PROJECT REPORT

VOCATIONAL TRAINING AT
ELECTROSTEEL STEELS LTD
SIYALJORI, BOKARO, JHARKHAND.

UTKARSH | INSTRUMENTATION |
30/06/2018 – 14/07/2018
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am highly indebted to GM of training Mr. G-L Kerna for

providing me the opportunity to get my training practically
from such a huge industry so that I can enhance my skills.

I sincerely thanks to Mr. M.K Das (Head I & A) to grant me

permission to get such a valuable training at his department.
I am also thankful to Mr. Deepak Kumar (Asst Manager), Mr.
Prasun Kumar Paria (Senior Engg), Miss Nabamita Karmakr
(Senior Engg), Mr. Arpan Swarnakr (Senior Engg), Mr. Dinesh
Kumar Singh (Senior Engg)

My special thanks to HR department for facilitating me to

impart training at this project.

Submitted by:
Utkarsh
B. tech (Electronics & Communication)
V th Sem
GGS Educational Society’s Technical Campus
Vinoba Bhave University, Bokaro, Jharkhand

PAGE 1
 ABSTRACT

Any steel production integrated plant has its Instrumentation

department who observes the percentage of things which help a plant
to run.

 What is Instrumentation?
 Instrumentation is a collective term for measuring
instruments used for indicating, measuring and recording
physical quantities, and has its origins in the art and
science of scientific instrument-making.
The term instrumentation may refer to a device or group
of devices used for direct reading thermometers or, when using
many sensors, may become part of a complex industrial control
system in such as manufacturing industry, vehicles and
transportation. Instrumentation can be found in the household
as well; a smoke detector or a heating thermostat are examples.
OR
Instrumentation is defined as the art and science of
measurement and control of the process variables within a
production or manufacturing area. The process variables used in
industries are Level, Pressure, Temperature, Humidity, Flow,
pH, Force, Speed etc.

PAGE 2
OVERVIEW

 What is Process variable?

 Instruments are used to monitor and control
the ongoing operation within limit is called the
process variable, which is measured by
instrument system. Variable is because they
varied, and we can them as per our
requirement.

 Some commonly used parameters of Process

variable are: -
 Temperature Variable
 Pressure Variable
 Flow variable
 Level Variable

PAGE 3
TEMPERATURE VARIABLE

Temperature is a measurement of how hot or how cold

an object is. Below figure shows a temperature control
unit.

Water in the vessel is heated by the heat exchanger.

Measuring the temperature, the steam flow to the
exchanger is controlled. Temperature changes when
the amount of steam is changed. The process variable
is called Temperature.

PAGE 4
PRESSURE VARIABLE

Pressure is a term used to describe the amount of force

applied to a specific unit area. Below shows a flow
channel of fluid from a compressor.

If you open the block valve, air is released to the

atmosphere, so the pressure inside the receiver
decreases. If you close the control valve, you keep the
air inside the receiver and the pressure increases. The
process variable that we are controlling is called
PRESSURE.

PAGE 5
FLOW VARIABLE
Flow is the movement of fluid inside a pipe in a given
direction. Figure below shows the flow control loop.

A valve in the flow channel controls the flow through

the pipeline. The greater the valve opening the greater
the water flow inside the pipe. Here we are controlling
the flow the fluid passing through the pipeline, so the
process variable is flow.

PAGE 6
LEVEL VARIABLE

The level in the tank change up and down depending

up the fluid in the tank. A control valve is installed in
the output line to control the level of the tank.

The process variable is level. You can change the level

by closing or opening the control valve. If you close the
valve, the level increases. If you open the valve, the
level decreases.

PAGE 7
  What is temperature measurement?
 Temperature measurement, also known as
thermometry, describes the process of
measuring a current local temperature for
immediate or later evaluation. Datasets
consisting of repeated standardized
measurements can be used to assess
temperature trends.

 Types of Temperature Measurement

1. Liquid and Gas Thermometer
2. Bimetallic Strip Thermometer
3. Resistance Thermometer
a) Resistance Temperature Detector
(RTD)
b) Thermistor
4. Thermocouple
5. Junction Semiconductor Sensor

1. Liquid and Gas Thermometer

This is the oldest process of temperature

measurement. The method is very simple.
In gas thermometer, one glass made bulb is

PAGE 8
filled with some specific gas and it is
observed the different volumes of the gas
inside the bulb at different temperatures.
Here, Charles Law of Gas is applied, this
law states that volume of gas is directly
proportional to kelvin temperature of the
gas when pressure is kept constant. In gas
thermometer, the temperature is calibrated
against volume of the gas inside the bulb,
considering the pressure of the gas is
constant as shown in the basic figure
above.

