Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

INTRODUCTION

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Corrosion For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: COE-102.01 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
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Section Page

INTRODUCTION TO CORROSION .............................................................................. 3

HOW CORROSION MEASUREMENTS ARE USED .................................................... 8

MEASURING CORROSION.......................................................................................... 9
Visual Inspection................................................................................................. 9
Leak History ........................................................................................... 10
Weight Loss Coupons and Spools ................................................................... 16
Handling................................................................................................. 17
Location ................................................................................................. 17
Environment........................................................................................... 17
Period of Exposure ................................................................................ 17
Electrical Techniques........................................................................................ 18
Corrosometer ......................................................................................... 18
Electrochemical Linear Polarization (ELP) Probe .................................. 19
Nondestructive Testing ..................................................................................... 20
MEASURING ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................... 21
Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 23
WORK AID .................................................................................................................. 24

EQUIPMENT FAILURE REPORT ............................................................................... 24

Had A Failure? Don’t Destroy The Evidence ................................................... 24
REFERENCE .............................................................................................................. 25
Bulletin Board Articles....................................................................................... 25
Articles By Saudi Aramco Authors .................................................................... 26
National Transportation Safety Board Pipeline Accident Reports..................... 26
GLOSSARY................................................................................................................. 27

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List of Figures

Figure 1. Uniform Attack............................................................................................... 3

Figure 2. Localized Attack ............................................................................................ 4
Figure 3. Hydrogen Blistering ....................................................................................... 4
Figure 4. Stress Corrosion Cracking............................................................................. 5
Figure 5. Galvanic Corrosion ........................................................................................ 6
Figure 6. Erosion Corrosion.......................................................................................... 7
Figure 7. Berri Water Injection System....................................................................... 11
Figure 8. Leak History Of A 133,000-Bpd Waterflood System ................................... 14
Figure 9. Primary Failure Cause – Summary Of All Tubing String Failures................ 15
Figure 10. Corrosion Leaks On Steel Pipe ................................................................. 15
Figure 11. Leaks By Protective Coating Systems....................................................... 16

List of Tables

Table 1. Leak History Of Flank 1 And Laterals........................................................... 12

Table 2. Leak History Of Flank 2 And Laterals........................................................... 12
Table 3. Leak History Of Flank 3 And Laterals........................................................... 13

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INTRODUCTION TO CORROSION

Corrosion-related problems cost the oil industry millions of

dollars annually in downtime, lost production, damaged
equipment, contamination of the environment, and personnel
injuries. The following types of corrosion are common to Saudi
Aramco.

• Uniform attack

• Localized attack

• Hydrogen blistering

• Stress corrosion cracking

• Galvanic corrosion

• Erosion corrosion

Uncoated steel exposed to a marine environment is a typical

example of uniform attack. As the name suggests, the rate of
attack is fairly constant over the entire area. See Figure 1.

Figure 1. Uniform Attack

Pitting is a common example of localized attack as shown in

Figure 2. Because of differences in environment and exposed
metals, portions of the metal corrode at much faster rates than
the overall surface. The result is pitted surfaces or intense
corrosion in crevices, such as under gaskets.

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Figure 2. Localized Attack

Hydrogen blistering results when hydrogen enters into the

lattice of a metal. Although hydrogen sulfide is noncorrosive in
the absence of moisture, the gas becomes corrosive if moisture
is present. The following simplified chemical reaction describes
corrosion caused by hydrogen sulfide.

In H2O
H2S + Fe FeS + H2

The hydrogen from this reaction enters the steel and causes
blisters or cracks as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Hydrogen Blistering

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Atomic hydrogen is the only element capable of diffusing

through steel and other metals. Normally, atomic hydrogen
quickly combines with itself to form molecular hydrogen (H2),
which cannot be absorbed. In the presence of hydrogen
sulfide, however, hydrogen remains in the atomic form much
longer. The more plentiful atomic hydrogen diffuses through the
steel. Hydrogen blistering occurs when the hydrogen reaches a
void and combines into molecular hydrogen. Since molecular
hydrogen cannot diffuse, the concentration and pressure of
hydrogen gas within the void increases. This action has
produced internal pressures as high as several thousand psi.

