The design of roadway geometry must be conducted in close coordination with other design
elements. These other elements include: pavement design, roadway lighting, traffic control
devices, transit, drainage, and structural design. The design should consider safe roadside
clear zones, pedestrian safety, emergency response, and maintenance capabilities.
The safety characteristics of the design should be given primary consideration. The initial
establishment of sufficient right of way and adequate horizontal and vertical alignment is
not only essential from a safety standpoint, but also necessary to allow future upgrading
and expansion without exorbitant expenditure of highway funds.
The design elements selected should be reasonably uniform but should not be inflexible.
The minimum standards presented in this chapter should not automatically become the
standards for geometric design. The designer should consider use of a higher level, when
practical, and consider cost-benefits as well as consistency with adjacent facilities.
Reconstruction and maintenance of facilities should, where practical, include upgrading to
these minimum standards.
In restricted or unusual conditions, it may not be possible to meet the minimum standards.
In such cases, the designer must obtain an exception in accordance with CHAPTER 14 –
DESIGN EXCEPTIONS from the reviewing or permitting organization. However, every
effort should be made to obtain the best possible alignment, grade, sight distance, and
proper drainage consistent with the terrain, the development, safety, and fund availability.
The concept of highway users has expanded in recent years creating additional concerns
for the designer.
must also now address the needs of pedestrians, transit, bicyclists, elder road users, the
disabled, and other users. This is true for both urban and rural facilities.
The design features of urban local streets are governed by practical limitations to a greater
extent than those of similar roads in rural areas. The two dominant design controls are: (1)
the type and extent of urban development and its limitations on rights of way and (2) zoning
or regulatory restrictions. Some streets primarily are land service streets in residential
areas. In such cases, the overriding consideration is to foster a safe and pleasing
environment. Other streets are land service only in part, and features of traffic and public
transit service may be predominant.
The selection of the type and exact design details of a particular roadway or highway
requires considerable study and thought. When reference is made to guidelines and
design details given by current American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) publications, these guidelines and standards should generally be
considered as minimum criteria. For the design of recreational roads, local service roads,
and alleys, see AASHTO publications.
Right of way and pavement width requirements for new construction may be reduced for
the paving of certain existing unpaved subdivision streets and low volume rural roads
provided all of the conditions listed below are satisfied:
• The 20-year projected ADT is less than 750 vehicles per day and the design year
projected peak hourly volume is 100 vehicles per hour or less. Note: The design
year may be any time within a range of the present to 20 years in the future,
depending on the nature of the improvement.
B OBJECTIVES
The major objective in geometric design is to establish a vehicle path and environment
providing a reasonable margin of safety for the motorist, transit, bicyclist, and pedestrian
under the expected operating conditions and speed. It is recognized that Florida's design
driver is aging and tourism is our major industry. This gives even more emphasis to focus
on simplicity and easily understood geometry and roadway features. The achievement of
this objective may be realized by meeting certain specific objectives, which include the
following:
• Provide the most simple geometry attainable, consistent with the physical
constraints
• Provide a design that has a reasonable and consistent margin of safety at the
expected operating speed
• Provide a design that is safe at night and under adverse weather conditions
• Provide a facility that is adequate for the expected traffic conditions and transit
needs
• Periodic inattention
C DESIGN ELEMENTS
The design speed is defined as a selected rate of travel used to determine the
various geometric features of the roadway. The basic purpose in using the design
speed concept is to achieve consistency in the various design elements that
influence vehicle operations. Since many critical design features (e.g., sight
distance and curvature) are predicated upon design speed, the selection of the
proper value is essential to allow for the safe design of a street or highway.
The primary basis for selecting the design speed should be a rational prediction of
the probable maximum operating speed (by approximately 90 percent of the
vehicles) on the street or highway. The "average running speed" is not acceptable
as a design speed.
Recommended minimum values for design speed are given in Table 3 - 1. These
values should be considered as general guidelines only. The maximum normal
operating speed is dependent on many variables including:
• Topography
• Degree of access
The driver does not necessarily adjust speed to the classification of importance (or
lack of it) of the street or highway.
The design speed shall not be less than the expected posted or legal speed limit. A
design speed 5 mph to 10 mph greater than the posted speed limit will compensate
for a slight overrunning of the speed limit by some drivers.
The use of the higher design speed (no speed restrictions) given in Table 3 - 1 is
recommended for the following situations:
The design speed utilized should be consistent over a given section of highway.
Required changes in design speed should be effected in a gradual fashion. When
isolated reductions in design speed cannot reasonably be avoided, appropriate
speed signs should be posted.
• Alignment
• Acceleration criteria
The provision for adequate horizontal and vertical sight distance is an essential
factor in the development of a safe street or highway. An unobstructed view of the
upcoming roadway is necessary to allow time and space for the safe execution of
passing, stopping, intersection movements, and other normal and emergency
maneuvers. It is also important to provide as great a sight distance as possible to
allow the driver time to plan for future actions. The driver is continuously required to
execute normal slowing, turning, and acceleration maneuvers. If he can plan in
advance for these actions, traffic flow will be smoother and less hazardous.
Unexpected emergency maneuvers will also be less hazardous if they are not
combined with uncertainty regarding the required normal maneuvers. The
appropriate use of lighting (CHAPTER 6 - ROADWAY LIGHTING) may be required
to provide adequate sight distances for night driving.
• Vehicle speed
The stopping sight distance shall be no less than the values given in Table
3 - 6.
Highways with two or more travel lanes in a given direction are not subject to
requirements for safe passing sight distance. Two-lane, two-way highways
should be provided with safe passing sight distance for as much of the
highway as feasible. The driver demand for passing opportunity is high and
serious limitations on the opportunity for passing reduces the capacity and
safe characteristics of the highway.
The distance traveled after the driver's final decision to pass (while
encroaching into the opposite travel path) is that which is required to pass
and return to the original travel lane in front of the overtaken vehicle. In
addition to this distance, the safe passing sight distance must include the
distance traveled by an opposing vehicle during this time period, as well as a
reasonable margin of safety. Due to the many variables in vehicle
characteristics and driver behavior, the passing sight distance should be as
long as is practicable.
Minimum stopping distance does not provide sufficient space or time for the
driver to make decisions regarding complex situations requiring more than
simple perception-reaction process. In many cases, rapid stopping or lane
changing may be extremely undesirable and cause hazardous maneuvers
(i.e., in heavy traffic conditions); therefore, it would be preferable to provide
sufficient sight distance to allow for a more gradual reaction.
The sight distance on a freeway preceding the approach nose of an exit ramp
should exceed the minimum by 25 percent or more. A minimum sight
distance of 1000 feet, measured from the driver's eye to the road surface is a
desirable goal. There should be a clear view of the exit terminal including the
exit nose.
The "broken back" arrangement of curves (short tangent between two curves
in the same direction) should be avoided. This is acceptable only at design
speeds of 30 mph or less. This arrangement produces an unexpected and
hazardous situation.
C.4.b Superelevation
The superelevation rates for rural highways, urban freeways, and high speed
urban arterials are shown in Figure 3 - 1. These rates are based on a
maximum rate of 0.10 foot per foot of roadway width. Additional
superelevation details, given in the Department's Design Standards, may be
considered.
C.4.c Curvature
The travel lane should be widened on sharp curves due to the increased
difficulty for the driver to follow the proper path. Trucks and transit vehicles
experience additional difficulty due to the fact that the rear wheels may track
considerably inside the front wheels thus requiring additional width.
Adjustments to lane widths for mainline and turning roadways are given in
Tables 3 - 20A and 3 - 20B. A transition length shall be introduced in changing
to an increased/decreased lane width. This transition length shall be
proportional to the increase/decrease in pavement width in a ratio of not less
than 50 feet of transition length for each foot of change in lane width.
• Flat grades and long gentle vertical curves should be used whenever
possible.
C.5.b Grades
The grades selected for vertical alignment should be as flat as practical, and
should not be greater than the value given in Table 3 - 4.
For streets and highways requiring long upgrades, the maximum grade
should be reduced so the speed reduction of slow-moving vehicles (e.g.,
trucks and buses) is not greater than 10 mph. The critical lengths of grade
for these speed reductions are shown in Figure 3 - 3. Where reduction of
grade is not practical, climbing lanes should be provided to meet these speed
reduction limitations.
The criteria for a climbing lane and the adjacent shoulder are the same as for
any travel lane except that the climbing lane should be clearly designated by
the appropriate pavement markings. Entrance to and exit from the climbing
lane shall follow the same criteria as other merging traffic lanes; however, the
climbing lane should not be terminated until well beyond the crest of the
vertical curve. Differences in superelevation should not be sufficient to
produce a change in pavement cross slope between the climbing lane and
• Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the low point
of a pronounced sag vertical curve to prevent an undesirable distorted
appearance. Vehicle speeds are often high at the bottom of grades and
erratic operation may result, especially at night.
The design of the highway cross section should be predicated upon the design
speed, terrain, adjacent land use, classification, and the type and volume of traffic
expected. The cross section selected should be uniform throughout a given length
of street or highway without frequent or abrupt changes.
C.7.b Pavement
The paved surface of all travel lanes shall be designed and constructed in
accordance with the requirements set forth in CHAPTER 5 - PAVEMENT
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION.
Traffic lanes should be 12 feet in width, but shall not be less than 10
feet in width. Streets and highways with significant truck/bus traffic
should have 12 feet wide traffic lanes. For minimum lane widths, see
Table 3 - 7 and Table 3 - 8. If additional lane width is required for
bicycles, see CHAPTER 9 – BICYCLE FACILITIES.
C.7.c Shoulders
Paved shoulders are recommended for added safety to the motorist, public
transit and pedestrians, for accommodation of bicyclists, reduced shoulder
maintenance costs, and improved drainage.
C.7.d Sidewalks
The design of sidewalks is affected by many factors, including, but not limited
to, pedestrian volume, roadway type, characteristics of vehicular traffic, and
other design elements. CHAPTER 8 - PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES of this
Manual and the AASHTO – "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets," present the various factors that influence the design of sidewalks
and other pedestrian facilities.
The standard width of a sidewalk should be 5 feet when separated from the
back of curb by a buffer strip. A 4-foot sidewalk may be considered when
physical constraints exist and where necessary right of way is unavailable or
prohibitively expensive. When sidewalks must be constructed adjacent to the
curb, the minimum width should be 6 feet. Sidewalks should be constructed
as defined in this Manual - CHAPTER 8 - PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES. In
areas of high use, refer to Chapter 18 of the Highway Capacity Manual for
calculation of appropriate width. As noted in the Department's Bicycle
Facilities Planning and Design Handbook, excessively wide sidewalks may
not necessarily add to pedestrian and bicycle safety. Wide sidewalks may
encourage higher speed bicycle use and can increase the potential for
conflict with motor vehicles at intersections and driveways, as well as with
pedestrians and fixed objects.
Maximum cross slope shall be 2%, and grades shall not exceed 8.33%. Curb
ramps shall be provided at all intersections (Section 336.045 (3), Florida
Statutes). For additional details, refer to the current Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) Accessibility Guidelines (as described in the Federal
Register), and the Florida Accessibility Code For Building Construction (Rule
9B-7.0042).
C.7.e Medians
The use of medians often aids in the provision of drainage for the roadway
surface, particularly for highways with six or more traffic lanes. The median
also provides a vehicle refuge area, improves the safety of pedestrian
crossings, provides a logical location for left turn storage lanes, and provides
the means for future addition of traffic lanes and mass transit. In many
situations, the median strip aids in roadway delineation and the overall
highway aesthetics.
• Freeways
• All streets and highways, rural and urban, with 4 or more travel lanes
and with a design speed of 40 mph or greater
In rural areas, the use of wide medians is not only aesthetically pleasing, but
is often more economical than barriers. In urban areas where space and/or
economic constraints are severe, the use of barriers is permitted to fulfill the
requirements for median separation.
The median cross slope should not be steeper than1:6 (preferably not
steeper than 1:10). The depth of depressed medians may be
controlled by drainage requirements. Increasing the width of the
median, rather than increasing the cross slope, is the proper method
for developing the required median depth.
The roadside clear zone is that area outside the traveled way available for
use by errant vehicles. Vehicles frequently leave the traveled way during
avoidance maneuvers, due to loss of control by the driver (e.g., falling
asleep) or due to collisions with other vehicles. The primary function of the
clear zone is to allow space and time for the driver to retain control of his
vehicle and avoid or reduce the consequences of collision with roadside
objects. This area also serves as an emergency refuge location for disabled
vehicles.
The design of the roadway must also provide for adequate drainage of the
roadway. Drainage swales within the clear zone should be gently rounded
and free of discontinuities. Where large volumes of water must be carried,
the approach should be to provide wide, rather than deep drainage channels.
Side slopes and drainage swales that lie within the clear zone should be free
of protruding drainage structures (CHAPTER 4 - ROADSIDE DESIGN, D.6.c.
Culverts).
increase the width of the clear zone. Where traffic volumes and
speeds are high, the width should be increased. The clear zone on
the outside of horizontal curves should be increased due to the
possibility of vehicles leaving the roadway at a steeper angle.
C.7.g Curbs
C.7.h Parking
• Allow corner cuts for upstream corner crossing drainage systems and
placement of poles, boxes, and other visual screens out of the critical
sight triangle
Local cul-de-sac and dead end streets having an ADT of less than 250, and
a length of 600 feet or less, may utilize a right of way of less than 50 feet, if
all elements of the typical section meet the standards included in this
Manual.
The right of way for frontage roads may be reduced depending on the typical
section requirements and the ability to share right of way with the adjacent
highway facility.
C.7.j.4 Structures
The minimum roadway width for bridges on urban streets with curb
and gutter shall be the same as the curb-to-curb width of the approach
roadway. Sidewalks on the approaches should be carried across all
structures. Curbed sidewalks should not be used adjacent to traffic
lanes when design speeds exceed 45 mph. When the bridge rail
(barrier wall) is placed between the traffic and sidewalk, it should be
offset a minimum distance of 2½ feet from the edge of the travel lane,
wide curb lane or bicycle lane. For long (500 feet or greater), and/or
high level bridges, it is desirable to provide an offset distance that will
accommodate a disabled vehicle. The transition from the bridge to
the adjacent roadway section may be made by dropping the curb at
the first intersection or well in advance of the traffic barrier, or
reducing the curb in front of the barrier to a low mountable curb with a
gently sloped traffic face. See CHAPTER 17 – BRIDGES AND
OTHER STRUCTURES for additional requirements.
All new facilities (and existing when possible) should have some degree of access
control, since each point of access produces a traffic conflict. The control of access
is one of the most effective, efficient, and economical methods for improving the
capacity and safety characteristics of streets and highways. The reduction of the
frequency of access points and the restriction of turning and crossing maneuvers,
which should be primary objectives, is accomplished more effectively by the design
of the roadway geometry than by the use of traffic control devices. Design criteria
for access points are presented under the general requirements for intersection
design.
C.8.a Justification
All access locations should have adequate sight distance available for
the safe execution of entrance, exit, and crossing maneuvers.
Deceleration lanes for right turn exits (and left turns, where permitted)
should be provided on all high-speed facilities. These turn lanes
should not be excessive or continuous, since they complicate
pedestrian crossings and bicycle/motor vehicle movements.
C.8.b.6 Roundabouts
Entrances and exits on the right side only are highly desirable for all limited
access highways. Acceleration and deceleration lanes are mandatory.
It should be the policy of each agency with responsibility for highway design,
construction, or maintenance to promote close liaison with utility, lawmaking,
zoning, building, and planning agencies. Cooperation should be solicited in
the formulation of laws, regulations, and master plans for land use, zoning,
and highway construction. Further requirements and criteria for access
control and land use relationships are given in CHAPTER 2 - LAND
DEVELOPMENT.
Intersections increase traffic conflicts and the demands on the driver, and are
inherently hazardous locations. The design of an intersection should be predicated
on reducing motor vehicle, bicycle, and pedestrian conflicts, minimizing the
confusion and demands on the driver for rapid and/or complex decisions, and
providing for smooth traffic flow. The location and spacing of intersections should
follow the requirements presented in C.8 Access Control, this chapter. Intersections
should be designed to minimize time and distance of all who pass through or turn at
an intersection.
The additional effort and expense required to provide a high quality intersection is
justified by the corresponding safety benefits. The overall reduction in crash
potential derived from a given expenditure for intersection improvements is
generally much greater than the same expenditure for improvements along an open
roadway. Properly designed intersections increase capacity, reduce delays, and
improve safety.
One of the most common deficiencies that may be easy to correct is lack of
adequate left turn storage.
The requirements and design criteria contained in this section are applicable to all
driveways, intersections, and interchanges. All entrances to, exits from, or
interconnections between streets and highways are subject to these design
standards.
• The approach roadways should be free from steep grades and sharp
horizontal or vertical curves.
The provisions for sight distance are limited by the highway geometry
and the nature and development of the area adjacent to the roadway.