The reading of this type of temperature

sensors is not quite reliable as it is highly
affected by atmospheric pressure. Another
little bit improved version of gas

PAGE 9
 thermometer was also introduced, where
volume of the gas inside the bulb is kept
constant at all temperatures by adjusting
the level of capillary tube attached to the
bulb and observed what is the change of
head of the liquid inside the capillary tube.
Here, also Charles Law of Gas is applied. As
we know this law also states that pressure
of an enclosed gas is directly proportional
to its kelvin temperature when its volume
is constant. Here, changed pressure of the
gas is calibrated to its temperature. As both
gas thermometers sense temperature, they
can be considered as oldest and simplest
version of temperature sensor.

2. Bimetallic Strip Thermometer

This is another simple form of thermometer. Here two
strips of different metals are joint together to form a
bimetallic strip. The coefficient of expansion these two
metals must be different enough. Due to these
different coefficient of expansion, the metal strips will
be expanded or contracted differently for the same
temperature change in surrounding. Consequently,
whole bimetallic strip assembly will bend or be

PAGE 10
deformed in shape. This mechanical deformation of
the strip is then caught by a pointer in an indication
dial by means of lever - gear arrangement.

3. Resistance Thermometer
We know that resistance of any material changes for
change in temperature. There is a clear relation
between resistance and temperature of a material. This
relation can be utilized for temperature measurement.
The rate of change of resistance per degree centigrade
is known as temperature coefficient of resistance of the
material. This coefficient can be either positive or
negative. Generally, resistance of metal increases with
increase of temperature - hence temperature
coefficient of resistance of metal is referred as positive,
whereas resistance of semiconductor decreases with
increase in temperature - hence temperature
coefficient of resistance of semiconductor is referred as
negative. Although, both metal and semiconductor can
be used as temperature sensor. When metal is used as
sensor the thermometer is referred as resistance
temperature detector or RTD on the other hand when
semiconductor is used for same purpose the
thermometer is called thermistor.

PAGE 11
a) Resistance Temperature Detector
RTD stands for Resistance Temperature Detector.
RTDs are sometimes referred to generally as
resistance thermometers.
An RTD is a temperature sensor which measures
temperature using the principle that the
resistance of a metal changes with temperature. In
practice, an electrical current is transmitted
through a piece of metal (the RTD element or
resistor) located in proximity to the area where
temperature is to be measured. The resistance
value of the RTD element is then measured by an
instrument. This resistance value is then
correlated to temperature based upon the known
resistance characteristics of the RTD element.

 Working principle of RTD:

 RTDs work on a basic correlation between
metals and temperature. As the
temperature of a metal increases, the
metal's resistance to the flow of electricity

PAGE 12
 increases. Similarly, as the temperature of
the RTD resistance element increases, the
electrical resistance, measured in ohms
(Ω), increases. RTD elements are
commonly specified according to their
resistance in ohms at zero degrees Celsius
(0° C). The most common RTD
specification is 100 Ω, which means that at
0° C the RTD element should demonstrate
100 Ω of resistance.
 Platinum is the most commonly used metal
for RTD elements due to several factors,
including its (1) chemical inertness, (2)
nearly linear temperature versus resistance
relationship, (3) temperature coefficient of
resistance that is large enough to give
readily measurable resistance changes with
temperature and (4) stability (in that its
temperature resistance does not drastically
change with time).
 Other metals that are less frequently used
as the resistor elements in an RTD include
nickel, copper and Balco.
 RTD elements are typically in one of three
configurations: (1) a platinum or metal
glass slurry film deposited or screened onto

PAGE 13
 a small flat ceramic substrate known as
"thin film" RTD elements, and (2) platinum
or metal wire wound on a glass or ceramic
bobbin and sealed with a coating of molten
glass known as "wire wound" RTD
elements. (3) A partially supported wound
element which is a small coil of wire
inserted into a hole in a ceramic insulator
and attached along one side of that hole. Of
the three RTD elements, the thin film is
most rugged and has become increasingly
more accurate over time.

