This document provides learning objectives for a test on basic biology concepts. It defines key terms like biology, metabolism, homeostasis, adaptation, and reproduction. It outlines cell structures of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. It describes the cell theory and evidence for the theory that life arose from non-living components through experiments like Miller-Urey. It also summarizes the endosymbiotic theory of how organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts originated, as well as taxonomy and the three domains of life - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
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This document provides learning objectives for a test on basic biology concepts. It defines key terms like biology, metabolism, homeostasis, adaptation, and reproduction. It outlines cell structures of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. It describes the cell theory and evidence for the theory that life arose from non-living components through experiments like Miller-Urey. It also summarizes the endosymbiotic theory of how organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts originated, as well as taxonomy and the three domains of life - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
This document provides learning objectives for a test on basic biology concepts. It defines key terms like biology, metabolism, homeostasis, adaptation, and reproduction. It outlines cell structures of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. It describes the cell theory and evidence for the theory that life arose from non-living components through experiments like Miller-Urey. It also summarizes the endosymbiotic theory of how organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts originated, as well as taxonomy and the three domains of life - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
This document provides learning objectives for a test on basic biology concepts. It defines key terms like biology, metabolism, homeostasis, adaptation, and reproduction. It outlines cell structures of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. It describes the cell theory and evidence for the theory that life arose from non-living components through experiments like Miller-Urey. It also summarizes the endosymbiotic theory of how organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts originated, as well as taxonomy and the three domains of life - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
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Specific Learning Objectives – Test 1
Define biology as a life science.
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy List the four structural features that characterize all eukaryotic cells. Nucleus, mitochondria, endomembrane system, golgi body Define metabolism. All chemical reactions that occur in a cell Contrast anabolic and catabolic metabolic activity. Anabolic: small molecules put together to make bigger molecules Catabolic: breaking down molecules (releasing energy) Define homeostasis. Internal balance: maintains relatively constant internal conditions necessary for optimal functioning Give examples of how homeostasis is maintained Liver releasing sugar to keep blood sugar within normal limits All of the nervous system Lizard moving into the shade to avoid overheating Define responsiveness All living things perceive & respond to stimuli in internal & external environments Explain how higher and lower organisms differ with regard to responsiveness Higher organisms have complex sensory & motor systems, lower organisms receive stimuli at the membrane level Define adaptation Ability of living things to adapt to environments enabling survival Describe three basic types of adaptation Structural: Physiological: Behavioral: Contrast asexual and sexual reproduction Aseuxal: Cell Division // Sexual: two members of same species w/ opposite sex Define abiogenesis Theory that life can arise from nonliving surroundings Outline and explain the experiment of Francisco Redi Two jars with meat in them, covered one with gauze covered one lacked maggots after a few days exposure while the other had many maggots laid by flies Outline and explain Pasteur’s experiment confirming biogenesis. Boiled a broth in a curved flask; condensing liquid sealed the neck of the flask was nothing living even after left out for days… soon as he broke the neck living things came into the bottle an reproduced Describe the contributions of Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow in the development of the cell theory. Schleiden composed all plants are composed of cells Schwann proposed all animals are made of cells Virchow described the functional individuality of cells in human anatomy List the three basic principles involved in the cell theory 1) All organisms are composed of cells 2) Cells are basic unit of structure and function on living organisms 3) Cells only come from pre-existing cells through self-replication Outline and explain the significance of the Miller/Urey experiment Was an experiment that simulated hypothetical conditions thought at the time to be present on the early Earth, and tested for the occurrence of chemical evolution. Significance: primordial origin of all cells is abiotic; amino acids, peptides, nucleotides, ATP all formed Describe the sequence of events that might have led to the formation of a protocell. early appearance of nucleic acids ("genes-first"); or the evolution of biochemical reactions and pathways first ("metabolism-first"). Describe the characteristics of the early prokaryotic-like cell that might have resulted from the biological evolution of a protocell Resemble present-day bacteria, cell wall may be present, autotrophic and heterotrophic, asexual, may be anaerobic, lack nuclear membrane & membrane-bound organelles, DNA is single circular strand, plasmid may be present Describe the structural characteristics of a virus. Vary in shape from thread-live to polyhedral Capsid: outer protein covering Nucleid Acid Core: DNA or RNA (not both) Enzymes: DNA or RNA polymerases Membrane Covering: host (source) Distinguish between viruses, viroids, and prions. Virus: Has all 3 main parts: helical molecule, protein coat, envelope of lipids Viroid: Lack the typical protein coat typical for viruses Prion: Entirely protein (no wrapper or helical molecule) Describe the parasitic features of a virus. Attach to receptors on host cell membranes, use host cells metabolic machinery to reproduce, capable of mutation Define bacteriophage. Any one of a number of viruses that infect bacteria Outline the steps of the lytic cycle. 