Engineering Encyclopedia

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Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Inspection
File Reference: COE10308

For additional information on this subject, contact

W.P. Lamp on 875-2724

Engineering Encyclopedia

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CONTENTS

PAGES

PRINCIPLES, USE, ADVANTAGES, AND LIMITATIONS OF

VARIOUS TECHNIQUES ..................................................................................... 1
Alloy Chem-Sorting .................................................................................... 1
Principles ......................................................................................... 1
Application....................................................................................... 1
Advantages and Limitations............................................................. 2
Metal Thermo-Analysis............................................................................... 2
Principles ......................................................................................... 2
Application....................................................................................... 3
Advantages and Limitations............................................................. 3
Eddy Current Testing .................................................................................. 4
Principles ......................................................................................... 4
Application....................................................................................... 6
Advantages and Limitations............................................................. 6
Ultrasonic Hardness Testing........................................................................ 6
Principles ......................................................................................... 6
Application....................................................................................... 7
Ultrasonic Hardness Testing........................................................................ 7
Advantages and Limitations............................................................. 7
Acoustic Emission Testing (AET)............................................................... 7
Principles ......................................................................................... 7
Application....................................................................................... 8
Advantages and Limitations............................................................. 8
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................... 10

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PRINCIPLES, USE, ADVANTAGES, AND LIMITATIONS OF VARIOUS

TECHNIQUES
Alloy Chem-Sorting
Alloy chem-sorting is a nondestructive testing method that identifies unknown alloys by
electrographically extracting metal ions from metal surfaces. Results are based on the
chemical and crystalline structural differences in metals.
A typical alloy chem-sorter kit contains a color reference guide, a power source and enough
filter paper and chemical reagents for over 100 tests. Kits are available for identifying metals
such as stainless steel, alloy steel, aluminum alloys, carbon steel, brass, bronze, and platings
(cadmium, nickel, tin, zinc, etc).
Principles
To perform an alloy identification using this method, a few drops of a specified chemical
reagent are placed on filter paper and then the paper is applied to the unknown metal. Using
the power source provided in the kit, a small amount of metal ions are electrically extracted
from the test metal and deposited on the filter paper.
By dropping a small amount of other reagents in sequence on the collected deposit, the
unknown metal ions will be activated and an identification can be made. Reaction to reagents
is rapid, causing color spots which are characteristic of particular types of metal. Metal
identification can be easily made by comparing these color spots to samples on a color
reference guide.
Application
Alloy chem-sorters are commonly used in the following applications:

Determining the base metal

Separating scrap metal
Identifying composition of mixed inventory
Testing for porosity of coated iron surfaces
Inspecting pipelines in the field

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Advantages and Limitations

Alloy chem-sorting is a fast, low cost, accurate method of identifying unknown alloys. The
tests are nondestructive and require no advanced training in chemistry or metallurgy.
This method provides rapid test results that are easy to interpret and reproduce. In most cases
these results are not affected by the geometry, thickness, size or probe pressure of the test
surface. For example, a metal foil, wire cloth, piping, sheet stock or bar stock made of the
same metal will produce the same results.
Metal Thermo-Analysis
Metal thermo-analysis is a nondestructive testing method that uses the thermoelectric
principle based on the Seebeck effect to identify alloys. Results are based on the chemical
and crystalline structural differences in metals.
A typical metal thermo-analysis kit contains a probe, a power source (either AC or selfcontained rechargeable battery), and a reference guide. Reference coupons are available as an
accessory.
Principles
To perform a metal thermo-analysis, two unlike metal electrodes, one heated and one
unheated, are placed in contact with a conductive material. According to the Seebeck effect,
an electric current is generated between the hot and cold junction, as shown in Figure 1.

FIGURE 1. Typical Circuit Used in Thermoelectric Metal Sorting Instruments

One way to induce this effect is to use a dual tipped probe. A power source is used to heat
one of the tips. When the proper operating temperature is reached, the probe is placed in
contact with the test surface.

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Upon contact, an electric current is completed and a signal is generated. The signal is
computed and a peak reading is recorded. This reading is translated as an alloy registration
number that can be easily interpreted by comparing it to the values on a reference guide or
coupon.
Application
Metal thermo-analyzers are commonly used in the following applications.