 NOTE
Simplex RTD having only one sensor in the
RTD.
Duplex RTD have two Sensors in single
RTD, which is used as redundant sensor in
critical applications.

Wire arrangement of RTD

RTD’s are available with either two, three, or four
output wires for connection to the secondary
instrument as shown in the figure below. The various
wiring arrangements are designed to reduce and/or

PAGE 14
eliminate any errors introduced due to resistance
changes of the lead wires when they also undergo
temperature changes. RTDs used for electrical
equipment generally use either a three-wire system or
a four-wire system having paired lead wires.
Copper lead wires are satisfactory for all the
arrangements. For a given RTD, all the lead-wires
should be of the same gauge and the same length and
should be run in the same conduit.
The four-wire system is little affected by temperature
induced resistance changes in lead-wires, and, of all
the arrangements, it is affected least by stray currents.
It, therefore, is used to measure temperature
differences and is used generally for making very
accurate measurements. The three-wire system is
generally satisfactory for industrial measurement using
a secondary instrument that is remote, say, more than
3 meters distant from the RTD. Although the error
caused by temperature change in the leads is virtually
eliminated in a 3-wire arrangement, a slight non-
linearity in the resistance change is introduced with
this scheme.

PAGE 15
 b)Thermistor

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is

dependent on temperature, more so than in standard
resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and
resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current
limiters, temperature sensors (negative temperature

PAGE 16
coefficient or NTC type typically), self-resetting
overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating
elements (positive temperature coefficient or PTC type
typically).
 Thermistors are of two opposite fundamental
types:
1. With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases
as temperature rises. An NTC is commonly
used as a temperature sensor, or in series with
a circuit as an inrush current limiter.
2. With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as
temperature rises. PTC thermistors are
commonly installed in series with a circuit,
and used to protect against overcurrent
conditions, as resettable fuses.

4.Thermocouple

In a thermocouple system, two dissimilar metal

conductors are connected at their two ends. Due to
this, two common junctions are created and if these
two common junctions are exposed to two different
temperatures, there will be a net thermal emf
produced in the circuit. The value of produced emf
depends upon the nature of these two dissimilar

PAGE 17
metals and the temperature difference between their
common junctions. Hence, the temperature difference
can easily be calibrated from the emf generated for
that. This type of temperature sensors is mainly used
in industrial purposes.

 Working principle of Thermocouple 

The working principle of thermocouple is based on

three effects, discovered by Seebeck, Peltier and
Thomson. They are as follows:
1) Seebeck effect: The Seebeck effect states that
when two different or unlike metals are joined
together at two junctions, an electromotive force
(emf) is generated at the two junctions. The
amount of emf generated is different for different
combinations of the metals.
2) Peltier effect: As per the Peltier effect, when two
dissimilar metals are joined together to form two
junctions, emf is generated within the circuit due
to the different temperatures of the two junctions
of the circuit.
3) Thomson effect: Thomson effect: As per the
Thomson effect, when two unlike metals are
joined together forming two junctions, the
potential exists within the circuit due to

PAGE 18
 temperature gradient along the entire length of
the conductors within the circuit.
In most of the cases the emf suggested by the
Thomson effect is very small and it can be
neglected by making proper selection of the
metals. The Peltier effect plays a prominent role in
the working principle of the thermocouple.

5.Junction Semiconductor Sensor 

A p-n junction diode and bipolar junction
transistor have very strong dependency on
temperature. If a diode or a BJT is connected a
constant current source and if the forward biased
voltage of these devices is measured, it would be
observed that due to change in temperature there
would be very much change in forward biased
voltage. Hence this forward biased voltage can
easily be calibrated in temperature such as the
value of this voltage gives direct temperature
measurement. these type of temperature sensors
are very sensitive and mainly used in electronics
purposes.

PAGE 19
 What is Pressure Measurement?
Pressure measurement is the analysis of an
applied force by a fluid (liquid or gas) on a surface.
Pressure is typically measured in units of force per
unit of surface area. Many techniques have been
developed for the measurement of pressure and
vacuum. Instruments used to measure and display
pressure in an integral unit are called pressure
gauges or vacuum gauges. A manometer is a good
example, as it uses a column of liquid to both
measure and indicate pressure. Likewise, the
widely used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical
device, which both measures and indicates and is
probably the best-known type of gauge.

