Specific Learning Objectives - Test 1

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Specific Learning Objectives – Test 1

Define biology as a life science.


Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms,
including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy
List the four structural features that characterize all eukaryotic cells.
Nucleus, mitochondria, endomembrane system, golgi body
Define metabolism.
All chemical reactions that occur in a cell
Contrast anabolic and catabolic metabolic activity.
Anabolic: small molecules put together to make bigger molecules
Catabolic: breaking down molecules (releasing energy)
Define homeostasis.
Internal balance: maintains relatively constant internal conditions necessary for optimal
functioning
Give examples of how homeostasis is maintained
Liver releasing sugar to keep blood sugar within normal limits
All of the nervous system
Lizard moving into the shade to avoid overheating
Define responsiveness
All living things perceive & respond to stimuli in internal & external environments
Explain how higher and lower organisms differ with regard to responsiveness
Higher organisms have complex sensory & motor systems, lower organisms receive
stimuli at the membrane level
Define adaptation
Ability of living things to adapt to environments enabling survival
Describe three basic types of adaptation
Structural:
Physiological:
Behavioral:
Contrast asexual and sexual reproduction
Aseuxal: Cell Division // Sexual: two members of same species w/ opposite sex
Define abiogenesis
Theory that life can arise from nonliving surroundings
Outline and explain the experiment of Francisco Redi
Two jars with meat in them, covered one with gauze  covered one lacked maggots after
a few days exposure while the other had many maggots laid by flies
Outline and explain Pasteur’s experiment confirming biogenesis.
Boiled a broth in a curved flask; condensing liquid sealed the neck of the flask  was
nothing living even after left out for days… soon as he broke the neck living things came
into the bottle an reproduced
Describe the contributions of Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow in the development of the
cell theory.
Schleiden composed all plants are composed of cells
Schwann proposed all animals are made of cells
Virchow described the functional individuality of cells in human anatomy
List the three basic principles involved in the cell theory
1) All organisms are composed of cells
2) Cells are basic unit of structure and function on living organisms
3) Cells only come from pre-existing cells through self-replication
Outline and explain the significance of the Miller/Urey experiment
Was an experiment that simulated hypothetical conditions thought at the time to be
present on the early Earth, and tested for the occurrence of chemical evolution.
Significance: primordial origin of all cells is abiotic; amino acids, peptides, nucleotides,
ATP all formed
Describe the sequence of events that might have led to the formation of a protocell.
early appearance of nucleic acids ("genes-first"); or the evolution of biochemical
reactions and pathways first ("metabolism-first").
Describe the characteristics of the early prokaryotic-like cell that might have resulted from
the biological evolution of a protocell
Resemble present-day bacteria, cell wall may be present, autotrophic and heterotrophic,
asexual, may be anaerobic, lack nuclear membrane & membrane-bound organelles, DNA
is single circular strand, plasmid may be present
Describe the structural characteristics of a virus.
Vary in shape from thread-live to polyhedral
Capsid: outer protein covering
Nucleid Acid Core: DNA or RNA (not both)
Enzymes: DNA or RNA polymerases
Membrane Covering: host (source)
Distinguish between viruses, viroids, and prions.
Virus: Has all 3 main parts: helical molecule, protein coat, envelope of lipids
Viroid: Lack the typical protein coat typical for viruses
Prion: Entirely protein (no wrapper or helical molecule)
Describe the parasitic features of a virus.
Attach to receptors on host cell membranes, use host cells metabolic machinery to
reproduce, capable of mutation
Define bacteriophage.
Any one of a number of viruses that infect bacteria
Outline the steps of the lytic cycle.
1) Attachment: portions of capsid combine with receptors on bacterial cell wall
2) Penetration: viral enzymes digest part of ell all, inject viral DNA into the cell
3) Biosynthesis: viral components are synthesized, shuts off everything else
4) Maturation: viral DNA & capsid assembled to form 100s of viruses
5) Lysis: lysosome produced by virus eats cell wall, viruses released
Outline the steps of the lysogenic cycle.
1) Infected bacterium doesn’t immediately produce new phage
2) Integration – viral DNA is incorporated in bacterial DNA but remains latent
(prophage)
3) Prophage is induced to enter biosynthesis, maturation & lysis
Describe the discovery of prokaryotic cells.
First described by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, believed they formed through abiogenesis
Pasteur demonstrated their existence in the air in 1800s
Describe the structure of each of the following in prokaryotic cells:
Cell envelope: outer boundary with cell wall; provides structural support (glycocalyx and
s-layer)
Nucleoid: consists of single circular strand of DNA within cytoplasm; accessory rings of
DNA called plasmids may be present
Organelles: metabolic pathways are driven by membrane proteins (enzymes); ribosomes
present for protein synthesis
Appendages: Flagella may be present, short bristle-like fimbiae may be present for
attachment to host cell
Describe the structural classification of bacteria.