Where line of sight is limited by vertical curvature or obstructions,
stopping sight distance shall be based on the eye height of 3.50 feet
and an object height of 0.50 feet. At exits or other locations where the
driver may be uncertain as to the roadway alignment, a clear view of
the pavement surface should be provided. At locations requiring a
clear view of other vehicles or pedestrians for the safe execution of
crossing or entrance maneuvers, the sight distance should be based
on a driver's eye height of 3.50 feet and an object height of 3.00 feet
(preferably 1.50 feet). The height of eye for truck traffic may be
increased for determination of line of sight obstructions for
intersection maneuvers. Obstructions to sight distance at
intersections include the following:
Distance “b” is the length of the leg of the sight triangle along the
major road measured from the center of the minor road entrance lane.
This distance is a function of the design speed and the time gap in
major road traffic needed for minor road drivers turning onto or
crossing the major road. This distance is calculated as follows:
ISD = 1.47Vmajortg
Where:
ISD = Intersection Sight Distance (ft.) – length of leg of
sight triangle along the major road.
Vmajor = Design Speed (mph) of the Major Road
tg = Time gap (sec.) for minor road vehicle to enter
the major road.
For intersections with stop control on the minor road, there are three
maneuvers or cases that must be considered. ISD is calculated for
each maneuver case that may occur at the intersection. The case
requiring the greatest ISD will control. Cases that must be considered
are as follows (Case numbers correspond to cases identified in the
AASHTO Green Book):
Case B3 – Crossing the Major Road from the Minor (stop controlled)
Road
See Sections C.9.b.4.(c) and (d) for design time gaps for Case B.
For intersections with all way stop control see Section C.9.b.4.(f)
(AASHTO Case E).
For left turns from the major road see Section C.9.b.4.(g) (AASHTO
Case F).
Design time gap values for left turns from the minor road onto
two lane two way major highway are as follows:
For left turning vehicles that cross more than one opposing
lane, add 0.5 seconds for passenger cars and 0.7 seconds for
trucks for each additional lane to be crossed.
Auxiliary lanes are desirable for the safe execution of speed change
maneuvers (acceleration and deceleration) and for the storage and
protection of turning vehicles. Auxiliary lanes for exit or entrance turning
maneuvers shall be provided in accordance with the requirements set forth in
C.8 Access Control, this chapter. The pavement width and cross slopes of
auxiliary lanes should meet the minimum requirements for all travel lanes.
The final speed at the end of the acceleration lane, should, desirably,
be assumed as the design speed of the through roadway. The length
of acceleration lane provided should be at least as long as the
distance required for acceleration between the initial and final speeds.
Due to the uncertainties regarding vehicle capabilities and driver
behavior, additional length is desirable. The acceleration lane should
be followed by a merging taper (similar to Figure 3 - 11), not less than
that length set forth in Table 3 - 15. The termination of acceleration
lanes should conform to the general configuration shown for merging
lanes in Figure 3 - 11. Recommended acceleration lanes for freeway
entrance terminals are given in Table 3 - 19.
The design and construction of turning roadways shall meet the same
general requirements for through roadways, except for the specific
requirements given in the subsequent sections.
Where right turns from through or turn lanes will be negotiated at low
speeds (less than 10 mph), the minimum turning capabilities of the
vehicle may govern the design. It is desirable that the turning radius
and the required lane width be provided in accordance with the criteria
for turning roadways. The radius of the inside pavement edge should,
however, be sufficient to allow the expected vehicles to negotiate the
turn without encroaching the shoulder or adjacent travel lanes.
Where turning roadway criteria are not used, the radius of the inside
pavement edge should be no less than 25 feet. The use of three-
centered compound curves is also a reasonable practice to allow for
transition into and out of the curve. The recommended radii and
arrangement of compound curves instead of a single simple curve is
given in AASHTO – "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets" - 2001.
Where islands are used for channelization, the width of travel lanes
for turning movements shall be no less than the widths recommended
by AASHTO.
C.9.e.4 Channelization
The use of low easily mounted curbs and flush medians and islands
can provide adequate delineation in most cases. Island should be
clearly visible and, in general, should not be smaller than 100 square
feet in area. The use of small and/or numerous islands should be
avoided.
C.9.f Driveways
Direct driveway access within the area of influence of the intersection should
be discouraged.
Driveways from major traffic generators (greater than 400 vpd), or those with
significant truck/bus traffic, should be designed as normal intersections.
C.9.g Interchanges
ensure vehicles entering from loops are not directed across through travel
lanes. The entering roadway should be brought parallel (or nearly so) to
the through lanes before entry is permitted. Where acceleration is required,
the distances shown in Table 3 - 19 shall, as a minimum, be provided. Exits
and entrances to all high-speed facilities (design speed greater than 50 mph),
should, where feasible, be designed in accordance with Tables 3 - 18 and 3 -
19. The lengths obtained from Tables 3 - 18 and 3 - 19 should be adjusted for
grade by using the ratios in Table 3 - 17.
The selection of the type and exact design details of a particular interchange
requires considerable study and thought. The guidelines and design details
given in AASHTO "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets" -
2001, should generally be considered as minimum criteria.
The layout and design of the highway network should include provisions for
pedestrian traffic in urban areas. All pedestrian crossings and pathways
within the highway right of way should be considered and designed as in
integral part of any street or urban highway. Design shall be in compliance
with the Accessibility Guidelines (as described in the Federal Register), and
the Florida Accessibility Code For Building Construction (Rule 9B-7.0042).
The planning and design of new streets and urban highways shall
include provisions for the safe orderly movement of pedestrian traffic.
Provisions for pedestrian travel outside of the highway right of way
should be considered.
C.10.a.3 Sidewalks
Sidewalks 5 feet wide or wider will provide for two adults to walk
comfortably side by side.
Typical curb ramp width shall be a minimum of 3 feet with 1:12 curb
transitions on each side when pedestrians must walk across the ramp.
Ramp slopes shall not exceed 1:12 and shall have a slip resistant
surface texture. Ramp widths equal to crosswalk widths are
encouraged.
Two ramps per corner are preferred to minimize the problems with
entry angle and to decrease the delay to people in wheel chairs or
visually impaired pedestrians entering and exiting the roadway.
Provisions for bicycle traffic should be incorporated into the original highway
design. All new roadways and major corridor improvements, except limited
access highways, should be designed and constructed under the assumption
they will be used by bicyclists. Roadway conditions should be favorable for
bicycling. This includes safe drainage grates, pavement markings, and
railroad crossings, smooth pavements, and signals responsive to bicycles. In
addition, facilities such as bicycle lanes, bicycle routes, and shoulder
improvements, should be included to the fullest extent feasible. All rural
arterial and collector sections should be given consideration for the
construction of 4-foot or 5-foot paved shoulders. In addition, all urban arterial
and collector sections should be given consideration for either undesignated
or designated 4-foot bike lanes.
The minimum design loading for all new and reconstructed bridges shall be in
accordance with CHAPTER 17 – BRIDGES AND OTHER STRUCTURES.
The end of a dead end street should permit travel return with a turn around
area, considering backing movements, which will accommodate single truck
or transit vehicles without encroachment upon private property.
Recommended treatment for dead end streets and cul-de-sacs is given in
Exhibit 5-8 of AASHTO – "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets" - 2001.
Due to the length of exposure and discomfort from traffic, bus benches
should be set back at least 10 feet from the travel lane in curbed sections
and outside the clear zone (Table 3 - 12) in non curbed sections.
Any bus bench or transit shelter located adjacent to a sidewalk within the
right of way of any road on the State Highway or County Road System shall
be located so as to leave at least 36 inches clearance for pedestrians and
persons in wheelchairs. Such clearance shall be measured in a direction
perpendicular to the centerline of the road. A separate bench pad or
sidewalk flareout should be considered. Transit shelters should be set back,
rather than eliminated during roadway widening.
Often there are community concerns with controlling travel speeds impacting
the safety of a corridor such as in areas of concentrated pedestrian activities,
those with narrow right of way, areas with numerous access points, on street
parking, and other similar concerns. Local authorities may elect to use traffic
calming design features that could include, but not be limited to, the
installation of speed humps, speed tables, chicanes, or other pavement
undulations. Roundabouts are also another method of dealing with this issue
at intersections. For additional details and traffic calming treatments, refer to
CHAPTER 15 – TRAFFIC CALMING.
C.11 Reconstruction
C.11.a Introduction
C.11.c Priorities
• Auxiliary lanes.
See CHAPTER 14 - DESIGN EXCEPTIONS for the process to use when the
standard criteria found in this Manual cannot be met.
TABLE 3 – 1
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM DESIGN SPEED (MPH)
URBAN RURAL
Arterial (Major) 40 55 55 70
Arterial (Minor) 35 50 55 70
Collector (Major) 35 45 50 65
Collector (Minor) 30 40 40 60
Local ** 20 30 30 50
* Speed restrictions are features of the design which would effectively limit the operating speed,
such as:
a. Short length of roadway (i.e., dead-end street)
b. Closely spaced stop signs, traffic signals or other control devices
c. Locations that would by nature of the surrounding development or land use,
indicate to the driver that lower speeds were necessary
** Design speeds lower that 30 mph may be used for local, subdivision type roads and streets.
Streets with a design speed less than 30 mph shall be posted with appropriate legal speed limit
signs.
TABLE 3 – 2
DESIGN VEHICLES
Motor Home MH 20 4 6 30 8 12
* Distance between rear wheels of front trailer and front wheels of rear trailer
TABLE 3 – 3
HORIZONTAL CURVATURE
RURAL URBAN
High-Speed Highways and Streets
Based on eMAX = 0.10 Based on eMAX = 0.05
Design Max. Degree of Min. Radius Design Speed Max. Degree of Min. Radius
Speed (MPH) Curvature (FEET) (MPH) Curvature (FEET)
15 104° 45' 55 --- --- ---
20 57° 45' 100 --- --- ---
25 36° 15' 160 --- --- ---
30 24° 45' 230 30 20° 00' 285
35 17° 45' 320 35 14° 15' 400
40 13° 15' 430 40 10° 45' 535
45 10° 15' 555 45 8° 15' 695
50 8° 15' 695 50 6° 30' 880
55 6° 30' 880 55 5° 00' 1125
60 5° 15' 1095 --- --- ---
65 4° 15' 1345 --- --- ---
70 3° 30' 1640 --- --- ---
TABLE 3 – 3
HORIZONTAL CURVATURE
(Continued)
30 24° 45' 16
35 17° 45' 19
40 13° 15' 21
45 10° 15' 23
50 8° 15' 27
55 6° 30' 29
60 5° 15' 31
65 4° 15' 33
70 3° 30' 35
TABLE 3 – 4
RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM GRADES IN PERCENT
Freeway --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 4 4 3 3 3 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 5 5 4 4 4
Rural --- --- --- --- --- 5 5 4 4 3 3 3 --- --- --- --- --- 6 6 5 5 4 4 4
Arterial *
Urban --- --- --- 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 --- --- --- --- --- 9 8 8 7 7 6 6 --- ---
Industrial ** --- --- --- 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 --- --- --- --- --- 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 --- ---
** Local and collector streets with significant (15% or more) truck traffic.
For short sections less than 500' and for one-way downgrades, the maximum gradient may be 1% steeper.
TABLE 3 – 5
MAXIMUM CHANGE IN GRADE
WITHOUT USING VERTICAL CURVE
TABLE 3 – 6
SIGHT DISTANCES AND LENGTHS OF VERTICAL CURVES
TABLE 3 – 7
MINIMUM LANE WIDTHS
Minimum Lane Width (FEET)
Freeways 12
Major Arterials 11
Minor Arterials 11
Collectors (Major and Minor) 11
Local Roads * 10
Auxiliary Lanes 10
* Pavement widths may be reduced for the paving of certain existing unpaved subdivision streets
and low volume rural roads. See CHAPTER 3, SECTION A for conditions.
TABLE 3 – 8
MINIMUM WIDTHS OF PAVEMENT AND SHOULDERS
FOR TWO (2) LANE RURAL HIGHWAYS
DESIGN AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC (2 - WAY)
SPEED 250 250 - 400 400 - 750 750 - 1,600 ABOVE 1,600
(MPH) MINIMUM WIDTH OF PAVEMENT (FEET)
30 20 20 22 22 24
35 20 20 22 22 24
40 20 20 22 22 24
45 20 20 22 22 24
50 20 20 22 24 24
55 20 22 22 24 24
60 20 22 22 24 24
65 20 22 24 24 24
MINIMUM WIDTH OF SHOULDER (FEET)
ALL 6 6 6 8 8
TABLE 3 – 9
SHOULDER WIDTHS FOR MULTILANE RURAL DIVIDED HIGHWAYS
TABLE 3 – 10
MEDIAN WIDTH FOR FREEWAYS
(URBAN AND RURAL)
Under 60 40 *
TABLE 3 – 11
MEDIAN WIDTH FOR RURAL HIGHWAYS
(MULTILANE FACILITIES)
55 and Over 40
Under 55 22
50 19.5
Paved medians with a minimum width of 10 feet may be used for two-way turn lanes and painted medians
when design speeds are 40 mph or less.
TABLE 3 – 12
MINIMUM WIDTH OF CLEAR ZONE
*
From face of curb
**
On projects where the 4 foot minimum offset cannot be reasonably obtained and other
alternatives are deemed impractical, the minimum may be reduced to 1 ½'.
•
Use rural for urban facilities when no curb and gutter is present. Measured from the edge of
through travel lane on rural section.
••
Curb and gutter not to be used on facilities with design speed > 45mph.
TABLE 3 – 13
ACCESS CONTROL FOR ALL LIMITED ACCESS HIGHWAYS
URBAN RURAL
MINIMUM SPACING
MANEUVER RESTRICTIONS
TABLE 3 – 14
SIGHT DISTANCE FOR APPROACH TO STOPS
(Rounded Values)
DESIGN SPEED
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
(MPH)
STOPPING SIGHT
DISTANCE (FEET) 50 80 115 155 200 250 305 360 425 495 570 645 730
(Minimum)
TABLE 3 – 15
LENGTH OF TAPER FOR USE IN CONDITIONS
WITH FULL WIDTH SPEED CHANGE LANES
DESIGN SPEED
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
(MPH)
LENGTH OF
DECELERATION 80 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 270 290 300
TAPER (FEET)
LENGTH OF
ACCELERATION 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 210 230 250 260 280
TAPER (FEET)
TABLE 3 – 16
DESIGN LENGTHS OF SPEED CHANGE LANES
FLAT GRADES - 2 PERCENT OR LESS
Design Speed of turning Stop
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
roadway curve (MPH) Condition
Minimum curve radius
--- 55 100 160 230 320 430 555 695
(FEET)
Design Length
Speed of of
Total length of DECELERATION LANE, including taper, (FEET)
Highway Taper
(MPH) (FEET)*
30 150 385 350 320 290 --- --- --- --- ---
35 170 450 420 380 355 320 --- --- --- ---
40 190 510 485 455 425 375 345 --- --- ---
45 210 595 560 535 505 460 430 --- --- ---
50 230 665 635 615 585 545 515 455 405 ---
55 250 730 705 690 660 630 600 535 485 ---
60 270 800 770 750 730 700 675 620 570 510
65 290 860 830 810 790 760 730 680 630 570
70 300 915 890 870 850 820 790 740 690 640
Design Length
Speed of of
Total length of ACCELERATION LANE, including taper (FEET)
Highway Taper
(MPH) (FEET)*
30 120 300 260 --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
35 140 420 360 300 --- --- --- --- --- ---
40 160 520 460 430 370 280 --- --- --- ---
45 180 740 670 620 560 460 340 --- --- ---
50 210 930 870 820 760 660 560 340 --- ---
55 230 1190 1130 1040 1010 900 780 550 380 ---
60 250 1450 1390 1350 1270 1160 1050 800 670 430
65 260 1670 1610 1570 1480 1380 1260 1030 860 630
70 280 1900 1840 1800 1700 1630 1510 1280 1100 860
* For urban street auxiliary lanes, shorter tapers may be used due to lower operating speeds. Refer to
Figure 3 - 13 for allowable taper rates.
TABLE 3 – 17
RATIO OF LENGTH OF SPEED CHANGE LANE ON GRADE
TO LENGTH ON LEVEL
TABLE 3 – 18
MINIMUM DECELERATION LENGTHS FOR EXIT TERMINALS
Highway L = Deceleration Length (FEET)
Design
Speed For Design Speed of Exit Curve (MPH)
(MPH) Stop
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Condition
30 235 200 170 140 --- --- --- --- ---
35 280 250 210 185 150 --- --- --- ---
40 320 295 265 235 185 155 --- --- ---
45 385 350 325 295 250 220 --- --- ---
50 435 405 385 355 315 285 225 175 ---
55 480 455 440 410 380 350 285 235 ---
60 530 500 480 460 430 405 350 300 240
65 570 540 520 500 470 440 390 340 280
70 615 590 570 550 520 490 440 390 340
Recommended when design speed at exit curve is 50 MPH or greater and when approach
visibility is good.
Recommended when design speed at exit curve is less than 50 MPH or when approach
visibility is not good.