1) Attachment: portions of capsid combine with receptors on bacterial cell wall 2) Penetration: viral enzymes digest part of ell all, inject viral DNA into the cell 3) Biosynthesis: viral components are synthesized, shuts off everything else 4) Maturation: viral DNA & capsid assembled to form 100s of viruses 5) Lysis: lysosome produced by virus eats cell wall, viruses released Outline the steps of the lysogenic cycle. 1) Infected bacterium doesn’t immediately produce new phage 2) Integration – viral DNA is incorporated in bacterial DNA but remains latent (prophage) 3) Prophage is induced to enter biosynthesis, maturation & lysis Describe the discovery of prokaryotic cells. First described by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, believed they formed through abiogenesis Pasteur demonstrated their existence in the air in 1800s Describe the structure of each of the following in prokaryotic cells: Cell envelope: outer boundary with cell wall; provides structural support (glycocalyx and s-layer) Nucleoid: consists of single circular strand of DNA within cytoplasm; accessory rings of DNA called plasmids may be present Organelles: metabolic pathways are driven by membrane proteins (enzymes); ribosomes present for protein synthesis Appendages: Flagella may be present, short bristle-like fimbiae may be present for attachment to host cell Describe the structural classification of bacteria. Spirillum (spirals), Bacillus (rods), Coccus (spheres) Describe the arrangement patterns of bacteria. Diplo (sets of two), strepto (chains), staphylo (clusters) Distinguish between Gram positive and Gram negative staining. Gram-positive has a thick cell wall, retains dye – stain purple Gram-negative has thinner cell wall – stains pink Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to generate energy (ATP) Anaerobic metabolism: way for an organism to produce usable energy, in the form of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, without the involvement of oxygen; it is respiration without oxygen Distinguish between various types of autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition. Autotrophs: photoautotrophic (uses sunlight to reduce CO2 into chemical energy), chemoautotrophs (oxidize inorganics to obtain energy to reduce CO2) Heterotrophs: take inorganic/organic nutrient, decompose large organic molecules into smaller ones Describe binary fission in bacteria. Asexual reproduction occurs through this, cells are haploid, rapid generation time Describe mechanisms of DNA transfer in bacteria Conjugation (trans directly), Transformation (absorbed by environment), Transduction (something that carriers it) Describe two mechanisms of bacterial infection Toxins: released by bacterial breakdown or secretion Endospores: Dormant & highly resistant Describe the three main types of Archaea Methanogens: obligate anaerobes common in swamps, marshes Halophiles: aerobic chemoautotrops, need 12-14% salt concentration Thermoacidophiles: survive best in hot, highly acidic environments Describe the general structure of eukaryotic cells. Cell (Plasma) Membrane, Cytoplasm, Nucelus, Membrane-bound organelles List the significant differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells Prokayotes: lack nuclear membrane, lack membrane-bound organelles, single circular strand of DNA Eukaryotes: Have nuclear membrane, membrane-bound organelles present, DNA incorporated into chromosomes Define systematics Analytical process of explaining the evolutionary relationship of life on Earth Relies upon fossil evidence, comparative anatomy, development, molecular data Define taxonomy Deals with identifying, naming, and classifying organisms based on evidence of systematics Identify and describe the three taxonomic Domains Bacteria & Archaea: probably evolved from siliar ancestor, both prokaryotic, structural similar but metabolically complex Eukarya: structurally sophisticated cells, archaeal DNA and cells walls are more similar to the eukarya than the bacteria Describe evidence of the common ancestry of bacteria and archaea Both contain the prokaryotic cells are relatively much more similar than either when compared to domain Eukarya List and describe the main groups within the Domain Eurkaya Protists: uni & multicellular, auto & heterotrophic Plants: multicelular autotrophs Fungi: multicellular decomposers Animals: multicellular heterotrophs Identify the stages in the transition between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Development of: membrane-bound nucleus, endomembrane system, endosymbiotic organelles Describe the endosymbiosis theory Theory that chloroplasts in plants and mitochondria in both plant s& animals arose when eukaryotic cells engulfed independent prokayoties Give evidence in support of the endosymbiosis theory Both bounded by a double membrane, have own genetic material, both are energy-related organelles Compare surface structures in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Prokaryotes: Cell wall, flagella, cell membrane Eukaryotes: cilia, flagella, cell membrane Compare the genetic material in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Prokaryotes: Genetic material (DNA) Eukaryotes: DNA, chromosomes, nuclear envelope, nucleoli Compare organelles in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes: Ribosomes Eukaryotes: Ribosomes, ER, Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, Deroxisomes, Vacuoles, Mitochondria, Centrioles List the functions of the cell membrane Acts as a barrier between its living contents and the surrounding environment Describe the general types of membranes