Types of Pressure measurement

 Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a

perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so it is
equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric
pressure.
 Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against
ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute
pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative
signs are usually omitted. To distinguish a

PAGE 20
 negative pressure, the value may be appended
with the word "vacuum" or the gauge may be
labeled a "vacuum gauge". These are further
divided into two subcategories: high and low
vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum).
The applicable pressure ranges of many of the
techniques used to measure vacuums have an
overlap. Hence, by combining several different
types of gauge, it is possible to measure system
pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to
10−11 mbar.
 Differential pressure is the difference in
pressure between two points.

 Pressure Measurement – Manometers

Working Principle – Various types of
Manometers
MANOMETER
Manometers are one of the oldest type of pressure
measurement.
Manometers can be used to measure gauge
pressure, differential pressure and absolute
pressure.
Various types of Manometers
1.U tube Manometer
2.Well type or reservoir manometer

PAGE 21
 3.Inclined manometer
4.Float type manometer

1.U tube Manometer

U tube is made of glass. The tube is filled with a fluid

known as Manometer fluid.
Manometer fluid may be mercury, water.
If the manometer is connected to same pressure source
(P1 = P2) the level of the manometer will be same.
If the manometer is connected to two
different pressure source there will be
a difference in level of the manometer
fluid in both the limps.

If P1>P2 the differential pressure P2-P1=@h

PAGE 22
 @=density of the fluid
h=height difference
While choosing the manometer fluid for a particular
application we need to remember following things.
Manometer fluid should not wet the wall
Manometer fluid should not absorb gas
Manometer fluid should not react chemically.

2.Well type Manometer

In a well type manometer, one leg is replaced by a large

diameter well. Since the cross-sectional area of the well
is much larger than the other leg, when pressure is
applied to the well, the manometer liquid in the well
lowers only slightly compared to the liquid rise in the
other leg. Because of this, the pressure difference can
be indicated only by the height of the liquid column in
single leg.
For static balance,
P2-P1= @(1+A1/A2) h
where
A1= area of smaller-diameter leg
A2= area of well

If A1/A2 << 1 then P2-P1 = @h

PAGE 23
If the area of well is 500 or more times larger than the
area of vertical leg, the error involved in neglecting the
area is negligible.

3.Inclined-Tube Manometers

The inclined leg expands the scale so that lower

pressure differentials may be read easily.
Sensitivity of the manometer increases.
The scale of the manometer can be extended greatly by
decreasing the angle of inclined leg to a small value.

4.Float-Type Manometers

This is a variation of well-type manometer

Recording type manometer

PAGE 24
Span of the measurement can be changed by changing
the diameter of the leg.
A large float can be placed to generate enough force.

4.Flow Measurement
Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid
movement. Flow can be measured in a variety of ways.
Positive-displacement flow meters accumulate a fixed
volume of fluid and then count the number of times
the volume is filled to measure flow. Other flow
measurement methods rely on forces produced by the
flowing stream as it overcomes a known constriction,
to indirectly calculate flow. Flow may be measured by
measuring the velocity of fluid over a known area. For
very large flows, tracer methods may be used to deduce
the flow rate from the change in concentration of a dye
or radioisotope.

Types of Flow
Flow is classified into open channel flow and closed
conduit flow.
 Open channel flow occurs when the flowing
stream has a free or unconstrained surface open to
the atmosphere. Flows in canals or vented

PAGE 25
 pipelines - like drain and sewers - which are not
flowing full, are typical examples.
In open channel flow the force causing the flow the
force of gravity on the fluid. A progressive fall or
decrease in the water surface elevation occurs as the
flow moves downstream.
 Closed conduit flow occurs when the flow is
caused by a pressure difference in the conduit.
Flow in water supply pipes or district heating
pipes are typical examples. The flow rate depends
mainly on the pressure difference between the
ends, the distance between the ends, the area of
the conduit and the hydraulic properties of the
conduit - like the shape, roughness and
restrictions like bends.