TABLE 3 – 19
MINIMUM ACCELERATION LENGTHS FOR ENTRANCE TERMINALS
Geometric Design
(FEET) 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Topic # 625-000-015
7000 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.9
6500 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0
6000 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.0
5500 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.1
5000 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.1
Manual of Uniform Minimum Standards
4500 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.2
for Design, Construction and Maintenance
4000 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.3
3500 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.4
3000 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
2500 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
2000 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.1
1800 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.5 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2
1600 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.2 3.3 3.4
1400 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.6
1200 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.7 3.8 3.9
1000 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.4 3.6 3.7 3.9 4.0 4.2 4.4
900 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.1 4.3 4.5
800 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8
700 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0
600 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.5 4.7 4.9 5.1 5.3 5.5
500 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.9 4.3 4.5 4.7 4.9 5.3 5.5 5.7 5.9
450 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.7 4.9 5.1 5.7 5.9 6.1
400 4.2 4.4 4.7 5.2 5.4 5.7 6.2 6.4 6.7
350 4.8 5.1 5.3 5.8 6.1 6.3 6.8 7.1 7.3
300 5.6 5.9 6.6 6.9 7.6 7.9
250 6.8 7.8 8.8
200 8.5 9.5 10.5
Notes: Values shown are for WB-50 design vehicle and represent widening in feet. For other design vehicles, use adjustments in Table 3-20B.
Values less than 2.0 feet may be disregarded.
For 3-lane roadways, multiply above values by 1.5.
3-75
May - 2005
TABLE 3 – 20B
ADJUSTMENTS FOR TRAVELED WAY WIDENING VALUES ON OPEN HIGHWAY
CURVES (TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS, ONE-WAY OR TWO-WAY)
Radius Design Vehicle
of Curve
(FEET) SU WB-40 WB-62 WB-65 WB-67D WB-100T WB-109D
7000 -1.1 -1.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3
6500 -1.1 -1.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.3
6000 -1.2 -1.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.3
5500 -1.2 -1.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.4
5000 -1.2 -1.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.4
4500 -1.2 -1.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.5
4000 -1.2 -1.2 0.2 0.2 -0.1 0.1 0.5
3500 -1.3 -1.2 0.2 0.3 -0.1 0.1 0.6
3000 -1.3 -1.2 0.2 0.3 -0.1 0.1 0.7
2500 -1.4 -1.2 0.3 0.4 -0.1 0.1 0.8
2000 -1.5 -1.3 0.3 0.5 -0.1 0.2 1.0
1800 -1.5 -1.3 0.4 0.5 -0.1 0.2 1.1
1600 -1.6 -1.4 0.4 0.6 -0.1 0.2 1.3
1400 -1.7 -1.4 0.5 0.6 -0.2 0.2 1.5
1200 -1.8 -1.5 0.5 0.8 -0.2 0.3 1.7
1000 -2.0 -1.6 0.6 0.9 -0.2 0.3 2.0
900 -2.1 -1.7 0.7 1.0 -0.2 0.4 2.3
800 -2.2 -1.8 0.8 1.1 -0.3 0.4 2.6
700 -2.4 -1.9 0.9 1.3 -0.3 0.5 2.9
600 -2.6 -2.0 1.1 1.5 -0.4 0.6 3.4
500 -2.9 -2.2 1.3 1.8 -0.4 0.7 4.1
450 -3.2 -2.4 1.4 2.0 -0.5 0.7 4.6
400 -3.4 -2.5 1.6 2.3 -0.5 0.8 5.1
350 -3.8 -2.8 1.9 2.6 -0.6 1.0 5.9
300 -4.3 -3.0 2.2 3.0 -0.7 1.1 6.9
250 -4.9 -3.5 2.6 3.7 -0.9 1.4 8.3
200 -5.9 -4.1 3.3 4.6 -1.1 1.7 10.5
Notes: Adjustments are applied by adding to or subtracting from the values in Table 3-20A
Adjustments depend only on radius and design vehicle; they are independent of roadway width
and design speed.
For 3-lane roadways, multiply above values by 1.5.
For 4-lane roadways, multiply above values by 2.0.
TABLE 3 – 21
DESIGN WIDTHS OF PAVEMENTS FOR TURNING ROADWAYS
Pavement Width (FEET)
Case I Case II
Case III
One-Lane, One-Way One-Lane, One-Way
Two-Lane Operation -
Operation - No Operation - With
Either One-Way or
Provision for Passing Provision for Passing
Two-Way
a Stalled Vehicle a Stalled Vehicle
Radius on Inner Edge
of Pavement Design Traffic and Conditions
R (FEET)
A B C A B C A B C
50 18 18 23 20 26 30 31 36 45
75 16 17 20 19 23 27 29 33 38
100 15 16 18 18 22 25 28 31 35
150 14 15 17 18 21 23 26 29 32
200 13 15 16 17 20 22 26 28 30
300 13 15 15 17 20 22 25 28 29
400 13 15 15 17 19 21 25 27 28
500 12 15 15 17 19 21 25 27 28
Tangent 12 14 14 17 18 20 24 26 26
Width Modification Regarding Edge of Pavement Treatment:
No stabilized shoulder None None None
Vertical curb:
TABLE 3 – 22
SUPERELEVATION RATES FOR CURVES AT INTERSECTIONS
Note: Preferably use superelevation rates greater than these minimum values.
TABLE 3 – 23
MAXIMUM RATE OF CHANGE IN PAVEMENT EDGE
ELEVATION FOR CURVES AT INTERSECTIONS
TABLE 3 – 24
MAXIMUM ALGEBRAIC DIFFERENCE IN PAVEMENT
CROSS SLOPE AT TURNING ROADWAY TERMINALS
FIGURE 3 – 1
RURAL HIGHWAYS, URBAN FREEWAYS
AND HIGH SPEED URBAN ARTERIALS
FIGURE 3 – 2
URBAN HIGHWAYS AND HIGH SPEED URBAN STREETS
a. When the speed curves and the degree of curve lines intersect above this line,
the pavement is to be superelevated (positive slope) at the rates indicated at the
lines intersecting points.
b. When the speed curves and the degree of curve lines intersect between these
limits, the pavement is to be superelevated at the rate of 0.02 (positive slope).
c. When the speed curves and the degree of curve lines intersect below this line, the
pavement is to have normal crown (typically 0.02 and 0.03 downward slopes).
FIGURE 3 – 2A
SIGHT DISTANCE ON CURVES
FIGURE 3 – 3
CRITICAL LENGTH VERSUS UPGRADE
FIGURE 3 – 4
LENGTH OF CREST VERTICAL CURVE
(Stopping Sight Distance)
FIGURE 3 – 5
LENGTH OF CREST VERTICAL CURVE
(Passing Sight Distance)
FIGURE 3 – 6
LENGTH OF SAG VERTICAL CURVE
(Headlight Sight Distance)
FIGURE 3 – 7
SIGHT DISTANCES FOR APPROACH TO STOP ON GRADES
V2
S = 3.675V +
30(0.3478 ± G )
S = Sight Distance
V = Design Speed
G = Grade
FIGURE 3 – 8
DEPARTURE SIGHT TRIANGLE
TRAFFIC APPROACHING FROM LEFT OR RIGHT
FIGURE 3 – 9
INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE
Left Turn from Stop - Passenger Car
1100
Sight Distance (feet)
1000
65 mph
900 60
800 55
700 50
45
600 40
500 35
400
30
25
300 20
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of Lanes Crossed
To Make a Left Turn onto the Major Road
A vehicle crosses one lane to make a left turn onto a two lane-two way road; crosses two lanes on a four lane undivided
road; and so forth. For divided highways, convert median widths to equivalent number of lanes. For medians 25' and
greater a two step maneuver may be considered - see text.
1000
65 mph
900 60
800 55
700 50
45
600 40
500 35
400
30
25
300 20
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Lanes Crossed
For right turn maneuver use distance based on 2 lanes crossed.
For crossing divided highways, convert median widths to equivalent number of lanes. For medians 25' and greater a two
step maneuver may be considered - see text.
FIGURE 3 –10
SIGHT DISTANCE FOR VEHICLE TURNING LEFT FROM MAJOR ROAD
700 60
55
600 50
45
500 40
400 35
30
300 25
20
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of Opposing Lanes Crossed
FIGURE 3 – 11
TERMINATION OF MERGING LANES
FIGURE 3 – 12
ENTRANCE FOR DECELERATION LANE
FIGURE 3 – 13
TYPICAL STORAGE LANE
In absence of a turning movement study, it is recommended that 100 ft. of queue length be provided in
urban/suburban areas and 50 ft. of queue length be provided in rural/town areas as a minimum.
35 25 70 75 ---
40 30 80 75 ---
45 35 85 100 ---
CHAPTER 4
ROADSIDE DESIGN
CHAPTER 4
ROADSIDE DESIGN
A INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents guidelines and standards for roadside designs intended to reduce
the likelihood and/or consequences of roadside crashes. Construction and maintenance
of safe medians and roadsides are of vital importance in the development of safe streets
and highways.
Due to the variety of causative factors, the designer should consider a vehicle leaving the
traveled way at any location. Design of the roadside should be based upon reducing the
consequences to errant vehicles and their occupants.
B POLICY
The roadside, which includes the median, shall be considered as the total environment
adjacent to the roadway. The design of the roadside shall be considered as an integral
part of the total highway design.
C OBJECTIVES
• Roadside areas adequate to allow reasonable space and time for a driver to regain
or retain control of the vehicle and stop or return to the traveled way.
• Shoulders, medians, and roadsides that may be traversed safely without overturning.
• Location of roadside objects and hazards as far from the travel lane as is
economically feasible.
• Roadsides that, in addition to being safe, appear safe to the driver to encourage use
of the roadside for necessary emergency maneuvers and for emergency parking.
D ROADSIDE DESIGN
The basic requirements and standards for the design of shoulders, medians, and roadsides
are given in CHAPTER 3 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN. This includes specific requirements
regarding widths, slopes, and changes in grade. General requirements for drainage
facilities, utilities, transit, and pedestrian facilities are also included.
This chapter contains general guidelines for particular situations encountered in roadside
design due to the variety and complexity of possible situations encountered. The designer
should utilize the following as basic guidelines to develop a safe roadside design.
As a vehicle comes over a crest, the driver may suddenly be presented with
a situation requiring an emergency maneuver. The provision of adequate
clear zones is particularly important where traffic volumes are high (i.e.,
urban areas) since traffic queues may form rapidly, thus tending to cause
rear-end collisions.
D.2 Fills
Many roadways, for drainage purposes, are elevated somewhat above the
surrounding terrain. Where feasible, the side slopes should not exceed a ratio of
1:4. On flatter slopes (1:6 or greater), care should be exercised to eliminate sharp
changes in grade or other discontinuities.
If the side slope is steeper than 1:3, guardrail or another longitudinal barrier should
be considered.
D.3 Cuts
The use of a rigid barrier incorporated into the cut slope is also satisfactory for rock
slopes. Where the material in the cut is irregular or unstable, a guardrail or other
longitudinal barrier set out from the cut face should be utilized. Placing the barrier
away from the slope is necessary to prevent rocks or other materials from falling
onto the roadsides.
Roadside canals or other bodies of water close to the roadway should be eliminated
wherever feasible.
Where roadside bodies of water (with seasonal water depth in excess of 3 feet for
24 hours or longer) lie within the roadside clear zone, they shall be shielded using
guardrail or another longitudinal barrier.
D.5 Vegetation
The proper use of natural vegetation can provide valuable and economical
assistance in developing aesthetic and safe roadsides.
D.5.a Stability
D.5.b Drainage
The use of natural grass and shrubbery for borders along roadways provides
an important environmental asset. This border serves as a preserved green
belt that minimizes the adverse impact (dirt, noise, etc.) of a street or
highway. The use of a wide, gently flowing grassed roadside of varying width
is generally an aesthetically pleasing solution to safe roadside design.
D.6 Drainage
Proper drainage of the pavement, shoulders, median, and roadsides is important for
maintaining a safe street or highway. Techniques utilized for providing drainage
should result in safe vehicle operation on or off the roadway.
D.6.a Inlets
Drainage inlets should not be placed in a bus bay, travel, or bike lane and
should not be placed in a shoulder, except at the exterior edge, when
drainage restrictions are severe. Drainage inlets within the median or
roadsides shall be traversable. A small area around the inlet should be
paved to improve drainage and to prevent local erosion. Corner radii inlets
should be avoided as they hinder pedestrians, create ponding, create
maintenance problems, and complicate intersection design.
D.6.b Ditches
Drainage ditches perpendicular to the roadway should not be used within the
median or roadsides. All drainage ditches within the median or roadsides
shall meet the requirements for slopes and changes in grade given in
CHAPTER 3 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN.
D.6.c Culverts
Where culverts are unavoidable at intersections, the entrance and exit should
be flush with the adjacent ground or located beyond the clear zone. The
slope and changes in grade at the structure should conform to minimum
requirements for roadsides. Culvert terminations at median crossovers
should be constructed in a similar fashion.
D.7 Curbs
The basic criteria for prohibiting or permitting the use of curbs are given in
CHAPTER 3 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN. Curbs serve any or all of the following
purposes: drainage control, roadway edge delineation, right of way reduction,
aesthetics, delineation of pedestrian walkways, reduction of maintenance
operations, and assistance in orderly roadside development.
Curbs should not be used along freeways or other high-speed arterials, but if a curb
is needed, it should not be located closer to the traveled way than the outer edge of
the shoulder. In addition, sloping-end treatments should be provided.
The location and design of poles or support structures for signs, signals, lighting, or
other purposes is an important aspect of safe roadside design. All poles and
support structures should be located outside the required clear zone when practical
unless their supports are of the frangible or breakaway type. When practical, poles
and sign supports should be located behind existing barriers.
The function of a breakaway support is to minimize the vehicle deceleration and the
probability of injury to vehicle occupants. The design of the support should also be
adequate to prevent portions of the structure from penetrating the vehicle interior.
Small signs should be designed to bend over flush with the ground upon impact.
Larger signs should be designed with multiple posts with slip joints at the base and a
weakened section and fuse plate intended to act as a hinge at the bottom of the
sign.
Utility poles and structures not related to highway operations, should be located
outside the clear zone and as close as practical to the edge of right of way, without
aerial encroachment, and without violating National Electric Safety Code (NESC)
clearances. New utility poles not placed at the edge of the right of way, and falling
within the limits of the clear zone dimensions defined in Table 3-12 should be
approved through the exception process prescribed in CHAPTER 14 - DESIGN
EXCEPTIONS. Placement within sidewalk shall be such that a minimum
unobstructed sidewalk width of 32" is provided.
In accordance with Section 337.403, Florida Statutes, existing utility poles must be
relocated when unreasonably interfering with the "convenient, safe, or continuous
use, or the maintenance, improvement, extension, or expansion" of public roads.
Utility poles adjacent to road improvement projects, but not directly interfering with
construction, within the limits of the Control Zones depicted in The Department's
January 1999 Utility Accommodation Manual (Rule 14-46.001), Exhibit H should be
considered for relocation, to the extent they can be relocated, to achieve the clear
zone requirements of Table 3-12. Utility poles that cannot be relocated and will
remain within the limits of a Control Zone should be approved through the
exception process prescribed in CHAPTER 14 - DESIGN EXCEPTIONS.
D.9 Intersections
All poles or other structures not absolutely essential should not be located in the
vicinity of the intersection. When joint use agreements can be arranged, the various
governmental agencies, transit authorities, and utilities should consider the use of
joint purpose single poles as a replacement for all poles or structures serving a
single purpose. Light poles, traffic signal supports and boxes, transit stop signs, and
all other street furniture should be moved back as far as is practical from the
boundary of the roadsides.
Energy absorbing devices should be considered for protection of lighting and traffic
signal supports located within the roadsides.
D.10 Underpasses
The full median and roadside should be carried through underpasses without
interruption. Where it is not feasible to eliminate the supports, guardrail or another
longitudinal barrier should be used. The barrier may be a rigid barrier incorporated
into the support columns or a guardrail set out from the supports. The barrier
should be extended well beyond the supports.
On all high speed roadways (design speed 50 mph or greater), the bridge railing or
other barriers should be extended sufficiently (and properly terminated) to prevent
vehicles from passing behind the barrier and entering the hazardous location. The
transition between the bridge railing and the approach barrier should be smooth and
continuous. Barrier curbs should not be placed in front of bridge railings or other
barriers. Pedestrian facilities should be placed outside of the bridge railing or
barrier on all high speed roadways.
It is desirable that twin bridges for nominal width median divided highways be filled
in the dividing area, carrying the median across the bridge without interruption. The
gore area between diverging elevated roadways should be bridged over for a
sufficient distance to allow for the placement of any energy absorbing devices. If
twin bridges are used, the median layout should conform to CHAPTER 3 -
GEOMETRIC DESIGN.
D.12 Mailboxes
Guidelines for the location of mailboxes, type of support and turnout construction,
given in the Department's Design Standards, Index 532 - Mailboxes or AASHTO -
"A Guide for Erecting Mailboxes on Highways", should be considered.
Bus shelters should be moved back as far as practical from the roadside with
pedestrian access to the bus stop pad at the roadside. Proper marking by color and
surface texture is essential for convenience and safety of pedestrians.