Distinguish between passive transport and active transport
Passive transport occurs freely without energy release Active transport requires energy release (ATP) Outline the basic structure of the fluid mosaic membrane Lipid component of the membrane gives it fluidity At body temperature the phospholipid bilayer has the consistency of olive oil Describe the composition and orientation of phospholipids in the membrane Amphipathic molecule with hydrophilic polar heads of the phospholipids facing the outside and the hydrophobic tails facing each other where there is no water Define amphipathic One side that loves water and one side which hates it Account for the amphipathic nature of phospholipids Likely due to the bilayer nature of the membrane Describe the functions of glycolipids and glycoproteins Act as a glycocalyx in animal cells: protect the cell, facilitates adhesion between cells, reception of signaling molecules, and cell-to-cell recognition Describe the role of cholesterol in a fluid mosaic membrane Cholesterol helps modify the fluidity of the membrane: at higher temps, the cholesterol stiffens the membrane and makes it less fluid while at lower temps cholesterol prevents the membrane from freezing by not allowing contact between phospholipid tails Distinguish between integral and peripheral proteins Integral: embedded proteins which stick out both sides of the membrane Peripheral: embedded proteins which only occur on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane Describe the movement of proteins in a fluid mosaic membrane At least some proteins are able to move sideways in the membrane However, many proteins are bonded to the ECM, cytoskeleton, or both (can’ t move) Give specific examples of membrane proteins Channel (allows H+ ion flow), Carrier (sodium and potassium ions across membrane), Cell Recognition (immune system), Receptor (insulin glucose), Enzymatic, Junction (cilia of respiratory tract beat in unison) Outline the functions of specific membrane proteins Channel: allows a substance to move across the membrane(allows H ions to flow across) Carrier: combine with a substance and help it move across the membrane Cell Recognition: glycoproteins: help the body recognize when its being invaded Receptor: Specifically shaped protein which allows specific molecules to bind to it cause another specific reaction from the cell Enzymatic: carry out metabolic reactions directly Junction: form various types of junctions between animal cells Describe the composition of the extracellular matrix Meshwork of polysaccharides in close association with the cell that produced them Describe the function of proteins in the extracellular matrix Collagen: resists stretching, Elastin: gives the ECM resilience, Fibronectin: adhesive green protein that binds to a protein in the membrane to form integrin (influences activities and shape of the cell) Describe the function of carbohydrates in the extracellular matrix Proteoglycans & Polysaccharides: resists compression of the ECM Proteoglycans: assist cell signaling when they regulate the passage of molecules through the ECM Distinguish between diffusion and facilitated transport Diffusion: movement of molecules from a higher to lower concentration (no aid) Facilitated Transport: Carrier proteins help water and glucose/ amino acids across the membrane Distinguish between active transport and bulk transport Active: both carrier proteins and ATP are required to move molecules against their concentration gradient Bulk: way for large particles to exit or enter a cell (exocytosis and endocytosis) Distinguish between dialysis and osmosis Dialysis: Transfer of the solute through a selectively permeable layer Osmosis: Transfer of the solvent (water) across a concentration differential Describe facilitated transport A selective process in which carrier proteins allow water and other molecules to pass through the membrane Outline the steps involved in active transport Specialized trans-membrane proteins recognize the substance and allows it access Proteins have receptors that bind to specific molecules and transport them into the cell ATP or other chemical energy is used to facilitate this Distinguish between endocytosis and exocytosis Endocytosis: vesicle formation moves a particle to inside the plasma membrane Exocytosis: fusion of a vesicle with the plasma membrane moves a particle to outside the membrane Compare phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor mediated endocytosis Phagocytosis: when the material taken in by endocytosis is large, like a food particle or another cell Pinocytosis: occurs when vesicles form around a liquid or around very small particles Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: form of pinocytosis in which a receptor protein is used that is shaped in such a way that a specific molecule like a vitamin, peptide hormone, or lipoprotein can bind to it. Define cytoplasm Contents of a cell between the nucleus region of bacteria and the plasma membrane Outline the chemical composition of cytoplasm Water, proteins (enzymes, structural), inorganics Describe the functions of cytoplasm Cellular matrix in which enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions occur (metabolism) Cellular organelles, each with a specific function are found in the cytoplasm Define cytosol Viscous, semitransparent cellular matrix Describe the colloidal nature of cytoplasm Contains proteins, sugars, salts, and other solutes Describe the cytoplasmic organelles Represent the metabolic machinery of the cell, most are membrane-bound, ribosomes and centrioles do not