 How do Flow Measurement work

 Pressure-Flow Control: It’s More Than Stabilizing

Pressure:
The Compressed Air Challenge® Fundamentals
and Advanced training discuss the benefits of
using central controllers to efficiently control
system compressors. These systems are called
“System Master” controls. Modern day System

PAGE 26
 Master Controls use advanced technologies to
network air compressors in a preprogrammed
sequence. A properly configured network with the
right size and type of trim compressor can
typically hold the supply air pressure in a tight
band of +/- 2 psi. Because of this capability, many
users feel the application of System Master
Control negates the benefit of applying Pressure-
Flow Control to stabilize the plant air pressure.

 Pressure-Flow Control Ensures a Reliable Stable

Source of Air Is Always Available to Production:

To comply with Corporate’s new reliability

standards, two new variable displacement rotary
screw compressors with poppet valve control were
purchased and installed as the priority lead
compressors. The existing compressors were
relegated to low priority standby status to act as
back up compressors to the primary units. A
System Master Control was installed to network
the compressors. The System Master Control
sensed the pressure in the common receiver and,
by taking advantage of the poppet valve control on
the new rotary screw compressors, held it +/- 2
psi. Everything was stable and balance point

PAGE 27
pressure at the main header supplying the plant
was held at a minimum acceptable level to sustain
production under all operating conditions. Then
an unanticipated failure of the lead priority
compressor occurred resulting in a rapid decay in
the supply pressure. The System Master Control
sensed the decline and called for the next
compressor programmed in the sequence to start
and load. As the standby compressor came on line,
ran through its permissive, and began to
contribute air, the supply pressure continued its
rapid decline. Because the event occurred when
pressure was at the bottom of the band, critical
processes began to approach automated shut
down due to the low-pressure condition. Had the
pressure fallen below the minimum acceptable
pressure the lost production would have been very
costly.
Fortunately, the actual system in the above
example was equipped with Pressure-Flow Control
as an additional safeguard to ensure reliability.
The Pressure-Flow Control released supplemental
air from the storage receiver to sustain production
through the duration of the event. Production
never saw the pressure dip and was not even
aware that an event had occurred. The Pressure-

PAGE 28
 Flow Control paid for itself by preventing work
stoppages because of the unanticipated
compressor failure.

 Pressure-Flow Control: -

The term Pressure-Flow Control is the generic

name chosen by the Compressed Air Challenge to
describe a system consisting of:
a) A large air storage receiver.
b) Precision motor driven control valve.
c) Pressure transducer or pneumatic servo pilot
device.
d) Control panel.
The arrangement uses the controlled release of air
already in storage to stabilize the air pressure
delivered into the main piping header leaving the
compressor room. Pressure at control valve outlet
is sensed and air flow is continuously adjusted to
correct the deviations from set point. It works on
the principle that when compressed air expands,
the pressure decreases and, conversely, when air
compresses, the pressure increases. Therefore, if
more air is flowing away from the balance point
than in, the pressure goes down and the control

PAGE 29
 valve modulates open to release more air from
storage to bring it back to the set point. The
opposite action occurs if more air is flowing into
the balance point than away as the valve
modulates closed to hold air back in storage.
Figure 1 is a schematic illustration of a typical
arrangement.

Fig: - The control valve releases air from storage to

correct for pressure deviation

 Operate at the Minimum Pressures Needed to

Sustain Production.
The air supply pressure into the receiver is
determined by the compressor settings. The air
pressure in the receiver at any point in time is

PAGE 30
determined by the flow of air into the main header
supplying production. With the delivered air
pressure held steady at a reduced level, the
opportunity to lower the discharge pressure at the
compressors becomes available. The savings
amount to about a 1 percent power reduction for
every 2 psi of compressor discharge pressure
reduction. This is in addition to the already
mentioned flow reduction.

Fig: - Shows the typical pressure band in

a Conventional cascade arrangement

Fig depicts a conventional cascade style of

pressure settings for a multiple compressor setup.
Note additional input power of between +1.25 and

PAGE 31
6.25% incurred due to operating at pressures
above the optimum system pressure. Also, the
lower the air demand, the greater the
inefficiencies because this results in higher
average pressure.
Tightening and lowering the pressure band will
reduce the power requirements based upon
satisfying demand but there is a risk of short
cycling the lag compressors or forcing them to
operate unloaded rather than shutting down. An
unloaded operating compressor will use 25-40% of
its full load energy without contributing any air to
the system. Running unloaded is much more
inefficient than slightly over pressurizing the
application of Pressure-Flow Control allows the
compressor to operate within a wider pressure
band which mitigates the short cycling and allows
unloaded compressors to time out and shut down.
Compressors no longer must react to the peak
short duration demand events because these are
now satisfied with air from storage. In most
systems, the storage required to cover the
unanticipated failure of an operating compressor
will be sufficient to cover surge loads. It should be
checked using the following equation.
Vs = Vf x ∆P/Pa