E PROTECTIVE DEVICES
E.1.a Function
Warranting conditions for the use of longitudinal barriers are essentially those
conditions in which the overall probability of injuries and fatalities would be
reduced by the use of these redirection devices.
E.1.c Location
Flexible barriers should be set out from rigid objects or other hazards a
E.1.d Length
E.1.g Transitions
E.1.h Terminations
Roadside guardrails should be flared away from the roadway. The use of
energy absorbing devices as the termination of the longitudinal barrier is an
effective and acceptable procedure for both roadsides and medians.
E.2.a Function
Crash cushions (or other protective devices) are used for the protection of
occupants of an out-of-control vehicle which might strike objects in the
median or roadside that would produce serious vehicle deceleration.
• Intersections
• Barrier terminations
• Retaining walls
The primary design criteria are the limitation of vehicle deceleration which is
a function of the vehicle speed and the total crash cushion deformation.
The development and testing of crash cushions are both recent and rapid.
The rapidly expanding technology in this field requires the most recent
research and experience be utilized in selecting a particular type of crash
cushion.
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 5
A INTRODUCTION
The function of the pavement or roadway surface is to provide a safe and efficient travel
path for vehicles using the street or highway. The pavement should provide a good riding
surface with a minimum amount of distraction to the driver. The pavement friction
characteristics should be such that adequate longitudinal and lateral forces between the
vehicle tires and the pavement can be developed to allow a margin of safety for required
vehicle maneuvers. These characteristics should be provided at the highest reasonable
level for the expected pavement surface, weather conditions, and the anticipated
operational characteristics of the facility.
In order for the pavement to perform its function properly, the following objectives shall be
used to guide the design and construction of the pavement:
• Provide sufficient pavement structure and the proper pavement material strength to
prevent pavement distress prior to the end of the design period.
• Develop and maintain adequate skid resistance qualities to allow for safe execution
of braking, cornering, accelerating, and other vehicle maneuvers.
B PAVEMENT DESIGN
For new construction and major reconstruction projects, the designer should
determine the type of pavement to be constructed utilizing formal analysis of
existing and anticipated conditions. The Department has a documented procedure
patterned after the 1986 AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures,
Appendix B. This procedure may be found in Department's Flexible Pavement
Design Manual.
The pavement shall be designed and constructed so the required surface texture is
maintained and its structure retains an adequate level of serviceability for the design
period. The strength of the pavement materials shall be sufficient to maintain the
desired roadway cross section without the formation of ruts or other depressions
which would impede drainage. Subgrade strength and subgrade drainage are
major factors to be considered in pavement design.
The Department's pavement design manuals are recommended as a guide for both
flexible and rigid pavement design. Other design procedures are available including
the AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, 1986; the AASHTO Interim
Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, 1972; and procedures which have been
developed by the Portland Cement Association, the American Concrete Pavement
Association, and the Asphalt Institute. The selection of the design procedure and
the development of the design data must be managed by professional personnel
competent to make these evaluations.
The results of relevant experience and testing (i.e., tests conducted by the
Department's Materials Office) should be used in the selection of aggregate and
other materials, the pavement mix design, the method of placement, and the
techniques used for finishing the pavement surface. The design mixes should be
B.4 Drainage
The primary function of the shoulder is to provide an alternate travel path for
vehicles in an emergency situation and preferred path for bicyclists. Shoulders
should be capable of providing a safe path for vehicles traveling at roadway speed,
and should be designed and constructed to provide a firm and uniform surface
capable of supporting vehicles in distress. Particular attention should be given to
providing a smooth transition from pavement to shoulder and avoiding hazardous
"drop-offs."
C PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
• The use of standard test procedures, such as AASHTO and the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
After construction, the pavement surface shall be inspected to determine the required
surface texture was achieved and the surface has the specified slopes. Spot checking of
skid resistance by approved methods should be considered. Inspection of the roadway
during wet weather conditions should be carried out as soon as possible to quickly locate
drainage problems such as depressions in the pavement surface. Periodic reinspection
should be undertaken in conformance with the guidelines described in CHAPTER 10 –
MAINTENANCE, Section F.4 Pavement Maintenance.
CHAPTER 6
ROADWAY LIGHTING
CHAPTER 6
ROADWAY LIGHTING
A INTRODUCTION
The major reason for lighting streets and highways is to improve safety for vehicular and
pedestrian traffic. Improvements in sight distance and reduction of confusion and
distraction for night time driving can reduce the hazard potential on streets and highways.
There is evidence indicating that highway lighting will produce an increase in highway
capacity as well as improve the economic, safety, and aesthetic characteristics of
highways.
Experience and technical improvements have resulted in improved design of lighting for
streets and highways. Photometric data provide a basis for calculation of the illumination at
any point for various combinations of selected luminaire types, heights, and locations.
Lighting engineers can develop a lighting system that will comply with the requirements for
level and uniformity of illumination; however, some uncertainties preclude the adoption of
rigid design standards. Among these uncertainties is the lack of understanding in the area
of driver response and behavior under various lighting conditions. The design of lighting for
new streets and highways, as well as improvements on existing facilities, should be
accompanied by careful consideration of the variables involved in driver behavior and
problems peculiar to particular locations.
B OBJECTIVES
The objective for providing roadway lighting is the reduction of particular hazards
confronting motorists and pedestrians on the roadway. The achievement of this objective
will be aided by meeting these specific objectives:
• Provide the driver with an improved view of the general roadway geometry and the
adjacent environment.
• Increase the sight distance of drivers to improve response to hazards and decision
points.
C WARRANTING CONDITIONS
Although precise warrants for the provision of roadway lighting are difficult to determine,
criteria for lighting is established and should be followed for construction and for
improvement of existing facilities. The following locations should be considered as a basis
for warranting roadway lighting:
• Locations where the night/day ratio of serious crashes is higher than the
average of similar locations.
• Specific locations that have a significant number of night time crashes and
where a large percentage of these night time crashes result in injuries or
fatalities.
• Freeways with frequent (½ mile from "on" ramp to "off" ramp) interchanges.
• Rest areas.
D LEVEL OF ILLUMINATION
It is recommended that the level of illumination for streets and highways not be less than:
These levels are for the purpose of highway safety and do not apply to lighting levels
required for crime reduction.
E UNIFORMITY OF ILLUMINATION
F UNDERPASSES
One of the criteria to be followed to determine requirements for underpass lighting is the
relative level between illumination on the roadway inside and outside of the underpass.
The height, width, and length of the underpass determines the amount of light penetration
from the exterior.
A gradual decrease in the illumination level from day time level on the roadway to
the underpass should be provided. Supplemental day time lighting is normally not
needed in underpasses less than 100 feet in length.
The night time illumination level in the underpass should be maintained near the
night time level of the approach roadway. Due to relatively low luminaire mounting
heights, care should be exercised to avoid glare.
G MAINTENANCE
H LIGHT POLES
Light poles should not be placed in the sidewalk when adequate right of way is available
beyond the sidewalk.
Light poles should not be placed so as to provide a hazard to out of control vehicles. Light
poles are generally not of a frangible or breakaway design and should be placed outside of
the roadway recovery area. They should be as far removed from the travel lane as
possible or behind adequate guardrail or other barriers. Light poles should be placed on
the inside of the curves when feasible. Foundations or poles and rigid auxiliary lighting
components that are not behind suitable barriers should be constructed flush with or below
the ground level. Breakaway or frangible poles should not be used where there is a high
probability that a falling pole may strike a pedestrian or fall on a building or the roadway
and create a greater hazard.
The use of high mast lighting should be considered, particularly for lighting interchanges
and other large plaza areas. This use tends to produce a more uniform illumination level,
reduces glare, and allows placement of the poles farther from the roadway. Additional
emphasis lighting should be considered to illuminate specific and desired pedestrian
crossings.
The placement of light poles should not interfere with the driver's sight distance nor the
view of signs, signals, or other traffic control devices. Further criteria regarding the
placement of roadside structures, including light poles, is specified in CHAPTER 4 -
ROADSIDE DESIGN.
CHAPTER 7
TABLES
FIGURES
CHAPTER 7
A INTRODUCTION
The basic design for grade crossings should be similar to that given for highway
intersections in CHAPTER 3 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN. Rail-highway grade crossings
should be limited in number and should, where feasible, be accomplished by grade
separations. Where at-grade crossings are necessary, adequate traffic control devices and
proper crossing design are required to limit the probability of crashes.
The primary objective in the design, construction, maintenance, and reconstruction of rail-
highway crossings is to provide for continuous flow of traffic in a safe and efficient manner.
The achievement of this objective may be realized by utilizing the following techniques in
the listed sequence of priority.
The elimination of at grade rail-highway conflicts is the most desirable procedure for
promoting safe and efficient traffic operations. This may be accomplished by the
closing of a crossing or by utilizing a grade separation structure.
The design of new at-grade crossings should consider the objective of hazard
reduction. In addition, an effective program of reconstruction should be directed
towards reducing crash potential at existing crossings.
The regulation of intersections between railroads and all public streets and
highways in Florida is vested in the Department (Rule 14-46). This rule contains
minimum requirements for all new grade crossings.
The Department's rail office has other documents available that contain additional
guidance for the design, reconstruction, and upgrading of existing highway railroad
grade crossings, and may be contacted for further information.
The primary requirement for the geometric design of a grade crossing is that it provide
adequate sight distance for the motor vehicle operator to make an appropriate decision as
to stop or proceed at the crossing.
The minimum sight distance requirements for streets and highways at rail-highway
grade crossings are similar to those required for highway intersections (CHAPTER 3
- GEOMETRIC DESIGN).
stop or proceed across the track safely. Where the roadway is on a grade
the lateral sight distance (dT) along the track should be increased as noted
(Table 7 - 1). This lateral sight distance is desirable at all crossings. In other
than flat terrain it may be necessary to rely on speed control signs and
devices and to predicate sight distance on a reduced speed of operation.
This reduced speed should never be less than 15 mph and preferably 20
mph.
The sight distance required for a vehicle to cross a railroad from a stop is
essentially the same as that required to cross a highway intersection as
given in CHAPTER 3 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN.
The crossing distance to be used shall include the total width of the tracks,
the length of the vehicle, and an initial vehicle offset. This offset shall be at
least 10 feet back from any gates or flashing lights, but not less than 15 feet
from the nearest track. The train speed used shall be equal to or greater
than the established train speed limit.
The setback for determining the required clear area for sight distance (similar
to that shown in Figure 3 - 11) should be at least 10 feet more than the
vehicle offset. Care should be exercised to ensure signal supports and other
structures at the crossing do not block the view of drivers preparing to cross
the tracks.
The vertical alignment of the approach roadway should be adjusted when rail
elevations are raised to prevent abrupt changes in grade and entrapment of
low clearance vehicles. See Section 316.170, Florida Statutes, for road
clearance requirements
The roadway approach to crossing should also coincide with the grade
established by the tracks. This profile grade, preferably zero, should be
extended a reasonable distance (at least two times the design speed in feet)
on each side of the crossing. Where vertical curves are required to approach
this section, they should be as gentle as possible. The length of these vertical
curves shall be of sufficient length to provide the required sight distance.
Preserving the continuity of the highway cross section through a grade crossing is
important to prevent distractions and to avoid hazards at an already dangerous
location.
C.3.a Pavement
The full width of all travel lanes shall be continued through grade crossings.
The crown of the pavement shall be removed gradually to meet the grade of
the tracks. This pavement cross slope shall be removed in conformance with
the requirements for superelevation runoff. The lateral and longitudinal
pavement slopes should normally be designed to direct drainage away from
the tracks.
C.3.b Shoulders
C.3.c Medians
The full median width on divided highways should be continued through the
crossing. The median should be contoured to provide a smooth transition on
the tracks.
Although it is often not practical to maintain the full width of the roadside
clear zone, the maximum clear area feasible should be provided. This clear
zone shall conform to the requirements for slope and change in grade for
roadside clear zones.
In order to reduce the hazard to errant vehicles, all support structures should be
placed as far from the traveled way as practicable.
The general criteria for access control (CHAPTER 3 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN) for
streets and highways should be maintained in the vicinity of rail-highway grade
crossings. Private driveways should not be permitted within 150 feet, nor
intersections within 300 feet, of any grade crossing. Index No. 17882, Design
Standards, should also be considered.
C.6 Parking
When feasible, no parking shall be permitted within the required clear area for the
sight distance visibility triangle.
The proper use of adequate advance warning and traffic control devices is essential
for all grade crossings. Advance warning should include pavement markings and
two or more signs on each approach. Each new crossing should be equipped with
train-activated flashing signals. Gates, when used, should ideally extend across all
lanes, but shall at least block one-half of the inside travel lane. Traffic control
devices shall be installed in agreement with the MUTCD for Streets and Highways.
It is desirable to include crossing arms across adjacent pedestrian or shared use
path facilities.
Each crossing surface should be compatible with highway user requirements and
railroad operations at the site. When installing a new rail-highway crossing or
reworking an existing at-grade crossing, welded rail should be placed the entire
width from shoulder point to shoulder point. Surfaces should be selected to be as
maintenance free as possible.
The inspection and maintenance of all features of rail-highway grade crossings shall be an
integral part of each highway agency's and railroad company's regular maintenance
program (CHAPTER 10 - MAINTENANCE). Items that should be given a high priority in
this program include: pavement stability and skid resistance, clear sight distance, and all
traffic control and protective devices.
TABLE 7 – 1
SIGHT DISTANCE AT RAILROAD GRADE CROSSINGS
DESIGN SIGHT DISTANCES FOR COMBINATIONS
OF TRAIN AND HIGHWAY VEHICLE SPEEDS
°
CONDITIONS: SINGLE TRACK 90 CROSSING
DESIGN VEHICLE WB-67D (L=73.3' de=8')
FLAT HIGHWAY GRADES
NO TRAIN ACTIVATED WARNING DEVICES
TRACK WIDTH (W) = 5'
VEHICLE STOP POSITION (D) = 15'
CASE B
CASE A
VEHICLE
DEPARTURE
MOVING VEHICLE
FROM STOP
TRAIN
SPEED VEHICLE SPEED (MPH)
(MPH)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
dt (FEET)
SIGHT DISTANCE ALONG RAILROAD TRACK
10 254 155 110 102 102 106 112 119
FIGURE 7 – 1
VISIBILITY TRIANGLE AT RAILROAD CROSSINGS
7-1.
FIGURE 7 – 2
GRADE CROSSING CONFIGURATION
RURAL
CHAPTER 8
PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES
CHAPTER 8
PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES
A INTRODUCTION
All new highways, except limited access highways, should be designed and constructed
under the assumption they will be used by pedestrians. Provisions for pedestrian traffic
should be incorporated into the original highway design.
For additional information concerning the design of sidewalks, refer to Section C.7.d of
CHAPTER 3 – GEOMETRIC DESIGN.
For information concerning the design of shared use paths, refer to CHAPTER 9 -
BICYCLE FACILITIES.
B MINIMIZING CONFLICTS
The planning and design of new streets and urban highways shall include provisions that
minimize vehicle-pedestrian conflicts. Features requiring special attention include
pedestrian crossings, center raised medians, pathways parallel to the roadway, bus stops
and shelters, and other pedestrian activity adjacent to the street or highway.
Any effort to minimize or eliminate conflict points must consider the mobility needs of the
pedestrian: desired travel path should not be severed and walking distances should not be
significantly increased. Some conflict areas will have to be redesigned rather than
eliminated or relocated.
Where independent systems are provided, intersections between the two modes
(i.e., parking areas) are still required. Due to the small number of these
intersections or conflict points, they can be economically developed for safe and
efficient operation.
The development of independent systems for pedestrian and vehicular traffic is the
preferred method for providing adequate horizontal separation.
Pedestrian pathways should be placed at least as far from the rural roadway,
particularly those with flush shoulders, as stipulated by the following criteria,
which are given in a sequence of desirability:
Sidewalks which are set back from the roadway will need to be brought
closer to the roadway at intersections. This will allow for proper placement of
crosswalks and stop bars.
C Barrier Separation
Barriers may be used to assist in the separation of vehicular and pedestrian traffic.
Longitudinal barriers such as guardrails, rigid barriers, and bridge railings are
designed primarily to redirect errant vehicles away from roadside hazards. These
barriers can also be used to provide valuable protection of pedestrian pathways
from out of control vehicles.
D VERTICAL SEPARATION
Vertical separation may be selectively utilized to effect the crossing of large pedestrian
volumes and high speed highways particularly where the traffic volume on the roadway is at
or near capacity. This method of conflict elimination is often justified at major pedestrian
generators such as schools, shopping centers, sports and amusement facilities, transit
centers, commercial buildings, parks and playgrounds, and parking facilities.
D.1 Overpasses
D.2 Underpasses
E PROTECTION
The design of all pedestrian crossings and parallel pathways within the right of way shall be
considered an integral part of the overall design of a street or urban highway.
E.1 Crossings
E.2 Controls
Signs, signals, and markings should be utilized to provide the necessary information
and direction for pedestrians. All directions and regulations should be clear,
consistent and logical and should, as a minimum, conform to the requirements given
in the MUTCD. The use of audible tactile as well as visual signals should be
The general requirements for sight distances for the driver are given in CHAPTER 3
- GEOMETRIC DESIGN.