have associated membranes Describe cytoplasmic inclusion Chemical substances that may or may not be present depending upon type List the functions of the nucleus Control center of the cell, synthesis of cellular organelles, store and protect hereditary material Describe the structure of the nucleus Oval structure near the center of most cells Describe the nuclear envelope Double membrane that surrounds the nucleus in eukaryotic cells and is connected to the ER; has pores that allow substances to pass between the nucleus and the cytoplasm Distinguish between chromatin and chromosomes Chromatin: diffuse, uncoiled network of DNA and protein within the nucleus Chromosomes: condensed (coiled) version of chromatin Distinguish between chromosomes and chromatids Chromosomes: formed of two identical pieces called chromatids that are replicated during cell division Describe the structure and function of the kinetochore Protein/DNA complex associated with the centromere of duplicated chromosomes Direct chromosome movement during cell division Define homologous chromosomes Two chromosomes that have the same ‘types’ of information (does not imply same expression) (ex: type = eye color) Describe the structure of chromosomes All the cells of an individual contain the same number of chromosomes Two chromatids connected by a centromere Distguish between somatic and reproductive cells Somatic: Dipolid (2N) Reproductive: Haploid (1N) Identify specific types of chromosomes Autosomes (1-22, paternal & maternal) Sex Chromosomes: (X & Y) Describe the structure and function of nucleoli Non-membrane bound structures composed of proteins and nucleic acids found within the nucleus. rRNA is transcribed and assembled within the nucleoli (subunits of ribosomes) List the non-membranous organelles in eukaryotic cells Ribosomes, cytoskeleton, flagellum, centriole List the membranous organelles in eukaryotic cells Chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, vacuole, nucleus, lysosomes, peroxisome Describe the structure and function of the nucleolus (i) Non-membrane bound structure composed of proteins and nucleic acids located within nucleus Dark region of chromatin rRNA joins with proteins to form the subunits of ribosomes Describe the structure and function of ribosomes Two subunits: one large and one small; mix of proteins and RRNA Responsible for protein synthesis List the specific location and arrangement of ribosomes in a eukaryotic cell Some occur freely in cytoplasm (singly or in polyribosomal groups) Others attached to the ER Describe vacuole formation formed by the fusion of multiple membrane vesicles and are effectively just larger forms of these Distinguish between phagocytosis and pinocytosis Phagocytosis: when the material taken in by endocytosis is large, like a food particle or another cell Pinocytosis: occurs when vesicles form around a liquid or around very small particles Distinguish between endocytosis and exocytosis Endocytosis: vesicle formation moves a particle to inside the plasma membrane Exocytosis: fusion of a vesicle with plasma membrane moves particle out of membrane Describe the structure and function of vacuoles Large membranous sacs; ridding the cell of excess water; usually store substances Describe the structure and function of the cytoskeleton Internal framework of the cell, consists of microtubules, actin filaments, intermediate filaments Maintains cell shape, allows organelles to move List the functions of the various components of the cytoskeleton Microtubules: maintain cell shape and allow movement of organelles Actin Filaments: extremely thin, flexible fibers; form a track for chloroplasts in plant cells; form a structural web underneath the plasma membrane Intermediate Filaments: ropelike assembly of fibruous polypeptide; support nuclear envelope, support plasma membrane; support cell-to-cell junctions Describe the structure and function of mitochondria Have two membranes (cristae and semifluid matrix) Produce most of the cell’s ATP (cellular respiration) Compare the reactions of the mitochondrial matrix and the cristae Matrix: mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes Breaks down carbohydrates and other nutrient molecules Cristae: short, fingerlike projections formed by the folding of the inner membrane Chain of proteins to create conditions for ATP synthesis Describe the structure and function of the centrioles Short cylinders with 9 pairs of 3 microtubules in a spindle fashion Helps organize a mitotic spindle for chromosome movement during animal cell division List the structures that make up the endomembrane system Nuclear envelope, membranes of the ER, golgi apparatus, various vesicles Identify the functions of the endomembrane system Compartmentalizes the cell so that particular enzymatic reactions are restricted to specific regions vesicles transport molecules from one part of system to the other Compare the structure and function of rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum Rough ER: studded with ribosomes on the side, can produce proteins Smooth ER: production of lipids, transport molecules (no ribosomes) Describe the structure and function of the golgi apparatus Stack of 3-20 slightly curved, flattened saccules (looks like pancakes) Sorts and packages various molecules into vesicles that depart to other parts of the cell Identify the source and role of transport vesicles Usually come from the golgi body, move various molecules, lipids, proteins around the cell Describe the structure and function of lysosomes Membrane-bound vesicles produced by golgi apparatus Very lowpH, store powerful hydrolytic-digestive enzymes in an inactive state Assist in digesting material taken into the cell Destroy nonfunctional organelles Describe the structure and function of peroxisomes Membrane-bound vesicles that enclose enzymes Enzymes in them come from ribosomes All contain enzymes whose actions result in hydrogen peroxide Break down lipids/fats