Stress corrosion cracking occurs when tiny cracks form on

the surface of a metal and then grow inward. An example of
this kind of corrosion is shown in Figure 4. The cracks
decrease the load carrying area and cause extreme stress
concentrations. Failures occur at loads considerably lower than
those for which the structure was designed.

Figure 4. Stress Corrosion Cracking

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A famous case of stress corrosion cracking occurred in 1950 in

the Pincher Creek and Jumping Pond Fields of Alberta,
Canada. The first tubing failure in these fields occurred when a
well was being killed for a cement plug-back to shut off water.
After only six days of production tests, the top tubing joint
parted 26 feet below the wellhead and about 8 inches above the
upset taper. While fishing, the tubing parted again at 1,201 feet
under a load of 80,000 to 85,000 pounds. An on-site inspection
of the tubing found little general corrosion. In fact, the tubing
had the appearance of new, unused pipe.

The premature failures of these downhole tubular materials

focused attention on the performance of materials in hydrogen
sulfide environments. The sour condensate wells in these fields
contained both hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide.

Galvanic corrosion occurs when dissimilar metals are joined in

the same electrolyte. In this case, the less noble metal, the one
more negative in the EMF series, will corrode faster. Using this
principle to protect offshore platforms from corrosion, cathodic
protection systems use faster corroding aluminum anodes. See
Figure 5 for an example of galvanic corrosion.

Figure 5. Galvanic Corrosion

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Erosion corrosion, as shown in Figure 6, occurs when flow

direction abruptly changes or abrasive materials are present.
These conditions prevent formation of protective films or
remove films after they have formed.

Figure 6. Erosion Corrosion

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HOW CORROSION MEASUREMENTS ARE USED

Many methods have been developed for predicting and

evaluating corrosion problems and treatment effectiveness.
Some of these methods are for laboratory use while others are
normally for field use. When properly used, each method is a
valuable tool in corrosion studies. On the other hand, not one
of them is foolproof.

Corrosion measurements other than actual physical inspection

indicate corrosivity but are not always indicative of corrosion
rates. Of primary concern are measurements that indicate
favorable or unfavorable changes in the corrosion rates.

Too often corrosion control methods are started because of

failure reports rather than because of their value as preventive
measures. Two factors make early detection difficult.

• Non-uniform rate of attack at different locations in

production systems

• Insolubility of corrosion reaction products

In practice, corrosion monitoring is usually restricted to one or

more of the following procedures.

• Measure relative corrosiveness of system fluids with

sensors and assume equipment corrosion rates are
proportional.

• Measure actual corrosion penetration on exposed

equipment via calipers, ultrasonic thickness
measurements, or radiography.

• Analyze produced fluids for dissolved iron and compute

normalized overall corrosion rate.

Corrosion monitoring will help avoid surprises. Monitoring

verifies the effectiveness of control programs, optimizes
corrosion inhibition programs, and detects changes in a system
before much damage occurs. If damage is detected, the control
program can be revised.

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MEASURING CORROSION

Visual Inspection

Visual inspection is one of the simplest and most effective

means of determining the severity of corrosion. Unfortunately,
this method has two disadvantages: (1) it is real time and
(2) severe damage may have already occurred. Whenever
equipment is out of service, it should be inspected for damage.
Use a camera, take notes and measurements, make sketches,
and probe for pitting, particularly if significant corrosion products
or scales are present. While some pits are obvious, others hide
beneath scales. Permanent and progressive records are
necessary for all inspected equipment.

Visual inspection is primarily a matter of careful observation to

detail. As an inspector gains experience with the system and the
equipment, the inspection becomes more thorough. Visual
inspection can be applied to most areas of corrosion monitoring.

Accurate records are a critical part of any corrosion control

program, but they are especially important where frequent
inspection is impossible. These records are proof of the
effectiveness of any corrosion control program. A representative
equipment failure report is provided in the Work Aids section.