Stopping sight distances greater than the minimum should be provided at all
pedestrian crossings. These sight distances should include a clear view of the
pedestrian approach pathway for at least 15 feet from the outside travel lane.
Where parallel pedestrian pathways are within the roadside recovery area, or where
casual pedestrian crossings are likely, the normal required stopping sight distance
should also include a clear view of the entire roadside recovery area.
Sight distances shall be based upon a driver's eye and object height as discussed in
CHAPTER 3 – GEOMETRIC DESIGN. Due to the small height and diameter of
pedestrians (particularly children), they are generally easy to confuse with other
background objects.
Parking shall be prohibited where it would interfere with the required sight distance.
Particular care should be exercised to ensure ample mutual sight distances are
provided at all intersections and driveways.
E.4 Lighting
Illumination of the roadway itself is not only important for the safety of vehicular
traffic, but also valuable for the protection of pedestrians. Vehicle headlamps often
do not provide sufficient illumination to achieve the required stopping sight distance.
Since this requirement is of vital importance at any potential pedestrian crossing
point, illumination of the crossing should be considered. Lighting a street or highway
is also valuable in improving the pedestrian's view of an oncoming vehicle. At
intersections or other locations with vehicle turning maneuvers, the vehicle
headlights may not be readily visible to the pedestrian.
The general requirements for lighting on streets and highways are given in
CHAPTER 6 - ROADWAY LIGHTING. Pathways adjacent to a street or highway
should not be illuminated to a level more than twice that of the roadway itself.
• Any street or highway that meets the warranting criteria given in CHAPTER 6
- ROADWAY LIGHTING.
• Streets and highways with a speed limit in excess of 40 mph that do not have
adequate pedestrian conflict elimination.
• Parking facilities.
• Pedestrian crossings.
• Any location where improvement of night time sight distance will reduce the
hazard of vehicle-pedestrian conflicts.
CHAPTER 9
BICYCLE FACILITIES
FIGURES
CHAPTER 9
BICYCLE FACILITIES
A INTRODUCTION
B ON-STREET FACILITIES
Provisions for bicycle traffic should be incorporated in the original highway design. New
highways, except limited access highways, should be designed and constructed under the
assumption they will be used by bicyclists. Roadway conditions should be favorable for
bicycling. This requires special care in preparing the roadway surface to accommodate 1¼
inch tires. Attention needs to be given to include safe drainage grates and railroad
crossings, smooth pavements, and signals responsive to bicycles. In addition, the
desirability of adding facilities, such as bicycle lanes and shoulder improvements, should
be included to the fullest extent feasible. Specifically, all rural arterial and collector
sections within one mile of an urbanized area should be given consideration for the
construction of 4 to 5 foot paved shoulders, and all urban arterial and collector sections
should be given consideration for either undesignated 4 foot lanes or marked bike lanes.
Rumble strips used in a traffic lane to alert operators to conditions ahead (e.g. stop signs,
traffic signals or curves) should provide clear space (free of rumble strips) for bicyclists.
This clear space may be a paved shoulder or if no paved shoulder is present, a minimum of
1.5 feet of clear space at the outermost portion of the lane.
In rural areas, or on sections without curb and gutter, adding or improving paved
shoulders often can be the best way to accommodate bicyclists. Paved shoulders
also benefit motor vehicle traffic.
Paved shoulders should be at least 4 feet wide to accommodate bicycle travel. The
measurement of shoulder width does not include the width of any gutter pan. Paved
shoulder width of 5 feet is recommended from the face of guardrail, curb, or other
roadside barrier. Additional shoulder width is desirable if motor vehicle speeds
exceed 50 mph, or the percentage of trucks, buses, or recreational vehicles is high.
If paved shoulders 4 feet wide cannot be provided, consider adding 3 foot shoulders.
The only practical difference in the operation of a 3 foot shoulder and wider
shoulders, as they relate to bicyclists, is a slight decrease in motorist-bicyclist
separation distances. Other operational characteristics, such as motorist
encroachment into adjacent lanes while passing and changes in the motorist
position within the lane while passing are not significantly impacted.
Bicycle lanes should be one-way facilities and carry bike traffic in the same direction
as the adjacent motor vehicle lane. In most cases, bike lanes will be through lanes
and be located to the right of the right most through lane.
Two-way bike lanes on one side of the roadway are not recommended when they
result in riding against the flow of motor vehicle traffic. Wrong-way riding is a major
cause of bicycle crashes and violates the Rules of the Road as stated in the
Uniform Vehicle Code and Chapter 316, Florida Statutes. Bicycle specific wrong-
way signing may be used to discourage wrong-way travel. There may be special
situations where a two-way bike lane for a short distance can eliminate the need for
bicyclists to make a double crossing of a busy street. This should be considered
after a careful evaluation of the risks.
On one-way streets, bike lanes should generally be placed on the right side of the
street. Bike lanes on the left side are unfamiliar and unexpected for most motorists.
This should only be considered when a bicycle lane on the left will substantially
decrease the number of conflicts, such as those caused by heavy bus traffic or
unusually heavy movements to the right, or if there are a significant number of left-
turning bicyclists. Thus, left side bike lanes should only be considered after careful
evaluation. Similarly, two-way bike lanes on the left side of a one-way street with a
suitable separation from the motor vehicle should only be considered after a
complete engineering study of other alternatives and relative risks.
One-way bicycle lanes should be designed with the minimum width given in Figure
9 - 1. The 4 foot bike lane shown assumes the shoulder provides emergency
maneuvering room.
In restricted urban conditions, where it is not possible to include bike lanes or paved
shoulders or on lower volume collector streets, an outside lane wider than 12 feet
can help accommodate both bicycles and motor vehicles in the same lane.
Fourteen feet is the recommended lane width for shared use in a wide curb lane,
and is the minimum width that will allow passenger cars to safely pass bicyclists
within a single lane.
Shared use paths are facilities usually on exclusive right of way, with minimal cross flow by
motor vehicles. Users are non-motorized and may include, but are not limited to, the
following:
• Bicyclists
• In-line skaters
• Roller skaters
• Skateboarders
• Wheelchair users
• Pedestrians (walkers, runners, people with baby strollers, people walking dogs, etc.)
Shared use paths can serve a variety of purposes. They can provide users with a shortcut
through a residential neighborhood. Shared use paths can also provide access to areas
otherwise served only by limited access highways. For transportation purposes, they
should be thought of as an extension of the roadway network for non-motorized users.
The inclusion of a shared use path should not be considered as an alternative to providing
in-street facilities, but, rather, as a supplement.
For a discussion of shared path design beyond what is in this chapter, refer to the Florida
Bicycle Facilities Planning and Design Handbook.
Shared use paths should be separated from the roadway. In some cases, paths
along highways for short sections are permissible, given an appropriate level of
separation between facilities. Some problems with paths located immediately
adjacent to the roadways are as follows:
• Unless separated, they require one direction of bicycle traffic to ride against
motor vehicle traffic, contrary to normal rules of the road.
• When paths end, bicyclists going against traffic will tend to continue to travel
on the wrong side of the street. Likewise, bicyclists approaching a path often
travel on the wrong side of the street to get to the path. Wrong-way travel by
bicyclists is a major cause of bicycle/automobile crashes and should be
discouraged at every opportunity.
• Many bicyclists will use the roadway instead of the shared use path because
they have found the roadway to be safer, less congested, more convenient,
or better maintained. Bicyclists using the roadway are often subjected to
harassment by motorists who feel that, in all cases, bicyclists should be on
the path instead.
• Although the shared use path should be given the same priority through
intersections as the parallel highway, motorists falsely expect bicyclists to
stop or yield at all cross streets and driveways. Efforts to require or
encourage bicyclists to yield or stop at each cross street and driveway are
inappropriate and frequently ignored by bicyclists.
• Stopped cross street motor vehicle traffic or vehicles exiting side streets or
driveways may block the path crossing.
When the distance between the shared use path and the highway shoulder is less
than 5 feet, a physical barrier is recommended. Where used, the barrier should be a
minimum of 42 inches high, to prevent cyclists from toppling over it. A barrier
between a shared use path and an adjacent highway should not impair sight
distance at intersections, and should be designed to not be a hazard to errant
motorists.
C.2 Width
The paved width and operating width required for a shared use path are primary
design considerations. The minimum recommended width for a paved two-way
path is 10 feet. In many cases, it is desirable to increase the minimum width to 12
feet. The width should be increased if there is expected substantial use by
bicyclists, probable shared use with joggers and in-line skaters, steep grades, and
locations where bicyclists are likely to ride two abreast.
In a few cases, it may be acceptable to decrease the trail width to 8 feet. This width
should only be used where the following conditions prevail:
• Bicycle traffic is expected to be low, even on peak days or during peak hours.
• There will be good horizontal and vertical alignment, providing safe and
frequent passing opportunities.
For further discussion of shared use path design, refer to the Florida Bicycle
Facilities Planning and Design Handbook.
A minimum 2 foot wide graded area with a maximum 1:6 slope should be
maintained adjacent to both sides of the path; however, 3 feet or more is desirable
to provide clearance from trees, poles, walls, fences, guardrails or other lateral
obstructions. Where the path is adjacent to canals, ditches, or slopes steeper than
1:3, a wider separation should be considered. A minimum 5 foot separation from
the edge of the path pavement to the top of the slope is desirable. Depending on
the height of embankment and condition at the bottom, a physical barrier, such as
dense shrubbery, railing or chain link fence, may need to be provided.
C.6 Structures
The minimum clear width on structures should be the same as the approach shared
use path, plus the minimum 2 foot wide clear areas.
Ramps for curbs at intersections should be at least the same width as the shared
use path. Curb cuts and ramps should provide a smooth transition between the
shared use path and the roadway. A 5 foot radius or flare may be considered to
facilitate right turns for bicyclists.
D Railroad Crossings
Railroad-highway grade crossings should ideally be at a right angle to the rails. This can
be accomplished either as a separate path or a widened shoulder. The greater the
crossing deviated from this ideal crossing angle, the greater is the potential for a bicyclist's
front wheel to be trapped in the flangeway, causing loss of steering control. If the crossing
angle is less than approximately 45 degrees, an additional paved shoulder of sufficient
width should be provided to permit the bicyclist to cross the track at a safer angle,
preferable perpendicularly. Where this is not possible, and where train speeds are low,
commercially available compressible flangeway fillers may enhance bicyclist operation. It is
also important that the roadway approach be at the same elevation as the rails. For more
information, see Figure 27 in the AASHTO Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities
(1999).
FIGURE 9 – 1
MINIMUM WIDTHS FOR BIKE LANES
FIGURE 9 – 2
MAJOR INTERSECTION WITH SEPARATE
RIGHT TURN LANE URBAN TYPICAL SECTION (CURB AND GUTTER)
FIGURE 9 – 3
MAJOR INTERSECTION NO RIGHT TURN LANE PLUS BUSBAY
URBAN TYPICAL SECTION (CURB AND GUTTER)
FIGURE 9 – 4
MAJOR WITH LOCAL STREET INTERSECTION NO RIGHT TURN LANE
URBAN TYPICAL SECTION (CURB AND GUTTER)
FIGURE 9 – 5
MAJOR WITH LOCAL STREET INTERSECTION NO RIGHT TURN LANE
ON STREET PARKING URBAN TYPICAL SECTION (CURB AND GUTTER)
FIGURE 9 – 6
MAJOR INTERSECTION WITH DESIGNATED SHOULDER SEPARATE
RIGHT TURN LANE RURAL TYPICAL SECTION (PAVED SHOULDER)
FIGURE 9 – 7
MAJOR WITH LOCAL STREET INTERSECTION DESIGNATED SHOULDER
NO RIGHT TURN LANE RURAL TYPICAL SECTION (PAVED SHOULDER)
FIGURE 9 – 8
MAJOR INTERSECTION SEPARATE RIGHT TURN LANE 3' OR 4' UNDESIGNATED
BIKE LANE URBAN TYPICAL SECTION (CURB AND GUTTER)
FIGURE 9 – 9
MAJOR INTERSECTION RIGHT TURN DROP LANE DESIGNATED OR
UNDESIGNATED BIKE LANE URBAN TYPICAL SECTION (CURB AND GUTTER)
FIGURE 9 – 10
"TEE" INTERSECTION SEPARATE RIGHT TURN LANE
URBAN TYPICAL SECTION (CURB AND GUTTER)
FIGURE 9 – 11
"TEE" INTERSECTION RIGHT TURN DROP LANE
URBAN TYPICAL SECTION (CURB AND GUTTER)
FIGURE 9 – 12
INTERCHANGE RAMPS
RURAL TYPICAL SECTION (PAVED SHOULDER)
FIGURE 9 – 13
DETAIL OF DESIGNATED BIKE
LANE AND BIKE SHOULDER MARKINGS
CHAPTER 10
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance 10-i
Topic # 625-000-015 May - 2005
Manual of Uniform Minimum Standards
for Design, Construction and Maintenance
for Streets and Highways
Maintenance 10-ii
Topic # 625-000-015 May - 2005
Manual of Uniform Minimum Standards
for Design, Construction and Maintenance
for Streets and Highways
CHAPTER 10
MAINTENANCE
A INTRODUCTION
In order to provide for the safe and efficient movement of all modes of traffic, it is essential
to maintain all aspects of the road and right of way at the highest reasonable level of safety.
Improvements consistent with upgrading safety standards or accommodating changes in
traffic are also required to maintain the facility in a quality condition. Maintenance is a
costly operation, therefore, every effort should be made to provide the maximum safety
benefit from each maintenance operation. The fact that a major portion of the maintenance
effort is necessary to merely preserve the economic investment in a facility should not be
considered as justification for sacrificing the requirements for maintaining or improving the
safety characteristics of a street or highway.
B OBJECTIVES
• Maintain all highway features and components in the best possible condition
• Improve sub-standard features, with the ultimate goal to at least meet minimum
standards
Maintenance 10-1
Topic # 625-000-015 May - 2005
Manual of Uniform Minimum Standards
for Design, Construction and Maintenance
for Streets and Highways
C POLICY
Each highway agency responsible for maintenance shall develop and maintain a program
of highway maintenance for the entire highway network under its jurisdiction. This program
should include the following activities:
• Identify needs
• Establish priorities
• Establish procedures
The program should be regularly evaluated and suitably modified to promote the
maintenance of streets and highways in the best practicable condition.
Maintenance 10-2
Topic # 625-000-015 May - 2005
Manual of Uniform Minimum Standards
for Design, Construction and Maintenance
for Streets and Highways
D IDENTIFICATION OF NEEDS
D.1 Inspection
Periodic and systematic inspection of the entire highway network under each
agency's jurisdiction is required to identify situations requiring improvements, and
corrections or repairs. These inspections should be conducted by maintenance or
traffic operations personnel, or other qualified personnel who are trained in the
aspects of highway maintenance requirements.
E ESTABLISHMENT OF PRIORITIES
Maintenance 10-3
Topic # 625-000-015 May - 2005
Manual of Uniform Minimum Standards
for Design, Construction and Maintenance
for Streets and Highways
F ESTABLISHMENT OF PROCEDURES
Standard procedures and methods for maintenance operations should be established for
efficient, rapid, and safe completion of the required work. All maintenance work shall be
conducted in accordance with the Standards set forth in CHAPTER 11 - WORK ZONE
SAFETY. Each maintenance agency should develop its own Maintenance Manual or
utilize the Maintenance Manuals of the Department. Such manuals should specify the
methods, procedures, equipment, personnel qualifications, and other aspects of the work
necessary to ensure successful completion of maintenance operations. Procedures should
be developed for emergency, routine, and special operations.
• The removal of debris from crashes, cargo spillage, or other causes. This
activity should be conducted in accordance with the guidelines set forth in
Highway Safety Program Guideline 16, Debris Hazard Control and Cleanup.
Routine maintenance operations are those that may be predicted and planned in
advance. These operations, which may be preventive or corrective in nature,
should be conducted on a regularly scheduled basis using standard procedures.
Proper scheduling of these operations should be utilized to provide minimum
disruptions and hazards to the driving public. Routine maintenance would include
Maintenance 10-4
Topic # 625-000-015 May - 2005
Manual of Uniform Minimum Standards
for Design, Construction and Maintenance
for Streets and Highways
• Cleaning and debris removal from the pavement, shoulders, and roadside
clear zones
Special maintenance operations are defined as those projects that are neither
urgent or routine in nature, but are occasionally required to improve or maintain a
street or highway in a quality condition. Since these projects can be planned in
advance of the initiation of any work, procedures that provide for efficient, rapid, and
safe operations can be developed. To avoid continuing disruptions of traffic, the
quality and durability of these improvements, corrections, and repairs should be
maintained at the highest practicable level. Special maintenance should include the
upgrading of the highway safety features, as well as the repair or replacement of
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CHAPTER 11
CHAPTER 11
A INTRODUCTION
B OBJECTIVES
The general objective of a program of work zone safety is to protect workers, pedestrians,
bicyclists, and motorists during construction and maintenance operations. This general
objective may be achieved by meeting the following specific objectives:
• Provide adequate advance warning and information regarding upcoming work zones
• Provide the driver clear directions to understanding the situation he will be facing as
he proceeds through or around the work zone
• Provide safe passageways for pedestrians through, in, and/or around construction
or maintenance work zones
C POLICY
Each highway agency with responsibilities for construction, maintenance, and operation of
streets and highways shall develop and maintain a program of work zone safety, as set
forth in the MUTCD, (Rule 14-15.010) as published by the Federal Department of
Transportation (Federal Highway Administration).