Spirillum (spirals), Bacillus (rods), Coccus (spheres)
Describe the arrangement patterns of bacteria.
Diplo (sets of two), strepto (chains), staphylo (clusters)
Distinguish between Gram positive and Gram negative staining.
Gram-positive has a thick cell wall, retains dye – stain purple
Gram-negative has thinner cell wall – stains pink
Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to generate energy (ATP)
Anaerobic metabolism: way for an organism to produce usable energy, in the form of
adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, without the involvement of oxygen; it is respiration
without oxygen
Distinguish between various types of autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
Autotrophs: photoautotrophic (uses sunlight to reduce CO2 into chemical energy),
chemoautotrophs (oxidize inorganics to obtain energy to reduce CO2)
Heterotrophs: take inorganic/organic nutrient, decompose large organic molecules into
smaller ones
Describe binary fission in bacteria.
Asexual reproduction occurs through this, cells are haploid, rapid generation time
Describe mechanisms of DNA transfer in bacteria
Conjugation (trans directly), Transformation (absorbed by environment), Transduction
(something that carriers it)
Describe two mechanisms of bacterial infection
Toxins: released by bacterial breakdown or secretion
Endospores: Dormant & highly resistant
Describe the three main types of Archaea
Methanogens: obligate anaerobes common in swamps, marshes
Halophiles: aerobic chemoautotrops, need 12-14% salt concentration
Thermoacidophiles: survive best in hot, highly acidic environments
Describe the general structure of eukaryotic cells.
Cell (Plasma) Membrane, Cytoplasm, Nucelus, Membrane-bound organelles
List the significant differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
Prokayotes: lack nuclear membrane, lack membrane-bound organelles, single circular
strand of DNA
Eukaryotes: Have nuclear membrane, membrane-bound organelles present, DNA
incorporated into chromosomes
Define systematics
Analytical process of explaining the evolutionary relationship of life on Earth
Relies upon fossil evidence, comparative anatomy, development, molecular data
Define taxonomy
Deals with identifying, naming, and classifying organisms based on evidence of
systematics
Identify and describe the three taxonomic Domains
Bacteria & Archaea: probably evolved from siliar ancestor, both prokaryotic, structural
similar but metabolically complex
Eukarya: structurally sophisticated cells, archaeal DNA and cells walls are more similar
to the eukarya than the bacteria
Describe evidence of the common ancestry of bacteria and archaea
Both contain the prokaryotic cells are relatively much more similar than either when
compared to domain Eukarya
List and describe the main groups within the Domain Eurkaya
Protists: uni & multicellular, auto & heterotrophic
Plants: multicelular autotrophs
Fungi: multicellular decomposers
Animals: multicellular heterotrophs
Identify the stages in the transition between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Development of: membrane-bound nucleus, endomembrane system, endosymbiotic
organelles
Describe the endosymbiosis theory
Theory that chloroplasts in plants and mitochondria in both plant s& animals arose when
eukaryotic cells engulfed independent prokayoties
Give evidence in support of the endosymbiosis theory
Both bounded by a double membrane, have own genetic material, both are energy-related
organelles
Compare surface structures in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotes: Cell wall, flagella, cell membrane
Eukaryotes: cilia, flagella, cell membrane
Compare the genetic material in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotes: Genetic material (DNA)
Eukaryotes: DNA, chromosomes, nuclear envelope, nucleoli
Compare organelles in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotes: Ribosomes
Eukaryotes: Ribosomes, ER, Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, Deroxisomes, Vacuoles,
Mitochondria, Centrioles
List the functions of the cell membrane
Acts as a barrier between its living contents and the surrounding environment
Describe the general types of membranes

Distinguish between passive transport and active transport


Passive transport occurs freely without energy release
Active transport requires energy release (ATP)
Outline the basic structure of the fluid mosaic membrane
Lipid component of the membrane gives it fluidity
At body temperature the phospholipid bilayer has the consistency of olive oil