Determining the base metal

Performing on-line quality control
Identifying composition of incoming inventory
Sorting large quantities of materials such as scrap metal
Identifying the composition of field piping

Advantages and Limitations

One of the most important advantages of the metal thermo-analysis method is that it is easy to
use and does not require special training. For example, for the sake of simplicity of operation,
most metal thermo-analyzers are knobless and do not require adjustments or repetitive
calibrations to obtain accurate readings. Also, readings are accurate, easily interpreted, and
reproducible.
In addition, as a truly nondestructive test method, metal thermo-analyzers can be used on all
types of equipment, including those with precision bearing surfaces.
Another advantage is that part size and geometry do not affect the readings. Metal thermoanalyzers can be used to identify or sort alloys on test objects ranging in size from fine wire to
large girders, using the same probe.
Portability is another advantage. Fully charged batteries on most units can operate for up to
eight hours in the field.
One of the limitations of metal thermo-analysis is that different metals in different conditions
may produce identical or similar readings. This problem can be overcome by running a
second test, if the validity of the results are in question. Another way to verify results is to
make an additional run using alloy chem-sorting or eddy current.

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Another limitation is the need for a clean test surface. The area should be free of extraneous
materials such as surface oxide, dirt, paint or other foreign matter which may affect the
coupling of the probe and the test surface.
Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current testing is a nondestructive method that uses the principle of electromagnetic
induction to locate and evaluate defects and deformities.
Some eddy current testing devices can be used only on nonferrous materials while other
systems can be used on ferrous and nonferrous materials.
Principles
The operating principle of all eddy current testing devices is basically the same. An
alternating current (AC) sent through the small coils in the eddy current probe sets up a
magnetic field inside the test object. This field penetrates the wall of the object, inducing tiny
electrical currents (eddy currents).
Eddy currents travel a circular path resembling concentric circles. As these currents circulate,
their flow pattern is distorted or interrupted if discontinuities such as cracks, holes, or pits are
encountered in the wall. Changes in the eddy current flow pattern are detected by the probe.
Readings can be displayed on a storage oscilloscope or CRT and recorded on a magnetic tape
or strip chart such as the one in Figure 2.

FIGURE 2. Calibration Sample Versus Strip Chart

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To determine calibration, the probe is run through a calibration standard before a test is run.
This process allows the technician to evaluate defect signals from the test object against those
of the known standard. Precalibration also allows the technician to filter out tube noise
signals caused by normal features of the tubing.
Figure 3 is an example of actual field plots taken in a steel pipe. A technician analyzes the
amplitude, phase angle, and shape of each signal to identify and evaluate defects.

FIGURE 3. Electromagnetic Field Measurements in the Vicinity of Exciter Coil

Some eddy current testing systems are used only on nonferrous tubing. In ferrous materials,
the eddy currents from these systems are confined to a very shallow area of the surface of the
tube wall. This limited penetration results in an inability to detect external defects or
determine the depth of internal defects. Other systems add a separate power supply to
energize an electromagnet in the probe in order to inspect ferrous materials. This feature
minimizes permeability by inducing a constant magnetic field in the test object.

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Application
Eddy current testing is commonly used in the following applications:

Detecting and evaluating localized corrosion

Monitoring the rate of corrosion
Measuring wall thickness
Measuring coating thickness
Sorting metals based on their magnetic properties
Determining strength, surface hardness, and heat treatment

Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of using eddy current testing include the fact that permanent record is made on
the strip chart.
The limitations of eddy current testing include the following:
devices are extremely sensitive
resultsMany
are affected by a variety of variables.

and can produce confusing data because

Some systems can conduct tests only on nonferrous tubing. In ferrous materials,
the eddy
currents are confined to a very shallow area of the surface of the tube wall.
must be cleaned prior to testing because foreign matter such as scale can
affectSurfaces
the reading or block the probe.

The testing process is slow.

Ultrasonic Hardness Testing

Ultrasonic hardness testing is a nondestructive method that uses ultrasonic contact
impedance (UCI) measurement technology to evaluate surface hardness, case depth, stress
hardening, and material mix.
Principles
Ultrasonic hardness testing uses the pulse/echo method to transmit and receive high frequency
sound waves. A short pulse of acoustic energy is directed at the test object. The reflection or
echo that is returned to the receiver provides information about the material properties of the
test object.