D PLANNING OF OPERATIONS
The achievement of work zone safety requires careful and complete planning prior to the
initiation of any work project. The planning objective is to develop a complete operational
plan which would include consideration of the following:
The development of the operation plan for work zone safety should include
consideration of the following factors:
The nature of the work zone and the prevailing traffic conditions should, to a
large degree, influence the procedures incorporated into the operation plan for
work zone safety. A determination of the normal vehicle speeds and traffic
volumes is essential. The distribution of traffic with respect to time (hour, day,
etc.) and direction is also important for establishing traffic control procedures.
Proper work scheduling and sequencing of operations will not only promote
efficiency, but also improve the safety aspects of construction and maintenance
operations. Where feasible, routine operations and special projects should be
conducted during periods of low traffic volume to reduce conflicts. Projects that may
be carried out concurrently at the same site should be scheduled simultaneously to
eliminate successive disruptions of traffic. Major projects that impede or restrict
traffic flow should be coordinated and sequenced with similar projects in adjacent
areas, to produce a minimum of disruption to orderly traffic flow in the overall
highway network. The scheduling of work at a given location should include
consideration of traffic generation (including special events), as well as traffic
restrictions by work activities on the surrounding highway network.
Plans for traffic control around or through work zones should be developed with
safety receiving a high priority. Plans should include protection at work zones when
work is in progress and when operations have been halted (such as during the
night). Provisions for the protection of work crews, traffic control personnel,
pedestrians (in areas of high pedestrian use, construction of temporary facilities
should be considered), and motorists shall be included in the operation plans. In all
cases, the operation plan for traffic control and protection shall include provisions
for the following:
• Advance warning
• Roadway delineation
• Regulatory information
• Hazard warning
• Barriers
• Access
• Personnel training
• Transit Stops
• Highway agencies
• Police agencies
• Emergency agencies
• Contractors
• Utilities
• Building departments
• Traffic generators
• Local residents
• Neighboring jurisdictions
Construction and maintenance projects should follow the operation plan and should
include:
All reasonable effort should be made to inform the public of the location, duration,
and nature of impending construction of maintenance projects.
For construction and reconstruction projects, the general work zone layout; traffic
control and protection procedures; occupational safety and health requirements;
and specific traffic control devices required should be incorporated in the contract
plans and specifications.
New utility installations in public rights of way are prohibited unless a permit by the
appropriate highway agency is issued. Permits for routine maintenance (e.g.,
deteriorated pole/equipment replacement), minor alterations (e.g., changes in cable,
wire, or transformer size), service drops, or emergency work should generally not be
required. Any construction by utility companies involving encroachment of the
highway right of way by workers, equipment, material storage and transfer, or other
hazardous conditions shall be conducted in accordance with the requirements for
work zone safety and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
F EVALUATION OF PROGRAM
The entire program for work zone safety should be periodically evaluated and revised to
provide the safest practicable environment for workers, pedestrians, and motorists during
construction and maintenance operations.
CHAPTER 12
CONSTRUCTION
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CHAPTER 12
CONSTRUCTION
A INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to establish guidelines for field procedures, as they pertain to
control of construction projects, supervision, and contract administration. All construction
projects require an inspection process to administer the contract, to certify the project has
been constructed within reasonable conformance with the plans/specifications, and the
materials which were incorporated into the project were properly tested/certified.
• Certification
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B OBJECTIVES
Construction of street and highway facilities is the result of the effort, of the engineer, the
contractor, and the owner. Minimum construction standards shall be followed to provide for
proper implementation of the design. The following general objectives for roadway
construction should be followed to ensure proper construction:
• All construction performed and all materials utilized shall be in reasonably close
conformity with the construction plans and contract documents.
• The responsibilities and obligations of the owner, engineer, and contractor should
be clearly defined.
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The Contractor will be furnished an appropriate number of copies of the plans and
special provisions as required for the particular project. The Contractor shall have
available at the work site, at all times, one copy each of the plans (including relevant
Design Standards), Specifications, and Special Provisions.
C.1.a Plans
The plans furnished consist of general drawings showing such details which
are necessary to give a comprehensive idea of the construction
contemplated. Roadway plans will show, in general, alignment, profile
grades, typical cross sections, and general cross sections as necessary.
Structure plans, in general, will show in detail all dimensions of the work
contemplated.
C.1.c.1 General
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The specifications, plans, special provisions, and all supplemental documents are
integral parts of the contract, and a requirement occurring in one is as binding as
though occurring in all. They are to be complementary and to describe and provide
for a complete work.
• Special Provisions
• Plans
• Standard Drawings
• Specifications
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All work performed and all materials furnished shall be in reasonably close
conformity with the lines, grades, cross sections, dimensions, and material
requirements, including tolerances, shown on the plans or indicated in the
specifications.
In the event the Engineer finds the materials or the finished product in which the
materials are used not within reasonably close conformity with the plans and
specifications, but reasonably acceptable work has been produced, he/she shall
then make a determination if the work shall be accepted and remain in place. In this
event, the Engineer will document the basis of acceptance by contract modification
which will provide for an appropriate adjustment in the contract price for such work
or materials as he deems necessary to conform to his determination based on
engineering judgment.
In the event the Engineer finds the materials, or the finished product in which the
materials are used, or the work performed, are not in reasonably close conformity
with the plans and specifications and have resulted in an inferior or unsatisfactory
product, the work or materials shall be removed and replaced or otherwise
corrected by and at the expense of the Contractor.
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Utilizing the control points furnished, all horizontal and vertical controls shall
be established as necessary to construct the work in conformance with the
plans and specifications. The work shall include performing all calculations
required and setting all stakes needed, such as grade stakes, offset stakes,
reference point stakes, slope stakes, and other reference marks or points
necessary to provide lines and grades for construction of all roadway, bridge,
and miscellaneous items.
The Contractor shall employ only competent personnel and utilize only
suitable equipment in performing layout work.
The Contractor shall give the work the constant attention necessary to
assure the scheduled progress and shall cooperate fully with the Engineer
and with other contractors at work in the vicinity.
The Contractor shall at all times have on the work site, as his/her agent, a
competent superintendent capable of thoroughly interpreting the plans and
specifications and thoroughly experienced in the type of work being performed,
and who shall receive the instructions from the Engineer or his/her authorized
representatives. The superintendent shall have full authority to execute the
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If, during or prior to construction operations, the Engineer should fail to reject
defective work or materials, whether from lack of discovery of such defect or
for any reason, such initial failure to reject shall in no way prevent his/her
later rejection when such defect is discovered.
The Contractor shall maintain all work in first-class condition until it has been
completed as a whole and has been accepted by the Engineer. When all materials
have been furnished, all work has been performed, and the construction
contemplated by the contract has been satisfactorily completed, the Engineer will
make the final inspection.
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D CONTROL OF MATERIALS
D.2.a General
The Contractor shall assure the Engineer has free entry at all times to such
parts of the plant as concern the manufacture or production of the materials
ordered, and shall bear all costs incurred in providing all reasonable facilities
to assist in determining whether the material furnished complies with the
requirements of the specifications.
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The Contractor shall furnish and maintain a quality control system that will
provide reasonable assurance that all materials and products submitted for
acceptance conform to the contract requirements, whether manufactured or
processed by the Contractor or procured from suppliers or subcontractors.
The Contractor shall perform or have performed the inspection and tests
required to substantiate product conformance to contract requirements and
shall also perform or have performed all inspections and tests otherwise
required by the contract.
D.4.b Documentation
The Contractor shall maintain adequate records of all inspections and tests.
The records shall indicate the nature and number of tests made, the number
and type of deficiencies found, the quantities approved and rejected, and the
nature of corrective action taken, as appropriate.
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The Contractor shall take prompt action to correct any errors, equipment
malfunctions, process changes, or other assignable causes which have
resulted or could result in the submission of materials, products, and
completed construction which do not conform to the requirements of the
specifications.
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CHAPTER 13
PUBLIC TRANSIT
B OBJECTIVE..................................................................................................... 13-2
CHAPTER 13
PUBLIC TRANSIT
A INTRODUCTION
All usual modes of transportation (autos, trucks, transit vehicles, rails, aircraft, water craft,
bikes, pedestrian) should be considered when planning, designing, and constructing the
surface transportation system. Where there is a demand for highways to serve vehicles,
there could also be a demand for public transit or public transportation. Public transit
should be considered in all phases of a project, including planning, preliminary design and
engineering, design, construction, etc. With the recent passing of various legislation,
multimodalism is the ultimate goal.
Planning and designing for public transit is important because it is an integral part of the
overall surface transportation system. Public transit is defined as passenger transportation
service, local or regional in nature, that is available to any person. It operates on
established schedules along designated routes or lines with specific stops and is designed
to move relatively large numbers of people at one time. Public transit includes bus, light
rail, and rapid transit. Public transportation is similar in definition because it serves the
general public, it also includes non-fixed route services that are door-to-door or paratransit
services.
With rising levels of congestion resulting in the use of new strategies to effectively and
efficiently manage mobility, there is an increased demand for accessible and user friendly
public transit. New strategies include increased emphasis on public transit and new
emphasis on Transportation System Management (TSM), as well as Transportation
Demand Management (TDM). TSM is the use of low cost capital improvements to increase
the efficiency of roadways and transit services such as, retiming traffic signals or
predesignating traffic flow. TDM focuses on people reducing the number of personal
vehicle trips, especially during peak periods. TDM includes the promotion of alternatives to
the single occupant vehicle, including public transportation, carpooling, vanpooling,
bicycling, walking, and telecommuting, as well as other methods for reducing peak hour
travel.
Federal and State legislation provide the stimulus for planning, designing, and constructing
a fully integrated transportation system benefiting the traveling public and the environment.
Examples of legislation include The Federal Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century
(TEA-21), The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), and The Clean Air Act
Amendment of 1990 (CAAA). In response to this legislation, the surface transportation
system should provide for concurrent use by automobiles, public transit and rail, and, to the
extent possible, bicycles and pedestrians.
Throughout the entire process, coordination with transit as if it were a utility is essential.
B OBJECTIVE
C TRANSIT COMPONENTS
Where new bus stop pads are constructed at bus stops, bays, or other areas where
a lift or ramp is to be deployed, they shall have a firm, stable surface, minimum clear
length of 96 inches (measured from the curb or vehicle roadway edge), minimum
clear width of 60 inches (measured parallel to the vehicle roadway) to the maximum
extent allowed by legal or site restraints, and shall be connected to streets,
sidewalks, or pedestrian paths by an accessible route. The slope of the pad parallel
to the roadway shall, to the extent practicable, be the same as the roadway. For
water drainage, a maximum slope of 1:50 (2%) perpendicular to the roadway is
allowed. In cases where there are no sidewalks or curbs, bus stop pads may be
necessary to allow the wheelchair passengers to board or alight from a transit
vehicle. Coordination with the Public Transportation Office and/or local public transit
provider(s) is necessary.
C.2 Shelters
Every public transit system has different needs with regards to shelters and
corresponding amenities (e.g., benches, information kiosks, leaning posts, trash
receptacles, etc.). Shelter foundation and associated pad size vary from stop to
stop based on right of way availability, line of sight, facility usage, etc. New or
replaced bus shelters shall be installed or positioned as to permit a wheelchair or
mobility aid user to enter from the public way and to reach a location therein having
a minimum clear floor area of 30 inches by 48 inches, entirely within the perimeter of
the shelter. Such shelters shall be connected by an accessible route to the boarding
area provided under C.1 Stops and Station Areas, this Chapter. Coordination with
the Public Transportation Office and local transit provider(s) is necessary. All
shelters should provide a location for a bicycle rack. Shelters should be installed at
locations where demand warrants installation.
C.3 Benches
Bench placement should be in an accessible location (i.e., not on the far side of a
drainage ditch from the actual bus stop), but appropriately out of the path of travel
on a sidewalk. Connection between the sidewalk and/or bus stop pad should be
provided. Coordination with the Public Transportation Office and the local public
transit provider(s) is necessary.
Although not always practical, there are situations where concrete bus stop pads
should be incorporated into the pavement design of a project. Frequent stopping
transit vehicles in a particular location is an example where concrete pads may be
warranted.
In some situations, turnout bays for transit vehicles are appropriate (i.e., consistent
slow boarding, layover needs, safety reasons, high speed traffic, etc.). Bus bays
can be designed for one or more buses. Coordination with the Public
Transportation Office and/or the local public transit provider(s) will help determine
the need for and justification of bus bays. When possible, bus bays should be
located on the far side of a signalized intersection. The traffic signal will create the
critical gap needed for bus re-entry into traffic. There are several publications
available which provide additional design information for transit system applications.
The Department District Public Transportation Office(s) maintains a library of these
publications.
All citizens and businesses in the State of Florida are encouraged to promote public
transit. This can be done in many ways, from providing employees reduced fares to
providing route maps and schedules. Work with your local transit agency to provide
service to large employment areas and major attractions. Assist local transit
agencies in providing such things as bus lanes, park and ride lots and easements for
bus shelters and bicycle parking. Encourage businesses or neighborhoods to hold a
"Commuter Choices Week" and invite your transit agencies to provide information
on the advantages of using transit. "Commuter Choices Week" is a state sponsored
event that promotes alternative transportation in the work place (walk, bike, bus,
transit, telecommuting).
CHAPTER 14
DESIGN EXCEPTIONS
EXHIBITS
CHAPTER 14
DESIGN EXCEPTIONS
A GENERAL
Uniform minimum standards for design, construction, and maintenance of streets and
highways are contained in this Manual and meet or exceed the minimum values
established by AASHTO. Consequently, the values given govern the design process.
When it becomes necessary to deviate from the Manual's criteria, early documentation
and approval are required. This chapter provides the process for documentation and
approval of Design Exceptions. When the Manual's criteria are met, no Design
Exception is required.
B DESIGN EXCEPTIONS
Design Exceptions are required when any of the Manual's criteria for the 13 controlling
Design Elements listed below cannot be met.
7. Grades
If the county or municipality has adopted by ordinance design criteria for local
subdivision roads and/or residential streets, compliance with those regulations is an
approved design exception.
Design Exceptions are recommended by the Professional Engineer responsible for the
project design elements (Responsible Professional Engineer). A public or private utility
may submit to the maintaining authority a completed exception package for work
designed by the utility's forces. However, if the design is by others, the package must
be submitted, signed and sealed by a professional engineer licensed in the State of
Florida.
All Design Exceptions require approval from the maintaining authority's (county or
municipality) designated Professional Engineer representative with project oversight or
general compliance responsibilities.
Any Design Exception that involves a state or federal facility must be processed through
the Department's local District Design Engineer who will then follow Department
processes for concurrence and approval by FHWA, if necessary.
In order to allow time to research alternatives and begin the analysis and documentation
activities, it is critical that Design Exceptions be identified as early in the process as
possible. This is preferably done during the planning phases of projects or as soon as
possible in the initial design efforts.
When the need for a Design Exception has been determined, the Responsible
Professional Engineer must coordinate with the maintaining authority and the
Department (if applicable), to obtain conceptual concurrence providing any required
documentation requested.
Description:
c) The compatibility of the design and operation with the adjacent sections
Operational Impacts:
Safety Impacts:
a) Crash history and analysis (location, type, severity, relation to the Design
Exception element)
b) Impacts associated with proposed criteria (annualized value of expected
economic loss associated with crashes)
Benefit/Cost Analysis:
A benefit/cost ratio equal to or greater than 1.0 indicates it may be cost effective
to implement a particular design; however, the final decision is a management
decision which considers all factors. The key factors in the analysis are:
NOTE: Chapter 2 of the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide and the FHWA
Technical Advisory titled "Motor Vehicle Accident Costs" dated October
31, 1994, provides guidance for the benefit/cost analysis, and may be
considered.
After conceptual approval has been obtained from the maintaining authority's designee
and the documentation justifying the Design Exception is signed by the Responsible
Professional Engineer and forwarded as per the sample request letter EXHIBIT 14 - A
to the maintaining authority's designated Professional Engineer, the Design Exception
will be reviewed for completeness and adherence to the requirements of Sections D and
E, this Chapter.
If the Design Exception satisfies all requirements, the approval will be signed by the
maintaining authority's designated Professional Engineer; and, if applicable, forwarded
to the Department's District Design Engineer for concurrence.
When all signatures are obtained, the Design Exception will be returned to the
Responsible Professional Engineer. A copy will be retained by the maintaining agency
and the Department, if applicable.