Describe the composition and orientation of phospholipids in the membrane
Amphipathic molecule with hydrophilic polar heads of the phospholipids facing the
outside and the hydrophobic tails facing each other where there is no water
Define amphipathic
One side that loves water and one side which hates it
Account for the amphipathic nature of phospholipids
Likely due to the bilayer nature of the membrane
Describe the functions of glycolipids and glycoproteins
Act as a glycocalyx in animal cells: protect the cell, facilitates adhesion between cells,
reception of signaling molecules, and cell-to-cell recognition
Describe the role of cholesterol in a fluid mosaic membrane
Cholesterol helps modify the fluidity of the membrane: at higher temps, the cholesterol
stiffens the membrane and makes it less fluid while at lower temps cholesterol prevents
the membrane from freezing by not allowing contact between phospholipid tails
Distinguish between integral and peripheral proteins
Integral: embedded proteins which stick out both sides of the membrane
Peripheral: embedded proteins which only occur on the cytoplasmic side of the
membrane
Describe the movement of proteins in a fluid mosaic membrane
At least some proteins are able to move sideways in the membrane
However, many proteins are bonded to the ECM, cytoskeleton, or both (can’ t move)
Give specific examples of membrane proteins
Channel (allows H+ ion flow), Carrier (sodium and potassium ions across membrane),
Cell Recognition (immune system), Receptor (insulin  glucose), Enzymatic, Junction
(cilia of respiratory tract beat in unison)
Outline the functions of specific membrane proteins
Channel: allows a substance to move across the membrane(allows H ions to flow across)
Carrier: combine with a substance and help it move across the membrane
Cell Recognition: glycoproteins: help the body recognize when its being invaded
Receptor: Specifically shaped protein which allows specific molecules to bind to it cause
another specific reaction from the cell
Enzymatic: carry out metabolic reactions directly
Junction: form various types of junctions between animal cells
Describe the composition of the extracellular matrix
Meshwork of polysaccharides in close association with the cell that produced them
Describe the function of proteins in the extracellular matrix
Collagen: resists stretching, Elastin: gives the ECM resilience, Fibronectin: adhesive
green protein that binds to a protein in the membrane to form integrin (influences
activities and shape of the cell)
Describe the function of carbohydrates in the extracellular matrix
Proteoglycans & Polysaccharides: resists compression of the ECM
Proteoglycans: assist cell signaling when they regulate the passage of molecules through
the ECM
Distinguish between diffusion and facilitated transport
Diffusion: movement of molecules from a higher to lower concentration (no aid)
Facilitated Transport: Carrier proteins help water and glucose/ amino acids across the
membrane
Distinguish between active transport and bulk transport
Active: both carrier proteins and ATP are required to move molecules against their
concentration gradient
Bulk: way for large particles to exit or enter a cell (exocytosis and endocytosis)
Distinguish between dialysis and osmosis
Dialysis: Transfer of the solute through a selectively permeable layer
Osmosis: Transfer of the solvent (water) across a concentration differential
Describe facilitated transport
A selective process in which carrier proteins allow water and other molecules to pass
through the membrane
Outline the steps involved in active transport
Specialized trans-membrane proteins recognize the substance and allows it access
Proteins have receptors that bind to specific molecules and transport them into the cell
ATP or other chemical energy is used to facilitate this
Distinguish between endocytosis and exocytosis
Endocytosis: vesicle formation moves a particle to inside the plasma membrane
Exocytosis: fusion of a vesicle with the plasma membrane moves a particle to outside the
membrane
Compare phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor mediated endocytosis
Phagocytosis: when the material taken in by endocytosis is large, like a food particle or
another cell
Pinocytosis: occurs when vesicles form around a liquid or around very small particles
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: form of pinocytosis in which a receptor protein is
used that is shaped in such a way that a specific molecule like a vitamin, peptide
hormone, or lipoprotein can bind to it.