If a failure does occur, conduct a postmortem to determine the

cause of failure. If the cause can be determined, avoid
repeating the failure. Careless handling of failed items might
lose useful information valuable to the analysis. Guidelines for
handling failed items are provided in the Work Aids section.

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Leak History

Keeping complete records on corrosion control and equipment

failures is very important. A record of performance is proof of
the effectiveness of any program. These records are especially
critical when results take several years to become apparent.
They are very helpful in determining not only the amount but the
cost of failures, both before and after remedial treatment. Leak
history information serves as a tool to plan future treatments.

Leak history may be as simple as merely listing the number of

leaks, date of occurrence, and location on a form. Figure 7 is a
diagram of the Berri water injection system. Tables 1, 2, and 3
are the leak history of flanks 1, 2, 3, and their laterals,
respectively. Figure 8 is a chart of the leak history of a 133,000-
barrel-per-day waterflood system. The chart shows the actual
number of leaks experienced along with the projected number
of leaks if an effective inhibitor treatment program had not been
put in operation.

Figure 9 summarizes the primary failure causes of tubing string

failures in a specific field. The number of failures by cause and
percentage of the total number of failures is also shown on this
graph. Note that due to rounding up, the total percentage of
failures is 100.2%, not 100%.

Figures 10 and 11 show three-dimensional leak history graphs

of corrosion leaks on steel pipe.

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FIGURE 7. Berri Water Injection System

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TABLE 1. LEAK HISTORY OF FLANK 1 AND LATERALS

Location Size (inch) Date Number of Leaks
Flank 1 20 11-20-76 1
06-06-77 1
09-23-77 1
11-26-77 2
07-15-78 1
Replaced FL-1 line from 24 06-79
BW-209 to 227
Replaced FL-1 line 03-83
20 inch with 24 inch
Flank 1 24 05-25-85 1
Flank 1 trunkline 24 01-86
replacement
BW-209 24 10-04-86 1

TABLE 2. LEAK HISTORY OF FLANK 2 AND LATERALS

Location Size (inch) Date Number of Leaks

Flank 2 24 02-09-76 2
03-17-76 2
04-28-76 2
05-11-76 1
06-26-76 2
08-04-76 1
08-17-76 1
08-30-76 1
10-06-76 1
12-02-76 1
04-05-77 1
06-22-77 1
05-21-78 1
06-10-78 1
07-20-78 1
Replaced 4,000 ft of line 09-07-78 1
on causeway (8/78) 10-25-78 1
06-15-79 1
09-03-79 1
12-22-79 1
Replaced causeway line 24 1982
FL-2 offshore line 1986
replacement
Line from FL-2 to 14 11-02-86 1
BW-204

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TABLE 3. LEAK HISTORY OF FLANK 3 AND LATERALS

Location Size (inch) Date Number of Leaks

Flank 3 16 09-14-77 1
11-26-77 1
03-15-78 1
02-16-79 1
03-12-79 1
04-23-79 1
04-30-79 1
07-12-79 1
08-07-79 1
09-01-79 1
New 20-inch line 20 03-83
installed
BW-218 lateral 12 07-25-83 3
08-21-83 1
08-29-83 1
12-30-83 1
01-01-85 1
07-85 1
10-04-86 1
BW-219 lateral 12 10-16-83 3
05-25-83 3
Flank 3 onshore 22 11-21-83 2
Flank 3 trunkline 12-28-83 1
Flank 3 lines 03-85 1
Flank 3 replacement 1986
BW-208, 216, 217, and 04-03-87 10
218 laterals

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FIGURE 8. Leak History of a 133,000-BPD Waterflood System

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FIGURE 9. Primary Failure Cause – Summary of All Tubing String Failures

Figure 10. Corrosion Leaks on Steel Pipe

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Figure 11. Leaks by Protective Coating Systems

Weight Loss Coupons and Spools

Corrosion coupons are small representative pieces of metal

used to evaluate system corrosivity, material performance, and
corrosion inhibitor effectiveness. Coupons are placed in
strategic locations throughout the system. Coupons must not
cause turbulence in the flow stream, or erosional effects will
falsely increase corrosion rates. Coupons must be electrically
isolated from the holder and from the system to be monitored.
Otherwise, a coupon electrically connected to the system may
corrode faster due to galvanic effects. Spools, cylindrical
corrosion coupons placed in the system flush with the existing
flowline, may also be used to monitor corrosion rates.