TO:_____________________________ DATE:__________________
Recommended by:
(Responsible Professional Engineer)
Approval:
(Maintaining authority's designated Professional Engineer)
Concurrence:
FDOT/FHWA (if applicable)
CHAPTER 15
TRAFFIC CALMING
TABLES
CHAPTER 15
TRAFFIC CALMING
A INTRODUCTION
As Florida continues to grow, more and more of the major highways in its communities are
becoming congested. This has caused many drivers to seek less crowded local residential
streets as alternatives to get to their destinations. In many cases, this has meant the use of
local residential streets as bypasses. The increase in traffic intrusion, volume, and speeds
on residential streets has degraded the livability standards of various neighborhoods in
Florida and as a result many residents complain about their environment (noise, air
pollution), livability (quality of life, traffic intrusion, excessive volume, and speed of traffic),
safety (as well as safety of their children, pets, and property) and physical characteristics
(absence of sidewalks, etc.) This chapter provides some guidance to Florida roadway
planners, designers, and traffic engineers on how to address concerns about maintaining
or enhancing the quality of life in residential neighborhoods by balancing the need for
safety for all roadway users and adjacent property owners of the street network and
maintaining the integrity of the highways networks as a whole.
B PLANNING CRITERIA
Traffic calming is the combination of mainly physical measures that reduce the negative
effects of motor vehicle use, alter driver behavior, and improve conditions for non-
motorized street users.
Communities undertaking a traffic calming program shall have a procedure for planning
which neighborhoods and roadways qualify for participation in the program. Specifics of
these methods shall be developed by the local jurisdictions. The methods will likely vary
from locality to locality. However, some issues should be addressed in all communities:
• Through the public involvement process, adjacent residents and road users who are
impacted by the situation should be included in identifying the concern(s).
• Once the concerns are clearly identified and confirmed by traffic studies, and
documented, it will provide the focus for possible solution, prioritizing, and
development of appropriate traffic calming measures. It will also help determine the
best approach to address the concerns.
Traffic calming may not be the appropriate method in all cases to address vehicle speeds,
volumes, and safety. Alternative solutions or educational tools may be considered.
The application of traffic calming measures should consider possible network and access
issues. A system impact analysis should be performed as part of the development
process. Vehicular and pedestrian counts, speed data, and crash history of the streets
under evaluation should be reviewed. Storm water and environmental impacts also need to
be addressed, as well as facility type, urban and rural design factors, and driveway
densities.
Design details for each traffic calming measure may vary depending on local conditions.
Factors to be considered include both horizontal and vertical deflection, ease of use,
emergency vehicle accessibility, ease of maintenance, and facility type. Operational
considerations and geometrics are critical factors to consider as well. A list of references
and resources to consider in providing more detailed design factors and information can be
found at the end of this section. It may be desirable to begin with less restrictive measures
and progress to more restrictive ones in stages.
Listed below are some "Do's" and "Don'ts" of the planning process for traffic calming which
may be helpful in working through the design process.
Do the following:
• Install temporary traffic calming features and monitor them for a period of time
before installing the permanent features. Testing features on site prior to
permanent installation will relieve resident anxiety about the impact on their own
driving patters and driving behaviors will adjust to the new route circumstances.
• Have an organized program including public involvement with plans and policies
approved and supported by the local government. Emphasize the selected
treatments(s) will be initially in a “test” mode, with permanency pending the outcome
measurement. Be able to describe what is being done to keep traffic off residential
streets.
• Involve the local service agencies, including fire, police, and emergency medical
services personnel, from the start.
• Consult with fire department and EMS personnel to develop the preferred design,
particularly with speed humps and traffic circles. Set up traffic circles with cones
and have fire trucks and other emergency vehicles drive around them; this will help
determine what radius is best for the vehicles used in a given area. The same
process can be used in the design of speed humps.
• Review traffic patterns in the neighborhood as a whole. Avoid solving the problem
on one neighborhood street by just shifting the traffic to another neighborhood
street.
AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, and the Florida
Roundabout Guide.
• Check sight distances for vehicles, pedestrians, and bicyclists. Sight distance
should be consistent with the dimensions shown in CHAPTER 3 – GEOMETRIC
DESIGN or CHAPTER 16 – RESIDENTIAL STREET DESIGN.
• Become familiar with the traffic calming features used in other communities and
assemble references so that residents can be directed where to see them.
• Check sight distances by visiting the site before and after installation. Do parked
cars obstruct sight distances? Do landscaping or other features obstruct sight
distance?
• Review the illumination at night. Are additional street lights needed? Does
landscaping block the light? Is there a shadow on one side of a median or traffic
circle that might hide pedestrians from view?
• Review the channelization during the day and night. Is it a clear approach from all
directions? Can it be seen at night? Watch the traffic: Is the driving public confused
by the signing and channelization? Make adjustments as needed.
• Review the site for utility conflicts. Is there a fire hydrant? Does it need to be
moved? Are there existing utilities in the way?
• Check the storm water drainage. Will the storm drain system need to be moved or
revised? Can the runoff flow through or around the device?
• Review on-street parking. Will parked cars block the access of emergency vehicles
through or around the proposed neighborhood traffic control devices? Add
additional no parking zones where needed. Additional enforcement of parking
restrictions may be required to keep the traveled path clear.
• Include weekends in traffic counts, as residential streets may have unique travel
patterns and high use periods.
• Install neighborhood traffic calming features on arterial streets (See Section 1.C.2
for a discussion of roadway classifications). Typically, physical devices are not
installed on streets with volumes greater than 3,000 vehicles per day, or with posted
or operating speeds of greater than 30 MPH.
• Install neighborhood traffic calming features on street with grades of greater than 10
percent.
• Install neighborhood traffic calming features on curving or winding roads with limited
sight distance, unless reduced speed limits and adequate warning signs are used in
conjunction with the devices.
When used for traffic calming, stop signs often do one or more of the following:
• Increase midblock speeds along the street because of drivers trying to make
up for lost time
• Increase pollution
For these reasons, stop signs should not be used for traffic calming.
Speed bumps shall not be used on public streets. Speed bumps are severe
treatments 3 to 6 inches high and 1 to 2 feet wide that slow drivers to speeds of less
than 10 mph. Due to their abrupt rise and required low speed they can be a hazard
to motorists and bicyclists. Speed humps, as described in Section D under vertical
deflection, should not be confused with speed bumps.
There are some other treatments that have been shown to be ineffective at reducing
the speed and volume of traffic on local roadways. While a temporary improvement
may result, long-term improvement is not likely; consequently, their use is
discouraged. These treatments include the following:
• Odd speed limit - NEIGHBORHOOD SPEED LIMIT 23 MPH and other odd
speed limit signs place a high dependence on police to monitor speeders and
are not consistent with the national practice required by the MUTCD of
posting speeds limits in 5 mph increments.
• Bike lanes – Standard bike lanes are not traffic calming treatments. They
can be used to provide additional space between the sidewalk and motor
vehicle traffic but should not be used by themselves for traffic calming.
• Speed trailers – While speed trailers can be used as part of a traffic calming
program for educational awareness, they have no lasting effect on motorists’
behavior.
• Reduced speed limit signs – Reduced speed limits without physical traffic
calming measures do not slow drivers and should not be used for traffic
calming.
The following sections describe some of the available traffic calming strategies. This list is
not exhaustive, nor do the treatments necessarily fall exclusively into only one category.
In a typical traffic calming plan various types of treatments will be used. These plans will be
based upon neighborhood preferences combined with engineering judgment.
Design details for traffic calming treatments will vary with application. Specific designs will
need to be determined based upon the objective of the installations.
Vertical treatments are those that depend upon a change in vertical alignment to
cause drivers to slow down. When properly used, these treatments can be effective
in reducing speeds and crashes. However, consideration should be given to
impacts on emergency responders, buses, and, to some extent, bicyclists and
motorcyclists.
Traffic calming features that alter the vertical alignment should not be installed near
fire hydrants or mailboxes.
Information on signing and pavement markings for vertical deflections can be found
in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD).
TABLE 15-1
VERTICAL TREATMENTS
Speed Speed humps are parabolic, curved, Reduces speed. May cause delays Low
Humps or sinusoidal in profile, 3 to 4 inches for emergency
in height and 12 to 14 feet long. vehicles and impact
Comfortable speeds limited to 15 to patient comfort.
20 mph. May have greater
impacts on longer
wheelbase cars.
Speed Speed tables are flat-topped speed Reduces speed. May cause delays Low
Tables humps, also 3 to 4 inches high but for emergency
with a sloped approach taper on each vehicles and impact
side of a flat top. They are generally patient comfort.
20 to 24 feet wide. Comfortable
speed limited to 20 to 25 mph.
Horizontal deflection treatments are often more expensive than vertical deflection
treatments. However, they have less of an impact on emergency responders and
large vehicles with multiple axles. They generally do not create problems for
bicyclists and motorcyclists. Because pavement area is usually reduced, additional
landscaping may be possible, making horizontal deflection treatments useful as part
of neighborhood beautification projects.
TABLE 15-2
HORIZONTAL TREATMENTS
Chicanes Mainline deviation to deter the Reduces speed Increases the area of Medium
path of travel so that the street and pedestrian landscaping maintained by to High
is not a straight line. crossing distance. residents.
Mini-Circles A raised circular island in the Reduces speed May restrict larger vehicles. Low to
center of an existing and both the May cause some confusion Medium
intersection, typically 15 to 20 number and when not signed properly.
feet in diameter. May have severity of Some communities have
mountable truck apron to crashes. documented increased crashes
accommodate large vehicles. when mini-circles replaced all-
way stop intersections.
Roundabouts* A raised circular area placed Slows traffic and May restrict larger vehicles. High
at intersections; travel is in reduces crashes May require significant
counter clockwise direction by 50% - 90% reconstruction of the
around the circle. May be over stop signs intersection and all
appropriate at locations, which and traffic signals. approaches.
might otherwise need a traffic
signal.
* While Roundabouts have sometimes been considered traffic calming features, they are primarily traffic
control measures. Roundabouts are large raised circular areas installed in intersections where a
traffic signal might otherwise be needed. All travel is in a counter-clockwise direction. While the main
objective of Roundabouts is to control traffic at the intersection, added benefits may include the
reduction of vehicular speeds. Some jurisdictions have reported reduction in crashes of 50% to 90%
over stop signs and traffic signals. Roundabouts should be designed for design vehicles appropriate
for the intersection, and may require significant reconstruction of the intersection and all approaches.
Neighborhood entry control treatments include partial street closures and gateway
type tools. They are used to reduce speeds and volume at neighborhood access
points and may be used in conjunction with neighborhood beautification / enhancement
projects and residential area identification.
TABLE 15-3
NEIGHBORHOOD ENTRY CONTROL
Curb Physical curb reduction of road Discourages cut- Need to accommodate Medium to
Extensions or width at intersection through traffic and cyclists out of street. High
Bulb-outs shortens pedestrian May impact sight
crossing. distance. Drainage
and parking may also
need to be addressed.
Midblock An island or barrier in the Provides refuge for Landscaping may Varies
Median, Slow center of a street that separate pedestrians and impede sight distance.
Point traffic. cyclists.
Lane Street physically narrowed to Improved pedestrian May create conflict Medium to
Narrowing expand sidewalks and safety. with opposing drivers High
landscaping areas. Could in narrow lanes.
include median, on street
parking etc.
One-Way In or Intersection reduction of the Reduces speed and Costs increase if Medium to
One-Way Out street to single travel lane with traffic. drainage must be High
Channelization channelization. Also called half rebuilt. Transfers
road closure. additional vehicles to
other ingress/egress
points.
Textured A change in pavement texture, Enhances pedestrian Increase maintenance. Low to
Pavement and color (e.g., asphalt to crossings, bike lanes, May increase noise. Medium
brick), that helps make drivers or on street parking.
aware of a change in driving
environment.
D.4 Diverters
Diverters must be planned with care because they will impact the people who live in
the neighborhood more than anyone else. Trip lengths increase, creating
inconvenience to residents. Emergency responders must also be considered when
diverting traffic.
TABLE 15-4
DIVERTERS
Forced Turn Small traffic islands Reduces cut through Could impact emergency Low to
Barrier/Diverters installed at inter- traffic. vehicles response time. Medium
sections to restrict
specific turning
movements.
Road Closures, Cul- One or more legs of Eliminates through May increase volumes on Low to
de-sac the intersection traffic improving other streets in the area. Medium
closed to traffic. safety for all street Access restriction may
users. cause concerns for
emergency responders.
Additional right of way for
proper turnaround at
dead ends may be
required.
Median Closures Small median islands Reduces cut through Could impact emergency Low to
installed at cross traffic. vehicle responses, inhibit Medium
streets to prevent access, and increase trip
through movements lengths or transfer
and restrict left turns. volumes to other streets.
These treatments are most effective when used in combination with other physical
traffic calming features, and should be used as supplements.
TABLE 15-5
OTHER TREATMENTS
Traversable A barrier placed across any portion of Eliminates cut- Inconvenience to some Medium
Barriers a street that is traversable by through traffic. residents.
pedestrians, bicycles, and emergency
vehicles but not motor vehicles.
Colored Bike A bike lane or shoulder painted, Visually May not be effective on Low to
Lanes or covered with a surface treatment or narrows the roadways with 12 foot medium
constructed of a pigmented pavement roadway and lanes.
Shoulders
designed to contrast with the adjacent may reduce
pavement. speeds.
E OTHER SOURCES
The publications listed below are additional sources, of information related to topics
presented in this chapter. Search the Internet Web for up-to-date resources using
"traffic+calming" as key words.
1. Civilizing Traffic, City of Honolulu Traffic Calming Training Manual, Dan Burden,
DRAFT.
2. Code of Practice for the Installation of Traffic Control Devices in South Australia,
July 1996. Traffic and Operational Standards Section, Department Transportation,
P.O. Box. 1, Walkerville, South Australia, 5081.
3. The Florida Roundabout Guide. Florida Department of Transportation, Maps &
Publications Sales, Mail Station 12, 605 Suwannee Street, Tallahassee, Florida
32399-0450.
4. Guidelines for the Design and Application of Speed Humps - A Recommended
Practice of the Institute of Transportation Engineers, 1997. Institute of
Transportation Engineers, 525 School Street, SW, Suite 410, Washington, DC,
20024-2729.
5. Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices, 2000. Transportation Planning, Highway
Safety, and Traffic Engineering Division, New York State Department of
Transportation, 1220 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12232-0204.
6. Modern Roundabout Practice in the United States, National Cooperative Highway
Research Program Synthesis off Highway Practice 264, 1998, Jacquernart, G.
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution
Avenue, NW, Washington, DC, 20418.
7. New York State Vehicle & Traffic Law, (latest edition). New York State Department
of Motor Vehicles, Swan Street Building, Empire State Plaza, Albany, NY, 12228.
8. Roundabout Design Guidelines. Maryland Department of Transportation, State
Highway Administration, P.O. Box 717, Baltimore, MD, 21203-0717.
9. Traffic Control Systems Handbook FHWA-SA-95-032, 1996, Gordon, R.L., R.A.
Reiss, H. Haenel, E.R. French, A. Mochaddes, R. Wolcott. Federal Highway
Administration, Office of Technology Applications, 400 Seventh Street, SW,
Washington, DC 20590.
10. Traffic Control Systems Handbook, Revised Edition, 1985, FHWA-IP-85-1 1,
Wilshire, R., R. Black, R. Grachoske, J. Higanbotham. Federal Highway
Administration, Office of Implementation, 400 Seventh Street, SW, Washington, DC
20590.
REFERENCES
The following is a list of the publications that were used in the preparation of this chapter.
1. A Guidebook for Residential Traffic Management WA\RD 368-1, Final Report, December 1994,
Savage, J.P. Jr., R.D. MacDonal, J. Ewell. Washington State Department of Transportation,
Engineering Publications Room SD3, PO Box 47300, Olympia, WA 98504-7300.
2. Florida Pedestrian Planning and Design Handbook, March 1997, University of North Carolina,
Highway Safety Research Center. Florida Department of Transportation, Safety Office, 605
Suwannee Street, Mail Station 82, Tallahassee, Florida 32399-0450.
3. Highway Design Manual. Plan Sales Unit, Support Services Bureau, New York State Department of
Transportation, 1220 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY, 12232-0204.
4. ITE Traffic Calming Definition, Lockwood, I.M. In ITE Journal, Volume 67, Number 7, July 1997.
Institute of Transportation Engineers, 525 School Street, SW, Suite 410, Washington, DC, 20024-
2729.
5. Neighborhood Traffic Management and Calming Program, City of San Buenaventura, Department of
Community Services, Engineering Division, 501 Poli Street, Ventura, C.A, 93001.
6. Supplementary Pedestrian Crossing channelization Devices. TC Werner memo to Regional Traffic
Engineers, July 15, 1997, Transportation Planning, Highway Safety and Traffic Engineering Division,
NYS Department of Transportation, 1220 Washington Avenue, Albany, N`Y, 12232.
7. Traffic Calming, July 1995, Hoyle, C.L., Planning Advisory Service Report Number 456 American
Planning Association, Publications Office, 122 S. Michigan Avenue, Suite 1600, Chicago, IL, 60603.
8. Traffic Calming Guidelines, 1992, Devon County Council, Engineering and Planning Department,
Devon County, Great Britain.
