Integrated Principles of Zoology, 14/e

Cleveland  P. Hickman, Jr.

Larry  S. Roberts
Allan Larson
Helen I'Anson
David Eisenhour

1-1
 CHAPTER 1
Life: Biological
Principles and the
Science of Zoology

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 The Uses of Principles
 Zoology:
The scientific study of animal life
 Knowledge of the animal world is gained
by actively applying important guiding
principles to our investigations
 Exploration of the animal world depends
critically on our questions, methods, and
principles

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 The Uses of Principles

 Principles of modern zoology are derived from:

 Laws of physics and chemistry
 Scientific method

 Because life shares a common evolutionary

origin, principles learned from the study of one
group often pertain to other groups as well

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 General Properties of Living
Systems
 Complexity and Hierarchical Organization:
Living systems demonstrate a unique and
complex hierarchical organization
 In living systems there exists a hierarchy of
levels that includes:
Macromolecules
Cells
Organisms
Populations
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Species
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 General Properties of Living
Systems
 Metabolism:
Living organisms maintain themselves by
acquiring nutrients from their environments
 Metabolic processes include:
 Digestion

 Energy production (Respiration)

 Synthesis of required molecules and

structures by organisms

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 General Properties of Living
Systems
 Development:
All organisms pass through a
characteristic life cycle
 Development describes the characteristic
changes that an organism undergoes from its
origin to its final adult form

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 General Properties of Living
Systems
 Environmental Interaction:
All animals interact with their environments
 Ecology: The study of organismal interaction
with an environment
 All organisms respond to environmental
stimuli, a property called irritability

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 General Properties
of Living Systems
 Movements even at the cellular level are
required for:
Reproduction
Growth
Responses to stimuli
Development in multicellular organisms
 On a larger scale:
Entire populations or species may disperse from
one geographic location to another over time
 Movement of nonliving matter “moves” the living:
 Not precisely controlled by the moving objects
 Often involves external forces
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 Zoology As Part of Biology
 Animals originated in the Precambrian
seas over 600 million years ago
 Characteristics of Animals:
 Eukaryotes: cells contain membrane-enclosed
nuclei
 Heterotrophs: Not capable of directly
manufacturing their own food and must rely
on external food sources
 Cells lack cell walls

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 Principles of Science
 Nature of science:
 Science is guided by natural law
 Science has to be explained by reference to natural law
 Science is testable against the observable world
 The conclusions of science are tentative and therefore
not necessarily the final word
 Science is falsifiable

 SCIENCE DOES NOT PROVE

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 Principles of Science
 The scientific method may be
summarized as a series of steps:
1. Observation
2. Question Your project
3. Hypothesis Formation could follow
this format !
4. Empirical Test
 Controlled Experiment
Includes at least 2 groups
Test Group
Control Group
5. Conclusions
Accept or reject your hypothesis
5. Publications
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 CHAPTER 2
The Origin and
Chemistry of Life

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 Organic Molecular Structure of
Living Systems
 Living things are composed of the
following organic macromolecules:

Carbohydrates 6 CH2OH

Lipids
5C O
H H
H
C C
4 1
OH H

Proteins HO

3
C

H
2
C

OH
OH

C6H12O6

Nucleic Acids
Recall your prior knowledge base
What biomolecule of life is the this ?
How do you know that you know ?
Figure not from text, but

What is this ?
What is this ?

How do you
know that
you know ?
What atom identifies this as newly synthesizing protein ?
In the text box, what information is there that gives clues ?
What type of chemical reaction is occurring ?
Reactions are reversible, what is the name of the reverse reaction ?
 GUANINE
(C)
base with a
double-ring
What is this ?
structure
Better answers ???
 CHAPTER 3
Cells as Units
of Life

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 Cell Concept

 Cell Theory
 All living organisms are composed of cells
 All cells come from pre-existing cells -
remember this is a theory

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 Mitosis and Cell Division

 All cells arise from the division of preexisting cells

 Cell division - KARYOKINESIS & CYTOKINESIS
 Division of the nucleus (karyokinesis)
 Mitosis (somatic cells) Fig 3.65
 Meiosis (sex cells)
 Division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
 In most multicellular organisms, all cells originate
from the zygote
 Single cell resulting from union of an egg and a sperm
(gametes)

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 CHAPTER 4
Cellular Metabolism

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Energy and the Laws of Thermodynamics

 First Law of Thermodynamics

 Energy cannot be created nor destroyed
 Energy can change from one form to another

 Total amount of energy remains the same

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Energy and the Laws of Thermodynamics

 Second Law of Thermodynamics

 Concerned with the transformation of energy
 A closed system moves toward increasing
disorder (entropy) as energy is dissipated
from the system
 Living systems are open systems
 Maintain organization and increase it during
development

What is “entropy” ?
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 Energy and the Laws of
Thermodynamics
 Cellular Metabolism
 The chemical processes that occur within
living cells
 Concept of energy fundamental to all life
processes
 Energy cannot be seen
 Can be identified only by how it affects matter

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 Chemical Energy Transfer
by ATP
 Endergonic reactions are coupled with
exergonic reactions by the energy rich
molecule, ATP.
 ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
 Drives energetically unfavorable reactions
 Formed primarily in mitochondria
 Most free energy in ATP resides in two
phosphoanhydride (high-energy) bonds between the
three phosphate groups

There are four biomolecule types of life.