A corrosion coupon has several advantages.

• Simple and inexpensive

• Installs easily

• Requires a minimal amount of attention

• Provides a physical example of corrosion when removed

from a system

• Allows an analysis of corrosion products

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Occasionally, corrosion rates measured by coupons fluctuate.

Such fluctuations can be misleading. For example, a coupon
experiences corrosion during the month that a particularly
aggressive fluid (possibly workover chemicals) flowed in the
line. Although the fluid may now be noncorrosive, the coupon
indicates a high corrosion rate for the line during the monitoring
period.

Handling, location, environment, and period of exposure are

factors that affect coupon corrosion.

Handling

A drop of sweat or hand prints can increase the corrosion rate

while a greasy thumb print can protect the coupon.

Location

Corrosion does not always occur uniformly throughout the

system. A coupon might indicate negligible corrosion while
another part of the system is pitting. In horizontal pipes, the
corrosion rate is usually low in easily accessible spots.
However, in difficult to reach spots such as depressions where
water is more likely to collect, the corrosion rate is usually high.
Some coupons have been mounted in subsurface safety valves
at 3,000 feet to 12,000 feet.

Environment

The fluids to which coupons are exposed affect corrosion rates.

A blob of paraffin or an oil film coating part of the coupon can
give inconsistent results.

Period of Exposure

Short-term exposure might be misleading. There is no chance

for pitting to form. Minimum exposure should be 30 days.

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Electrical Techniques

Corrosometer

A corrosometer measures electrical resistance to determine

corrosion rates. The corrosometer compares electrical
resistance of an exposed metal specimen with that of a
reference element protected from the corrosive environment.

As the corrosometer's measuring element corrodes, its cross-

sectional area decreases while its electrical resistance
increases. Correlation of weight loss to the increase in
resistance determines the corrosion rate to be calculated.

Corrosometers have a few inherent disadvantages. In

applications with a rather high gas flow rate (10 to 15 MMCFPD
in a 6-inch line), the element wires sometimes fail from fatigue.
Installation of a heavier wire and a protection sleeve is a partial
solution to this problem. However, this creates an artificial
stagnant area around portions of the wire. Also a thick wire is
less sensitive to low corrosion rates when compared to the
sensitivity of a thin wire.

Although corrosometers are effective in general weight loss

detection, they do not detect pitting type corrosion.
Corrosometers also have difficulty measuring low corrosion
rates. Reliable estimates of low corrosion rates requires that a
series of readings be plotted. Daily readings, recorded and
plotted for a week, determine the resistance increase slope and
the weekly corrosion rate. When the corrosion rate is extremely
low, a monthly corrosion rate is more accurate.

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Electrochemical Linear Polarization (ELP) Probe

The electrochemical linear polarization (ELP) probes are

instantaneous corrosion rate instruments. They measure the
current required to change the electrical potential by a few
millivolts of a specimen corroding in a conductive fluid. An ELP
probe operates with an electrochemical technique that uses
three electrodes, an adjustable current source, an ammeter,
and a high impedance voltmeter. The adjustable current source
sends a small electrical current between the test electrode and
an auxiliary electrode. A voltmeter measures the potential
difference between the test electrode and a reference
electrode.

Current flow that is required to produce 10 millivolts polarization

is directly proportional to the corrosion rate of the test electrode.

As long as the change in potential is no more than 10 to 20

millivolts, the rate and nature of the corrosion reactions are
undisturbed. The amount of applied current necessary to effect
the potential change is proportional to the corrosion current.