PAGE 32
 Where Vs = stored event volume (cubic feet)
∆P = change in pressure allowed for event (psi)
Pa = atmospheric pressure (psia)
Vf = fixed volume (cubic feet)
Convert the calculated fixed volume and pick the
next largest standard stock size receiver.
7.48 gallons/cf x Vf = gallons
While the application of Pressure-Flow Control
improves the part load efficiency of compressors
operating in a cascade pressure profile, greater savings
can be realized from the application of System Master
Control to network the compressors as illustrated in
Figure 4 and operate with a single pressure band.

PAGE 33
Fig: System Master Control networks compressors
in a preprogrammed sequence.

Note the additional required input power remains

at only .5% above the optimum regardless of the
demand load.
System Master Controls are available in many
different arrangements at prices to fit most
budgets. Basic sequencers using timer rotation are
designed for smaller systems and can be

PAGE 34
economically justified with compressors as low as
15hp. More sophisticated designs incorporate real
time sequencing schemes allowing for table
technology scheduling and energy algorithms to
take advantage of the latest energy efficient VSD
and Variable Displacement compressor control
arrangements. More complex System Master
Controls can deal with multiple compressor rooms
using pressure averaging and pressure zoning of a
plant in the sequencing scheme. In most systems,
Pressure-Flow Control will enhance the
performance of System Master Control by
isolating the compressor response from the
dynamic demands, allowing them to sequence in
the most efficient manner instead reacting and
chasing the system. Figure 5 is a representation of
the final layout for the system described in the
opening example of how Pressure-Flow Control
can enhance the reliability of the plant air system.

PAGE 35
Fig: - The final system

Several factors must be considered in determining

the best configuration for a specific system. The
objective for every system is to operate at the
minimum pressures needed to reliably support
production. Deliver air at the lowest possible
pressure to minimize waste due to leaks and
unregulated uses. Then set the compressor
pressure band as low as possible, consistent with
the reliable operation of the compressors. For this
example, the variable displacement compressors
were equal in size and the poppet valve control

PAGE 36
 suggested a 6-psi pressure band would be
adequate to ensure the reliability of the system.
The Pressure-Flow Control supplements the air
supplied by the compressors while the System
Master Control draws upon the reserve energy of
the trim compressor and standby compressor, if
necessary. Air storage is sufficient at the 90 prig
outlet pressure/7-13 prig to cover an unanticipated
failure of an operating compressor. The savings
from lowering the plant air pressure and
networking the compressors with System Master
Control amounts to about 20%. Plus, a production
interruption due to a catastrophic event was
avoided. The investment in the Pressure-Flow
Control produced a good return. A different mix
of compressor types and sizes would have
different requirements to consider and the
configuration could be quite different. Every
system must be reviewed, and the alternatives
must be explored to determine the best way to
deal with the site-specific conditions. Pressure-
Flow Control should be included in the evaluation
process to:
 Ensure a reliable stable source of air is always
available to production.

PAGE 37
  Reduce waste and inefficiencies due to leaks and
unregulated air use save energy.
 Allow consumption savings to translate into real
dollar cost savings.
 Enhance the automated sequencing of networked
compressors.

5.What is Level Measurement

Level of measurement or scale of measure is a

classification that describes the nature of information
within the values assigned to variables. Psychologist
Stanley Smith Stevens developed the best-known
classification with four levels, or scales, of
measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
This framework of distinguishing levels of
measurement originated in psychology and is widely
criticized by scholars in other disciplines[3]. Other
classifications include those by Mosteller and Tukey,
and by Chrisman.