What type of biomolecule of life is ATP ?
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 CHAPTER 5
Genetics: A Review

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 Chromosomal Basis of
Inheritance
 Meiosis: Reduction Division of Gametes
 Sex cells (gametes) transmit genetic
information from parents to offspring in
sexually reproducing organisms
 Chromosomes occur in pairs: homologs
 One member or the pair is donated by the mother,
the other by the father
 Homologs
 Contain similar genes encoding the same set of
characteristics
 Usually have the same size and shape

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 Chromosomal Basis of
Inheritance
 Meiosis Fig 5.12
 Special type of nuclear division
 Associated with gamete production
 Genetic material replicates once followed by 2
successive nuclear divisions
 Produces 4 daughter cells

 Each with only 1 member of each homologous

chromosome pair or 1 set of chromosomes
(haploid)

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 Sources of Phenotypic
Variation
 Sources of Phenotypic Variation
 The creative force of evolution is natural
selection acting on biological variation
 Without variation

 No continued adaptation to a changing

environment
 No evolution

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 CHAPTER 6
Organic Evolution

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 Darwinian Evolutionary Theory:
The Evidence
 Evolutionary Trends
 Trends are directional changes in features and
diversity of organisms
 Fossil record allows observation of evolutionary
change over broad periods of time.
 Animals species arise and become repeatedly
extinct.
 Animal species typically survive 1–10 million years

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 What are some take home messages ?
6-36 What would the insect graph look like ?
 CHAPTER 7
The Reproductive
Process

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 Nature of the Reproductive
Process
 Reproduction is one of the ubiquitous properties
of life
 Evolution is inextricably linked to reproduction
 Two modes of reproduction are recognized
 Asexual

 Sexual

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 Nature of the Reproductive
Process
 Asexual Reproduction
 Involves only one parent
 No special reproductive organs or cells
 Genetically identical offspring are produced
 Production of offspring is simple, direct, and
rapid
 Widespread in bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes
and many invertebrate phyla
 Ensures rapid increase in numbers

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 Nature of the Reproductive
Process
 Asexual Reproductive Methods
 Binary Fission
 Common among bacteria and protozoa
 The parent divides by mitosis into two parts
 Each grows into an individual similar to the parent
 Binary fission can be lengthwise or transverse
 Multiple Fission
 Nucleus divides repeatedly
 Cytoplasmic division produces many daughter cells

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 Nature of the Reproductive
Process
 Sporogony (Spore Formation)
 Form of multiple fission in parasitic
protozoa (like Plasmodium / malaria)

 Budding
 Unequal division of an organism
 Bud is an outgrowth of the parent
 Develops organs and then detaches
 Occurs in cnidarians and several other
animal phyla

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 Nature of the Reproductive
Process
 Fragmentation
 Multicellular animal breaking into many
fragments that become a new animal
 Many anemones and hydroids

 Starfish examples are known

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 Nature of the Reproductive
Process
 Sexual Reproduction
 Generally involves two parents
 Special germ cells unite to form a zygote
 Sexual reproduction recombines parental
characters
 A richer, more diversified population results
 In haploid asexual organisms
 Mutations are expressed and selected quickly
 In sexual reproduction
 Normal gene on the homologous chromosome may
mask a gene mutation

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 Nature of the Reproductive
Process
 Hermaphroditism
 Both male and female organs in the same individual
(monoeicious, hermaphrodites)
 Many sessile, burrowing and/or endoparasitic
invertebrates and some fish
 Most avoid self-fertilization
 Exchange gametes with member of same species
 Each individual produces eggs
 Hermaphroditic species could potentially produce twice as
many offspring as dioecious species
 Sequential Hermaphroditism
 A genetically programmed sex change occurs with an
individual organism - clownfish example !

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 Nature of the Reproductive
Process
 Parthenogenesis
 Development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg
 Male and female nuclei fail to unite after fertilization
 Avoids the energy and dangers of bringing two sexes
together
 Narrows the diversity available for adaptation to new
conditions
 Ameiotic Parthenogenesis
 No meiosis occurs
 Egg forms by mitosis

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 Nature of the
Reproductive Process
 Meiotic Parthenogenesis
 Haploid ovum formed by meiosis
 Develops without fusion with male nucleus
 Sperm may be absent
or
 May only serve to activate development
 In some species, the haploid egg returns
to a diploid condition by chromosomal
duplication or autogamy (rejoining of haploid
nuclei)

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 Nature of the Reproductive
Process
 Haplodiploidy - can determine sex
 Occurs in bees, wasps and ants

 Queen controls whether the eggs are

fertilized or unfertilized
 Fertilized eggs
 Become female workers or queens
 Unfertilized eggs become drones

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 CHAPTER 8
Principles of
Development

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“Telo” = “Equal” Hemispheres of Yolk “Meso” =
at the end - also in most mammals secodary, or
little bit
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 Vertebrate Development
 The Common Vertebrate Heritage
 All vertebrate embryos share chordate
hallmarks
 Dorsal neural tube
 Notochord
 Pharyngeal gill pouches with aortic arches
 Ventral heart
 Post-anal tail

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