9. The Traffic Calming Program: Simplification and Enhancement of the Neighborhood Traffic
Management and Arterial Traffic Calming Programs September 30, 1994. City of Portland, Office of
Transportation, Bureau of Traffic Management, Neighborhood Traffic Management, 1120 SW. 5th
Avenue, Room 730, Portland, OR, 97204-1914.
10. Traffic Calming: State of Practice, 1999. FHWA-RD-99-135. R. Ewing. Institute of Transportation
Engineers, Washington, D.C.
11. Boulder, Colorado, Neighborhood Traffic Mitigation Program. Transportation Division oat (303) 441-
3266. http://www.ci.boulder.co.us/publicworks/depts/trans/ntmp/information.htm#Policies
12. Neighborhood Traffic Management Dade County, Florida’s street closure experience, Anthony J.
Castellone and Muhammed M. Hasan, I.T.E. Journal, Volume 68, Number 1.
13. Traffic Flow Modification / Street Closure Procedure. Miami-Dade County Public Works Department
and Metropolitan Planning Organization, Florida.
CHAPTER 16
TABLES
CHAPTER 16
A INTRODUCTION
The street is a public way designed for the purposes of serving motor vehicles, bicycles,
pedestrians, and transit vehicles. The primary function of residential streets is to
provide access to homes that front those streets. The primary consideration, therefore,
of residential street design should be to foster a safe and pleasant environment for the
residents that live along the street, and safe traveling conditions for motorists and
pedestrians. The convenience of motorists is a secondary consideration.
The street design should create an environment that cautions drivers that they are in a
residential area where they must safely share the traveling space with pedestrians and
bicyclists, both child and adult. Visual cues such as meandering streets, sidewalks,
landscaping, signage, narrowed streets, changes in pavement texture (such as brick),
and raised crosswalks all serve to heighten drivers’ awareness for the need to maintain
lower speeds. Incorporating such features into residential street design at inception
will reduce or eliminate the need for traffic calming retrofits.
Section B of this chapter discusses the primary objectives of Residential Street Design
in more detail, to aid the designer in the selection of proper criteria. Section C sets forth
specific design criteria for residential streets.
B OBJECTIVES
The basic principles of residential street design are based on four factors:
1. SAFETY
2. EFFICIENCY OF SERVICE
The following 17 principles incorporate these factors. These principles are not intended
as absolute criteria, since instances may occur where certain principles conflict. The
principles should therefore be used as concepts for layout of proper street systems.
9. The street system should be designed for a relatively uniform low volume
of traffic.
12. The amount of space in the land development devoted to motor vehicle
uses should be minimized.
14. The arrangement of local streets should permit economical and practical
patterns, shapes, and sizes of development parcels.
15. Local streets should consider and utilize topography from the standpoint of
both economics and amenities.
16. Appropriate provisions for transit service within residential areas should be
included.
17. Street design should consider horizontal and vertical compatibility and
connectivity with sidewalks, bicycle lanes, and pedestrian walkways.
C DESIGN ELEMENTS
TABLE 16 - 1
MINIMUM STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE FOR RESIDENTIAL STREETS
Design Speed (MPH) Stopping Sight Distance (FEET)
10 45
15 75
20 125
25 150
30 200
TABLE 16 - 2
MINIMUM CORNER INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE
FOR RESIDENTIAL STREETS
Design Speed Corner Intersection Sight Distance *
(MPH) (FEET)
10 110
15 160
20 210
25 260
30 310
* Corner sight distance measured from a point on the minor road at least 14.5 feet
from the edge of the major road pavement and measured from a height of eye at
3.50 feet on the minor road to a height of object at 3.5 feet on the major road.
Where stop or yield control is not used, the corner sight distance should
be a minimum of 200 feet, and desirably 300 feet or more. To maintain
the minimum sight distance, restrictions on height of embankments,
locations of buildings, and screening fences may be necessary. Any
landscaping in the sight distance triangle should be low growing, and
should not be higher than 3 feet above the level of the intersecting street
pavements. Tree overhangs should be trimmed to at least 8 feet above
the level of the intersections.
The minimum radii for horizontal curves are given in Table 16 - 3. Typically,
superelevation should not be utilized on local residential streets. Where
superelevation is appropriate or required, the street shall be designed
under the design criteria established in CHAPTER 3 – GEOMETRIC
DESIGN.
TABLE 16 - 3
MINIMUM CENTERLINE RADII FOR RESIDENTIAL STREETS
Design Speed Min. Centerline Radius
(MPH) (FEET)
10 25
15 50
20 89
25 166
30 275
When parking lanes are provided on one or both sides of the roadway,
they shall be at least 7 feet wide including the gutter section where
applicable.
Where curb and gutter sections are used, the roadway may be narrowed
to the travel lane width at intersections. This will prevent parking close to
the intersection, reduce crossing distances for pedestrians, provide space
for curb ramps, and reduce turning speeds. By providing occasional
midblock curb extensions, as well as intersection curb extensions, the
visual width of the roadway can be reduced.
C.5.b Medians
The minimum width for a median is 4 feet. When median openings are
provided to allow turns across the roadway, median opening length shall be
adequate to accommodate the design vehicle’s turning radius requirements.
A residential street open at one end only should have a special turning
area at the closed end, and a residential street more than 100 feet long
and open at one end only shall have a special turning area at the closed
end. This turning area should be circular and have a radius appropriate to
the types of vehicle expected. The minimum outside radius of a cul-de-
sac shall be 30 feet. In constrained circumstances, other turning
configurations such as a “hammerhead” may be considered.
C.7.a Sidewalks
CHAPTER 17
C DESIGN........................................................................................................... 17-2
C.1 General .............................................................................................. 17-2
C.2 Bridge Live Loads .............................................................................. 17-3
C.3 Bridge Superstructure ........................................................................ 17-4
C.3.a Vertical Clearance.............................................................. 17-4
C.3.b Railings .............................................................................. 17-5
C.3.c Expansion Joints................................................................ 17-5
C.3.d Drainage ............................................................................ 17-6
C.3.e ADA ................................................................................... 17-6
C.3.f End Treatments ................................................................. 17-6
C.4 Bridge Substructure ........................................................................... 17-6
C.4.a Scour ................................................................................. 17-6
C.4.b Vessel Impact .................................................................... 17-7
C.4.c Pier Locations .................................................................... 17-8
C.4.d Bearings............................................................................. 17-8
D CONSTRUCTION............................................................................................ 17-9
F RECONSTRUCTION..................................................................................... 17-11
FIGURES
CHAPTER 17
A INTRODUCTION
Bridges provide safe passage for multimodal traffic over various obstacles along a road
or path. This chapter presents guidelines and standards for designing, constructing,
inspecting, and maintaining bridges as well as other structures such as walls and
supports for signs, lights, and traffic signals. These standards and criteria are
necessary due to the critical function these structures serve to communities throughout
their lifespan. This chapter establishes uniform minimum standards and criteria for all
bridges used by the public for vehicular and/or pedestrian traffic as well as other
structures such as walls and supports for signs, lights, and traffic signals. The geometry
of structures shall follow the standards and criteria set forth in Chapters 3, 8, 9, and 13.
Exceptions to these standards and criteria must be processed in accordance with the
procedures described in Chapter 14.
All bridges constructed on and over the Department’s system, as well as all bridges
constructed that the Department will maintain, must comply with all Department policies,
procedures, standards and specifications, and this Manual does not apply.
B OBJECTIVES
C DESIGN
The design of bridges and other structures shall be led by a licensed professional
engineer who shall assume responsible charge of the work. The standards and criteria
included herein are directed only toward specific considerations that shall be followed.
Other considerations, not specifically addressed herein, are necessary to create a
comprehensive bridge design so as to permit owners and their engineers flexibility in
design.
C.1 General
The design of all bridge facilities shall consider both economic use of materials
and judicious application of aesthetic principles. According to Section 336.045,
Florida Statutes:
“In developing such standards and criteria, the department shall consider
design approaches which provide for the compatibility of such facilities
with the surrounding natural and manmade environment; …and the
appropriate aesthetics based upon scale, color, and architectural style,
materials used to construct the facility, and the landscape design and
landscape materials around the facility…”
All elements of the bridge should be designed for the vehicular and pedestrian
live loads specified below consistent with the design specifications.
• AASHTO Standard Specifications: HS20-44 truck or lane loads (See
Figures 17-1 and 17-2) including Alternate Military Loading (see AASHTO
Section 3.7.4) with appropriate impact (AASHTO Section 3.8.2) and load
intensity reduction factors (AASHTO Section 3.12). Type of loading to be
used, whether truck or lane load, shall be the loading which produces the
maximum stress. Sidewalk loadings as per AASHTO Section 3.14.1.
• AASHTO LRFD Specifications: See Sections 3.6.1 and 3.6.2.
• Other Loads: In addition to the design vehicles specified in the codes,
vehicles with other very different characteristics are legal on the
Department’s system. These vehicles are illustrated in the Department’s
“Bridge Load Rating, Permitting and Posting Manual (Figures II-3 through
II-9) and should be considered.
FIGURE 17 – 1
STANDARD HS20-44 TRUCKS
FIGURE 17 – 2
HS20-44 LANE LOADING
The superstructure of a bridge is that portion of the structure that spans between
its supports or piers. Considerations that shall be incorporated into the design of
all superstructures will include the following:
All new bridges over roadways and shared use paths shall be designed to
meet the vertical clearance standards specified in Chapter 3, Section
C.7.j.4.(b), and Chapter 9, Section C.4.
All new bridges over water shall be designed to meet the following vertical
clearance standards:
Higher clearances apply for crossings over legislated channels under the
control of the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). Designers should also consider
future navigation demands and future shared use path demands in setting
the vertical clearance of a bridge.
C.3.b Railings
All traffic, pedestrian, and bicycle railings shall comply with the
requirements in Section 13 of AASHTO’s LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications, 3rd edition, 2004. Traffic railings shall meet the crash
requirements of at least Test Level (TL)-3 for bridges with design speeds
greater than 45 mph and at least TL-2 for design speeds less than or
equal to 45 mph.
C.3.d Drainage
All bridge designs shall include a drainage design that is specific to its site.
Conveyance of drainage off the bridge roadway should be designed to
meet spread standards contained in the Department’s Drainage Manual,
Chapter 3 and may include open systems (i.e., scuppers) or closed
systems (i.e., inlets and pipes) based on environmental permitting
restrictions. Drainage from the bridge should not drop onto traffic below.
Longitudinal conveyance piping attached to bridges is expensive and
maintenance-intensive, and should be avoided whenever possible.
Conveyance of drainage off pedestrian facilities shall meet the provisions
of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Further guidance on the
design of bridge deck drainage may be found in the current version of
FHWA Publication HEC-21, “Bridge Deck Drainage Systems.”
C.3.e ADA
All bridges that include provisions for pedestrians shall provide pedestrian
accommodations and design considerations that meet the provisions of
the ADA. Significant ADA design considerations exist for all facilities with
grades that exceed 5%.
C.4.a Scour
Further guidance and training may be obtained from the SDG, Section
2.11 and AASHTO’s LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Section 3.14.
All bridges over roadways shall have substructures supports set back from
vehicular traffic lanes in accordance with Chapter 3, Section C.7.j.4.(a).
All bridges over water shall have substructure supports located with
horizontal clearance requirements as listed below. In this case, horizontal
clearance is defined as the clear distance between piers, fender systems,
culvert walls, etc., projected by the bridge normal to the flow.
• For crossings subject to boat traffic a minimum horizontal clearance
of 10 feet shall be provided.
• Where no boat traffic is anticipated, horizontal clearance shall be
provided consistent with debris conveyance needs and structure
economy.
C.4.d Bearings
D CONSTRUCTION
During the construction of a bridge or any structure at, over, or near a public facility,
safety awareness is necessary and precautions shall be taken to protect the public.
Provisions for protecting the public during construction shall be in accordance with the
MUTCD work zone traffic control procedures and the standards and criteria described in
Chapter 11. Worker safety is the responsibility of the contractor. Temporary barriers
shall be installed on all bridges being widened or whose new construction is phased.
Spread of stormwater on the bridge deck should be considered in planning temporary
traffic routing.
During the construction of a bridge or any structure, records to be kept and maintained
throughout its life shall include foundation construction records (pile driving records,
shaft tip elevations, borings) and as-built plans. These records provide critical
information necessary for future inspection, maintenance, emergency management,
enhancement, reconstruction, and/or demolition of these structures. These records
shall be delivered to the Department’s local District Structures and Facilities Engineer.
Title 23, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 650, Subpart C, sets forth the National
Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) for bridges on all public roads. Section 650.3
defines bridges, specifies inspection procedures and frequencies, and indicates
minimum qualifications for personnel. Each state is permitted to modify its bridge
inspection standards to deviate from the NBIS standards but only following approval
from the FHWA.
This statute also defines the minimum dimensions of bridge structures that must be
inspected as follows:
“Those bridges having an opening measured along the center of the roadway of more
than 20 feet between undercopings of abutments or spring lines of arches or extreme
ends of openings for multiple boxes and those bridges consisting of multiple pipes
where the clear distance between openings is less than half of the smaller contiguous
opening…”
Bridge inspectors shall be certified in accordance with Rule Chapter 14-48, F.A.C.
Safety inspection of bridges shall be conducted in accordance with Rule Chapter 14-48,
F.A.C..
The Department inspects all bridges in the State of Florida both on-system and off-
system. The Department provides each local government with copies of its inspection
reports. Each local government should maintain these reports to be responsive to
Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO) requests for bridge rehabilitation,
replacement, or enhancement designations.
All on-system and off-system bridges are assigned a Bridge Number by the
Department. Local agencies shall contact the Department’s local District Structures and
Facilities Engineer to have a number assigned.
F RECONSTRUCTION
Section 335.07, Florida Statutes, mandates a sufficiency rating system for roads on the
State Highway System. By inference, this statute also applies to bridges. This rating
system considers the structural adequacy, safety, and serviceability of the road/bridge.
The Department provides the posting information, if required, to the local agency owner
and requires the owner to provide the appropriate signage that is to be promptly
installed in accordance with the MUTCD. In particular, for bridges, the determination of
this rating should be accomplished using procedures in the Department’s “Bridge Load
Rating, Permitting and Posting Manual.” The Department shall post all bridges in the
National Bridge Inventory (NBI) within 90 and 180 days of opening or a change in load
rating for on-system and off-system bridges, respectively.
H OTHER STRUCTURES
The design of sound walls shall meet the requirements of AASHTO’s Guide
Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers (1989) with the 2002 Interim
to Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers. For sound walls
within the clear zone, their design and/or protection shall comply with the following:
• Do not attach sound barriers to the top of traffic railings unless the system
has been crash tested consistent with the design speed of the facility. The
Department has standards for TL-4 systems that meet the requirements of
NCHRP Report 350.
• Non-crash tested sound barriers may be attached to structures if located
behind an approved traffic railing and mounted at least five feet from the face
of the traffic railing at deck level.
Potential existing off-site stormwater inflows through the proposed wall location
should be verified in the field and considered in the wall design. Additional
considerations for the design of sound barrier walls may be found in Volume 1,
Chapter 32 of the Department's Plans Preparation Manual (PPM). For railings on
top of walls, see Section C.3.b.
The Department maintains a list of vendors, the Qualified Products List (QPL), it
has prequalified to supply these supports (light poles, strain poles, monotube
assemblies, and mast arm assemblies) on the State Highway System.
I RECOMMENDATIONS
• Involve the public in determining “the appropriate aesthetics based upon scale,
color, and architectural style, materials used to construct the facility, and the
landscape design and landscape materials around the facility…” (Florida Statute
336.045).
• Resist the temptation to enhance the aesthetics of a bridge with non-structural
appurtenances and features that are novel and therefore may have safety
challenges (otherwise, consult with the Department on these safety issues).
• Consider the potential for future expansion of a bridge’s capacity (vehicular
transit and pedestrian) in its layout and bridge-type selection.
• Use the Department’s objective construction unit prices (contained in the
Structures Design Guidelines, Sections 9.2 and 9.3) to select bridge type(s) to
consider for final design.
• Consider the use of alternative designs (i.e., steel superstructures vs. concrete
superstructures) to increase bidding competition on very large bridge
construction projects.
• Consider factors other than economics in decisions on a bridge’s basic design
and its discretionary features.
• Invest in a comprehensive subsurface investigation of the site before any
significant design of the bridge occurs (which will also help avoid unforeseen
conditions during construction).
• Consult with other local officials on experiences relating to construction of other
bridges in the area.
• Consider using the Department’s Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge
Construction with notes on the plans referencing the Owner as the local
governmental agency and the Engineer as the owner’s engineer.
• Consider the constructability, inspectability, and maintainability of all bridge
components before they are incorporated into the project’s final design.
• Include drainage pass-throughs in wall designs.
• Preclude contractors without company or individual bridge experience from
bidding on a bridge construction project.
• Provide qualified construction inspection personnel for all phases of bridge
construction.
• Maintain all design and construction records in a safe, protected, and secure
location throughout the life of the bridge.
J REFERENCES
State of Florida
Department of Transportation
MAY 2005
EDITION