The current reading normally requires 2 to 15 minutes to

stabilize following application of the potential difference. Some
systems, however, require much more time for the current to
stabilize. If used in a mixed hydrocarbon-water system, the
probe must be in a recess covered by brine, or a flush probe
must be used.

If the corrosion rate is high (low), a very large (small) current will
polarize the test electrode 10 millivolts. The ammeter on this
instrument can be calibrated directly in mils per year (MPY)
provided the surface area of the test electrode remains
constant.

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Nondestructive Testing

Two major nondestructive tests discussed in this course are

radiography and ultrasonics.

Radiography uses penetrating X- or gamma radiation to

examine parts for imperfections. A radioactive isotope serves
as the source of radiation. Radiation passes through the part
under examination and onto film. A shadowgraph on the
developed film reveals the internal soundness of the part.
Possible imperfections show up as density changes in the film,
in much the same manner as an X-ray can show broken bones.

Ultrasonic testing transmits high frequency sound waves into a

material to detect imperfections within the material or changes
in material properties. The most commonly used ultrasonic
testing technique is pulse echo. This technique introduces
sound into the test object. A receiver detects reflections
(echoes) from internal imperfections or from geometrical
surfaces of the part.

Numerous failures of sour gas pipelines and vessels have

occurred around the world as a direct or indirect result of
hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) or stepwise cracking (SWC).
Both of these forms of cracking are caused by hydrogen atoms
entering the steel. HIC damage has occurred in some of Saudi
Aramco’s gas-oil separating plants (GOSPs) and NGL plants.
HIC has also been identified in a few Saudi Aramco sour gas
and oil transmission lines. To determine the size and shape of
HIC damaged areas, ultrasonic examination is normally
conducted. Whether this damage occurs as small isolated
spots or as massive areas, the depth of flaws from the surface
of the steel can also be determined by ultrasonics.

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MEASURING ENVIRONMENT

Chemical analyses for corrosion monitoring include pH, iron

counts, dissolved gas analyses, and cultures of bacteria. Iron
count is the most widely used method for monitoring downhole
corrosion rates in gas and gas condensate wells that produce
little or no H2S. Dissolved iron content analysis can be run
directly on a freshly caught water sample using a simple
colorimetric kit.

The concentration of dissolved iron increases as corrosion rates

increase. However, an iron count value by itself is usually not
reliable as an indicator of corrosion rates, especially if pitting
occurs. If dissolved iron is also present in the formation water,
the background iron count must be subtracted from the iron
count analysis.

Corrosion product analysis, gas analysis, and bacterial activity

can also be monitored to determine trends in the corrosion rate.

Two major problems can result from the growth of bacteria in oil
field systems: corrosion and fouling. The major contribution of
bacteria to corrosion is the generation of hydrogen sulfide. This
bacterially generated H2S is a major cause of corrosion in water
injection systems, on buried pipelines, and on the external
surfaces of well casings. The presence of bacteria in a system
does not necessarily mean that a problem exists. Other factors
must be weighed before that decision is made. Certain
conditions favor bacterial growth and therefore increase the
likelihood of corrosion or fouling problems. Some of these
conditions include:

• Mixed salts in solution, up to about 7 weight %. While

some organisms can tolerate higher salinities, their growth
is limited. The presence of magnesium, sulfate, and trace
metals are conducive to growth.

• Oxygen in concentrations from a few parts per billion to full

saturation. Severe bacterial problems usually result from
intermittent oxygen entry followed by periods of absence.

• Temperatures between 86 ∞F (30 ∞C) and 131 ∞F (55

∞C). A few types of bacteria live outside this range.
However, significant growth ceases about 176 ∞F (80 ∞C).

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• Low flow velocities. Heavy growth is always on surfaces.

Nearly stagnant conditions under sludges and deposits in
tanks and vessels are favorable.

• Mixed population of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. Many

bacteria grow best in close association with other types of
bacteria.

Bacteria can increase corrosion problems by their presence or

byproducts. The presence of bacteria colonies covering areas
of the metal surface can accelerate corrosion by creating
concentration cells. Some bacteria can also create a local
environment of low pH.