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Application
Ultrasonic hardness testing is commonly used in the following applications:

Testing metals for comparative hardness

Measuring case depth
Identifying material mix and alloy content
Sorting parts such as gears, bolts, and sprockets

Ultrasonic Hardness Testing

Advantages and Limitations
The advantages offered by most ultrasonic hardness testers are based on three main features:

Portable are usually compact and lightweight

can be used to test hard-to-reach surfaces, large and small objects,
simpleVersatile
to complex components
Nondestructive testing can be done without the need for corrective machining
afterwards
Acoustic Emission Testing (AET)
Acoustic emission testing is a nondestructive method that uses the pulse and echo of stress
waves to evaluate metal deformities and defects.
Principles
Acoustic emission testing operates in much the same manner as ultrasonic methods. AET
sensors placed in various locations on the test surface transmit signals. When the test material
is stressed, deformities and defects within the material emit short return pulses or bursts of
acoustic energy. These emissions are picked up by the receiver sensors, such as piezoelectric
transducers.
These emission signals are amplified and analyzed using computerized equipment. By
studying the strength, rate, and location of the emissions, data can be gathered on the location
and severity of the material imperfections which caused the emissions.

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Application
Acoustic emission testing is commonly used in the following applications:

Locating and evaluating deformities and defects

Identifying evidence of corrosion initiation
Locating and Evaluating Deformities and Defects . One specific example of this application is

the use of acoustic emission testing to monitor leakage in in-service storage tanks. AET
offers a cost-effective alternative to draining, inspecting, and refilling the tanks.
AET sensors placed at various locations on a tank have been used to monitor tank
activity. Any mechanical process such as a leak will release transient or continuous
acoustic energy which will be detected by the sensors.
The average life span of the bottom of a crude oil storage tank is ten years, although the
rest of the structure will probably last longer. The goal of an acoustic emission
monitoring program is to prolong a tanks usefulness and, at the same time, preserve its
integrity. By providing in-service evaluations, AET can assist in creating a lifeextending maintenance schedule for the tank.
Identifying Evidence of Corrosion Initiation .

AET is used often to evaluate the condition of

pressure vessels and tanks during a hydrostatic test.
In a recent study involving hydrogen evolution, emission signals were recorded before any
visible evidence of hydrogen corrosion was detected. Such studies indicate that acoustic
emission testing is capable of not only detecting corrosion damage, but also evidence of
corrosion initiation.
For this type of detection to be effective, it is necessary to make an initial test of the acoustic
background before corrosion has a chance to start. This reading will serve as baseline data for
interpretation of subsequent tests.
For example, with the proper baseline data, it has been possible to detect filiform corrosion
under coatings and to make a distinction between active and dormant filiform corrosion.
Acoustic emission tests have also detected trapped corrodents which could cause localized
corrosion in cracks and crevices if left undetected.

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Advantages and Limitations

Early detection of defects is perhaps the most important advantage offered by acoustic
emission testing. By providing information on evidence of corrosion initiation, AET can be
of great assistance in preventing potential problems from becoming more serious.
Another advantage of AET is the convenience of being able to conduct on-stream testing.
On-stream testing and monitoring reduces the need for costly shutdowns related to
inspections.
Two major limitations of acoustic emission testing are cost and training. The equipment used
to perform this type of testing is expensive. In addition, well-trained, highly skilled personnel
are required to interpret the results.

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GLOSSARY
acoustic emission testing

A nondestructive method that uses the pulse and echo of

stress waves to evaluate metal deformities and defects.

alloy chem-sorting

A nondestructive testing method that identifies unknown

alloys by electrographically extracting metal ions from metal
surfaces. Results are based on the chemical and crystalline
structural differences in metals.

eddy current testing

A nondestructive method that uses the principle of

electromagnetic induction to locate and evaluate defects and
deformities.

metal thermo-analysis

A nondestructive testing method that uses the known

thermoelectric principle to identify alloys. Results are based
on the chemical and crystalline structural differences in
metals.

Seebeck effect

The thermoelectric electromotive force (emf) produced in a

circuit connecting two dissimilar conductors at two points of
different temperatures.

ultrasonic hardness testing

A nondestructive method that uses ultrasonic contact

impedance (UCI) measurement technology to evaluate
surface hardness, case depth, and material mix.

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