 Classification of Levels
1. Nominal Level
a) Mathematical Operations
b)Central Tendency
2. Ordinary Level

PAGE 38
 3. Interval Level
4. Ratio Level

Nominal Level
The nominal type differentiates between items or
subjects based only on their names or (meta-
)categories and other qualitative classifications they
belong to; thus, dichotomous data involves the
construction of classifications as well as the
classification of items. Discovery of an exception to a
classification can be viewed as progress. Numbers may
be used to represent the variables, but the numbers do
not have numerical value or relationship. Nominal
scales were often called qualitative scales, and
measurements made on qualitative scales were called
qualitative data. However, the rise of qualitative
research has made this usage confusing. The numbers
in nominal measurement are assigned as labels and
have no specific numerical value or meaning. No form
of arithmetic computation (+, −, ×, etc.) may be
performed on nominal measures. The nominal level is
the lowest measurement level used from a statistical
point of view.

 Mathematical Operation

PAGE 39
 Equality and other operations that can be defined
in terms of equality, such as inequality and set
membership, are the only non-trivial operations
that generically apply to objects of the nominal
type.

 Central tendency
The mode, i.e. the most common item, is allowed
as the measure of central tendency for the
nominal type. On the other hand, the median, i.e.
the middle-ranked item, makes no sense for the
nominal type of data since ranking is meaningless
for the nominal type.

Ordinary Level
The ordinal type allows for rank order (1st, 2nd,
3rd, etc.) by which data can be sorted, but still
does not allow for relative degree of difference
between them. Examples include, on one hand,
dichotomous data with dichotomous (or
dichotomized) values such as 'sick' vs. 'healthy'
when measuring health, 'guilty' vs. 'not-guilty'
when making judgments in courts, 'wrong/false'
vs. 'right/true' when measuring truth value, and,
on the other hand, non-dichotomous data
consisting of a spectrum of values, such as

PAGE 40
 'completely agree', 'mostly agree', 'mostly
disagree', 'completely disagree' when measuring
opinion.

 Central Tendency
The median, i.e. middle-ranked, item is allowed
as the measure of central tendency; however, the
mean (or average) as the measure of central
tendency is not allowed. The mode is allowed.
In 1946, Stevens observed that psychological
measurement, such as measurement of opinions,
usually operates on ordinal scales; thus, means
and standard deviations have no validity, but they
can be used to get ideas for how to improve
operationalization of variables used in
questionnaires. Most psychological data collected
by psychometric instruments and tests,
measuring cognitive and other abilities, are
ordinal, although some theoreticians have argued
they can be treated as interval or ratio scales.
However, there is little prima facie evidence to
suggest that such attributes are anything more
than ordinal (Cliff, 1996; Cliff & Keats, 2003;
Michell, 2008). IQ scores reflect an ordinal scale,
in which all scores are meaningful for comparison
only. There is no absolute zero, and a 10-point

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difference may carry different meanings at
different points of the scale.

Interval Scale

The interval type allows for the degree of

difference between items, but not the ratio
between them. Examples include temperature
with the Celsius scale, which has two defined
points (the freezing and boiling point of water at
specific conditions) and then separated into 100
intervals, date when measured from an arbitrary
epoch (such as AD), percentage such as a
percentage return on a stock, location in
Cartesian coordinates, and direction measured in
degrees from true or magnetic north. Ratios are
not meaningful since 20 °C cannot be said to be
"twice as hot" as 10 °C, nor can
multiplication/division be carried out between
any two dates directly. However, ratios of
differences can be expressed; for example, one
difference can be twice another. Interval type
variables are sometimes also called "scaled
variables", but the formal mathematical term is
an affine space (in this case an affine line).

PAGE 42
 Central tendency and statistical dispersion
The mode, median, and arithmetic mean can
measure central tendency of interval variables,
while measures of statistical dispersion include
range and standard deviation. Since one can only
divide by differences, one cannot define measures
that require some ratios, such as the coefficient of
variation. More subtly, while one can define
moments about the origin, only central moments
are meaningful, since the choice of origin is
arbitrary. One can define standardized moments,
since ratios of differences are meaningful, but one
cannot define the coefficient of variation, since
the mean is a moment about the origin, unlike
the standard deviation, which is (the square root
of) a central moment.

Ratio scale
The ratio type takes its name from the fact that
measurement is the estimation of the ratio
between a magnitude of a continuous quantity
and a unit magnitude of the same kind (Michell,
1997, 1999). A ratio scale possesses a meaningful
(unique and non-arbitrary) zero value. Most
measurement in the physical sciences and

PAGE 43
 engineering is done on ratio scales. Examples
include mass, length, duration, plane angle,
energy and electric charge. In contrast to interval
scales, ratios are now meaningful because having
a non-arbitrary zero point makes it meaningful to
say, for example, that one object has "twice the
length" of another (= is "twice as long"). Very
informally, many ratio scales can be described as
specifying "how much" of something (i.e. an
amount or magnitude) or "how many" (a count).
The Kelvin temperature scale is a ratio scale
because it has a unique, non-arbitrary zero point
called absolute zero.