The two types of bacteria that are of concern in most cases are
the sulfate-reducing bacteria and the aerobic or slime-forming
bacteria.

Sulfate-reducing or desulfovibrio bacteria probably cause more

serious problems in the oil field than any other bacteria. They
are anaerobic, which means they grow in the absence of
oxygen. These bacteria reduce sulfate or sulfite ions to sulfide,
resulting in H2S as a by-product. H2S increases the corrosivity
of a system and can result in severe pitting and the formation of
iron sulfide. Iron sulfide is a potential plugging agent.
Hydrogen embrittlement may also occur. Sulfate-reducing
bacteria can lie dormant in aerated solutions and then become
active when oxygen is removed. They can also flourish in
small, oxygen-starved areas of an otherwise aerated system,
such as under deposits.

Some aerobic bacteria can be slime formers that tend to create

significant plugging problems, especially in injection systems.
Problems caused by these bacteria are usually due to biomass
build-up. These bacteria can also create anaerobic conditions
for sulfate-reducing bacteria growth.

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Conclusion

Since each monitoring technique has weaknesses, it is a good

practice to use several techniques. Corrosion coupons and
probes measure activity at only one point in the system during a
specific time. Although ELP probes are expensive when
compared to coupons, they can be checked several times
without removal from the system. ELP probes also give
immediate results. Of course, depending upon instrumentation,
ELP probes are subject to electrical malfunction. Instruments
that indicate potential change are not suitable for systems
containing more than a few percent oil. The oil coating that
collects on the probes makes readings inaccurate. Resistance
type probes give erroneous readings if the probe becomes
coated with a conductive deposit such as iron sulfide. Iron
counts (ppm or mg/l iron in fluid samples) can be determined by
several methods. Typical methods include colorimetric
procedures, titration, and atomic absorption instruments.

Corrosion rates determined by different methods on the same

sample do not always agree and should not be compared
directly. The fluid production in most systems is not constant.
Therefore, the corrosion rate determined by the amount of iron
lost is preferred over the rate determined by the raw iron count.
The amount of iron loss is figured from the iron content per unit
volume times the volume of fluid per day. Records and field
observations can be extremely valuable in determining the
effect of an inhibition program. Such observations are an
essential part of corrosion monitoring.

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WORK AID

EQUIPMENT FAILURE REPORT

Had A Failure? Don’t Destroy The Evidence

Careless handling of failed items can damage much of the

information that might otherwise be gained by analysis.
Regardless of whether the investigation is handled in-house or
by a consultant, the following rules should be observed:

• Do not sandblast, wirebrush, or acid clean failed parts.

• Do not fit fractured surfaces back together.

• Do not flame-cut within 6 inches of a fracture or failure.

• Do not store failed items out of doors or in warehouses for

long periods of time.

• Do send a trained observer to the scene of the incident as

soon as possible to document the position of any
fragments, the surface condition of the failed parts, and
collect eyewitness accounts.

• Do contact an experience failure analyst as soon as

possible concerning preserving, handling, and shipping the
failed items.

• Do collect a complete history of the failed item including

purchase specifications, drawings, installation date, and
service conditions.

Requirements for preserving and handling failures vary widely

depending on the material, the location, and the circumstances.
Consult the failure analyst as soon as possible to ensure that
failed items are properly handled. Correct care of failed items
will ensure that the investigation yields the maximum
information.

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REFERENCE

Bulletin Board Articles

• J. S. Mandke;”Corrosion Causes Most Pipeline Failures in

Gulf of Mexico”; Oil and Gas Journal; October 29, 1990

• Terje Andersen and Asbjørn Misund, “Pipeline Reliability:

An Investigation of Pipeline Failure Characteristics and
Analysis of Pipeline Failure Rates for Submarine and
Cross-Country Pipelines”, Journal of Petroleum
Technology, April 1983

• Bob Secter and William C. Rempel; “Corrosion Threatens

Pipeline in Alaska, Forces Costly Repairs”; Dallas Times
Herald; February 4, 1990