Define cytoplasm
Contents of a cell between the nucleus region of bacteria and the plasma membrane
Outline the chemical composition of cytoplasm
Water, proteins (enzymes, structural), inorganics
Describe the functions of cytoplasm
Cellular matrix in which enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions occur (metabolism)
Cellular organelles, each with a specific function are found in the cytoplasm
Define cytosol
Viscous, semitransparent cellular matrix
Describe the colloidal nature of cytoplasm
Contains proteins, sugars, salts, and other solutes
Describe the cytoplasmic organelles
Represent the metabolic machinery of the cell, most are membrane-bound, ribosomes and
centrioles do not have associated membranes
Describe cytoplasmic inclusion
Chemical substances that may or may not be present depending upon type
List the functions of the nucleus
Control center of the cell, synthesis of cellular organelles, store and protect hereditary
material
Describe the structure of the nucleus
Oval structure near the center of most cells
Describe the nuclear envelope
Double membrane that surrounds the nucleus in eukaryotic cells and is connected to the
ER; has pores that allow substances to pass between the nucleus and the cytoplasm
Distinguish between chromatin and chromosomes
Chromatin: diffuse, uncoiled network of DNA and protein within the nucleus
Chromosomes: condensed (coiled) version of chromatin
Distinguish between chromosomes and chromatids
Chromosomes: formed of two identical pieces called chromatids that are replicated
during cell division
Describe the structure and function of the kinetochore
Protein/DNA complex associated with the centromere of duplicated chromosomes
Direct chromosome movement during cell division
Define homologous chromosomes
Two chromosomes that have the same ‘types’ of information (does not imply same
expression) (ex: type = eye color)
Describe the structure of chromosomes
All the cells of an individual contain the same number of chromosomes
Two chromatids connected by a centromere
Distguish between somatic and reproductive cells
Somatic: Dipolid (2N)
Reproductive: Haploid (1N)
Identify specific types of chromosomes
Autosomes (1-22, paternal & maternal)
Sex Chromosomes: (X & Y)
Describe the structure and function of nucleoli
Non-membrane bound structures composed of proteins and nucleic acids found within the
nucleus. rRNA is transcribed and assembled within the nucleoli (subunits of ribosomes)
List the non-membranous organelles in eukaryotic cells
Ribosomes, cytoskeleton, flagellum, centriole
List the membranous organelles in eukaryotic cells
Chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, vacuole, nucleus,
lysosomes, peroxisome
Describe the structure and function of the nucleolus (i)
Non-membrane bound structure composed of proteins and nucleic acids located within nucleus
Dark region of chromatin
rRNA joins with proteins to form the subunits of ribosomes
Describe the structure and function of ribosomes
Two subunits: one large and one small; mix of proteins and RRNA
Responsible for protein synthesis
List the specific location and arrangement of ribosomes in a eukaryotic cell
Some occur freely in cytoplasm (singly or in polyribosomal groups)
Others attached to the ER
Describe vacuole formation
formed by the fusion of multiple membrane vesicles and are effectively just larger forms of these
Distinguish between phagocytosis and pinocytosis
Phagocytosis: when the material taken in by endocytosis is large, like a food particle or
another cell
Pinocytosis: occurs when vesicles form around a liquid or around very small particles
Distinguish between endocytosis and exocytosis
Endocytosis: vesicle formation moves a particle to inside the plasma membrane
Exocytosis: fusion of a vesicle with plasma membrane moves particle out of membrane
Describe the structure and function of vacuoles
Large membranous sacs; ridding the cell of excess water; usually store substances
Describe the structure and function of the cytoskeleton
Internal framework of the cell, consists of microtubules, actin filaments, intermediate filaments
Maintains cell shape, allows organelles to move
List the functions of the various components of the cytoskeleton
Microtubules: maintain cell shape and allow movement of organelles
Actin Filaments: extremely thin, flexible fibers; form a track for chloroplasts in plant cells; form
a structural web underneath the plasma membrane
Intermediate Filaments: ropelike assembly of fibruous polypeptide; support nuclear envelope,
support plasma membrane; support cell-to-cell junctions
Describe the structure and function of mitochondria
Have two membranes (cristae and semifluid matrix)
Produce most of the cell’s ATP (cellular respiration)
Compare the reactions of the mitochondrial matrix and the cristae
Matrix: mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes
Breaks down carbohydrates and other nutrient molecules
Cristae: short, fingerlike projections formed by the folding of the inner membrane
Chain of proteins to create conditions for ATP synthesis
Describe the structure and function of the centrioles
Short cylinders with 9 pairs of 3 microtubules in a spindle fashion
Helps organize a mitotic spindle for chromosome movement during animal cell division
List the structures that make up the endomembrane system
Nuclear envelope, membranes of the ER, golgi apparatus, various vesicles
Identify the functions of the endomembrane system
Compartmentalizes the cell so that particular enzymatic reactions are restricted to specific
regions  vesicles transport molecules from one part of system to the other
Compare the structure and function of rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Rough ER: studded with ribosomes on the side, can produce proteins
Smooth ER: production of lipids, transport molecules (no ribosomes)
Describe the structure and function of the golgi apparatus
Stack of 3-20 slightly curved, flattened saccules (looks like pancakes)
Sorts and packages various molecules into vesicles that depart to other parts of the cell
Identify the source and role of transport vesicles
Usually come from the golgi body, move various molecules, lipids, proteins around the cell
Describe the structure and function of lysosomes
Membrane-bound vesicles produced by golgi apparatus
Very lowpH, store powerful hydrolytic-digestive enzymes in an inactive state
Assist in digesting material taken into the cell
Destroy nonfunctional organelles
Describe the structure and function of peroxisomes
Membrane-bound vesicles that enclose enzymes
Enzymes in them come from ribosomes
All contain enzymes whose actions result in hydrogen peroxide
Break down lipids/fats

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