 Central tendency and statistical dispersion

The geometric mean and the harmonic mean can
measure the central tendency, in addition to the
mode, median, and arithmetic mean. The
studentized range and the coefficient of variation
can measure statistical dispersion. All statistical
measures are allowed because all necessary
mathematical operations are defined for the ratio
scale.

PAGE 44
Level Measurement Definition

Level measurement is a single dimension from a

reference point. As shown tank level is measured,
either by Inage method or Outage method. Each
Manufacturer has a different Instruction Set.
Level Measurement Principle
Level devices operate under three mains different
principles:
1. The position (height) of the liquid surface
2. The pressure heads
3. The weight of the material
There are two methods used to measure the level of a
liquid:
1. Direct Methods
2. Indirect or inferential Methods

Direct Methods Visual Methods

The direct method measures the height above a zero
point by any of the following methods point by any of
the following methods.
Direct methods for level measurement are mainly used
where level changes are small and slow such as;
Sump tanks and Bulk storage tanks.
Direct methods are simple and reliable. There are four
types of direct level measurement devices:

PAGE 45
 1.Dip-sticks & Dip-Rods
2.Weighted gauge tape
3.Sight Gauges, and
4.Floats.

Sight Gauges

There are various types of sight gauges, the two

most common types being used are:
1.Sight glass; flat tubular and reflex Sight glass;
flat, tubular and reflex
2.Magnetic sight gauges.
The flat glass type is used for non-pressurized
vessels.
It is a glass window or windows that forms part of
the vessel.
A typical application is in hot oil tanks, where
excessive foam contaminated oil may be easily
detected.

Tubular Sight Glasses

Light is refracted from the vapor portion of the column

and is shown generally as white color. Light is
absorbed by the liquid portion in the column and is

PAGE 46
shown generally as a dark color. They are used mainly
for non-corrosive, non-toxic inert at moderate
temperatures and pressures.

Magnetic type Sight gauges

The magnetic level gauge, consisting of a magnetic

float that travels up and down on the inside of a long,
non-magnetic magnetic (usually stainless steel) pipe.
The pipe is connected to flanged nozzles on the side of
the tank. The pipe column is provided with a visual
indicator, consisting of triangular wafer elements
These elements flip over (from green to red, or any
other color) when the magnet in the float reaches their
level. Alarm switches and transmitter options are
available with similar magnetic coupling schemes.

Operational considerations for Sight Glasses

Sight glasses are usually installed with shutoff valves
and a drain valve for the purpose of maintenance,
repair and replacement.
o an important safety feature of these external sight
glasses is the inclusion of ball check valves within the
isolation valves.
The purpose of these check valves is to prevent the
escape dangerous fluids if the glass breaks. Therefore,

PAGE 47
it is important that the isolation valves are left fully
open when the sight glass
is in use, otherwise the operation of the check valves
may be inhibited.
o Sight gauges must be accessible and located within
visual range.
They are not suitable for dark liquids Dirty liquids will
prevent They are not suitable for dark liquids. Dirty
liquids will prevent the viewing of the liquid level.

Floats
Floats give a direct readout of liquid level when they
are connected to an indicating instrument through a
mechanical linkage.
A simple example of this is the weighted tape tank
gauge, the position of the weighted anchor against a
gauge board gives an indication of the liquid level in
the tank. The scale of the gauge board is in reverse
order i.e. the zero the scale of the gauge board is in
reverse order, i.e. the zero-level indication is at the top
and the maximum level indication is
at the bottom of the gauge board.

PAGE 48
Reference

The information of the project is taken

from the respective links:

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumen
tation-
2. https://www.quora.com/What-is-
Definition-of-Instrumentation#
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_
measurement#Nominal_levelhttps://ww
w.automationforum.in/t/basics-of-level-
measurement-working-principle-and-
types-of-level-measurement/495
4.https://www.automationforum.in/t/basic
s-of-level-measurement-working-
principle-and-types-of-level-
measurement/495

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