• “Pipeline Repair to Cost $1 Billion”; Dallas Times Herald;

March 30, 1990

• “Alyeska Maps Big Corrosion Repair Program on Trans-

Alaska Crude Line”; Oil and Gas Journal; April 30, 1990

• Normal Nielsen, “Keeping the Torch Lit”, Materials

Performance

• “Russian Siberian Oilfield Production Diminished by

Corrosion and Neglect”, Materials Performance, January
1991

• “Alyeska Plans Extra Work to Repair Pipeline Corrosion”,

Materials Performance, July 1990

• “Road Salt Corrosion Causes Recall of 285,000

Automobiles”, Materials Performance, July 1990

• “Pipeline Leaks at Separate Sites in Tyumen Province

Disrupted Oil and Gas Flow July 14-15.”; OGJ Newsletter;
July 23, 1990

• John Schwartz et al; “The ‘Final Nail in the Coffin’?”;

Newsweek; August 6, 1990

• “Structural Check Urged for U.S. Gulf Platforms”; Oil and

Gas Journal; January 18, 1988

• “American Motors Corp.”

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Articles By Saudi Aramco Authors

• Edmund Y. Chen and Fahad Eid Al-Helal, “Saudi Arabia's

Master Gas System – Its Overview and the Corrosion
Control Programs”, from a paper presented to the Society
of Petroleum Engineers, SPE 11107, September 1982

• Krishan M. Bansal, Scott Holland, and Edmund Y. Chen,

“Corrosion in Wet Crude Transmission and Processing”,
from a paper presented at Corrosion 85, Paper No. 36,
NACE, March 1985

• Abdullah M. Al-Ghamdi and Edmund Y. Chen, “Deadleg

Corrosion in Oil and Gas Producing Facilities”, from a
paper presented at Corrosion 88, Paper No. 368, NACE,
March 1988

• M. A. Kasnick and R. J. Engen, “Iron Sulfide Scaling and

Associated Corrosion in Saudi Arabian Khuff Gas Wells”,
from a paper presented to the Society of Petroleum
Engineers, SPE 17933, March 1989

National Transportation Safety Board Pipeline Accident Reports

• NTSB-PAR-76-1

• NTSB-PAR-76-4

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GLOSSARY

bacteria Unicellular microscopic organisms found in soil, water,

and air

corrosion monitoring Tracking the corrosivity of a system over a period of

time

corrosometer Electrical resistance measuring device used to monitor

corrosion

coupon Small representative pieces of metal used to evaluate

the corrosivity of the system, material performance, or
corrosion inhibitor effectiveness

electrochemical linear Instantaneous corrosion rate instruments that measure

polarization (ELP) the current required to change the potential of a
probe specimen corroding in a conductive fluid by a few
millivolts

erosion corrosion Deterioration of a surface by abrasive action of moving

fluids and corrosion. This abrasion is accelerated by
the presence of solid particles or gas bubbles in
suspension.

galvanic corrosion Corrosion that is increased because of the current

caused by a galvanic cell. These cells may consist of
two dissimilar metals in contact with each other and
with a common electrolyte.

hydrogen blistering Formation of blister-like bulges on a ductile metal

surface caused by internal hydrogen pressures

iron count Concentration of iron in solution. This amount of iron is

used as a measure of corrosion.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Corrosion Monitoring

Introduction

leak history Records over a period of time of leaks in a system

localized attack An attack resulting in deep penetration of the metal

surface at only a few spots

radiography Nondestructive testing using penetrating X- or gamma

radiation to examine parts or products for
imperfections. Radiation is directed through a part and
onto a film.

spool Cylindrical corrosion coupon placed in a system flush

with an existing flowline. Essentially, it becomes part of
the flowline.

stress corrosion cracking Cracking that results from a combination of tensile

stress and corrosion

visual inspection Oldest and most common method of nondestructive

testing

ultrasonics Monitoring through the transmission of high frequency

sound waves into a material to detect imperfections
within the material or changes in material properties

uniform attack A form of deterioration that is distributed more or less

uniformly over a surface

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 28