GAS TURBINE GENERATOR

A SUMMER INTERN PROJECT REPORT

In

Submitted by

Kondepudi Bhaskara Santosh

from the stream of

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

VISVESVARAYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY,NAGPUR
 CERTIFICATE BY SUPERVISIOR
RELIANCE INDUSTRIES Ltd
Onshore Terminal Site, Gadimoga,
Tallarevu Mandal, E.G.Dist,
Andhra Pradesh- 533 463, India.

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the summer internship project report on

"Overview of KGD6 basin process & Gas turbine generator''
is the bonafide work of Kondepudi Bhaskara Santosh, 2nd
Year B.Tech in Mechanical Engineering at Visvesvaraya
National Institute of Technology, Nagpur during 25.06.2018
to 06.07.2018.

Place-RIL KGD6, Gadimoga

Date-06-07-2018.
 ACKNOWLEDEMENT
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Sri.M.Nagireddy General Manager- H.R, Reliance
Industries Limited (R.I.L), Gadimoga, who has kindly permitted us to carry out our project
work at Reliance Industries Limited and also for providing necessary facilities during my
internship .
I express my heartfelt thanks to Sri. Mallikarjunarao.B, Additional Manager (Technical
Training) and Sri. Venugopala Raju, Senior Mechanical Engineer in R.I.L for providing
facilities and necessary equipment.
I am extremely happy to express my heartfelt thanks to Sri.Karumuri Ravindra Sr.
Manager for his excellent guidance, encouragement and constructive suggestions during
every phase of our Internship in R.I.L.

I express my heartfelt thanks to all the foremen in R.I.L who supported me and thought me
the work and made me to experience the industrial environment. To all members of
SOMBANSI group I thank for their co-operation

Kondepudi Bhaskara Santosh,

06-07-2018.
CONTENTS
Overview of plant
GAS TURBINE GENERATOR
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINE
1.2 THEORY OF OPERATION
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 TYPES OF GAS TURBINE
2.2 PARTS OF GAS TURBINE
2.3 EMISSIONS
2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF GAS TURBINE
2.5 BASIC PARAMETERS
2.6 LOSSES IN GAS TURBINE

CHAPTER 3
DISCUSSIONS
3.1 AUXILLARY SYSTEM
3.2 APPLICATIONS OF GAS TURBINE
3.3 ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY OF GAS TURBINE
3.4 ADVANTAGES OF GAS TURBINE
3.5 DISADVANTAGES OF GAS TURBINE
3.6 SAFETY MEASURES
CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION
OVERVIEW OF KGD6 BASIN
1. Offshore Terminal Area

 Wells

 Manifolds

 X-mas tree arrangements

 Control and rising platform (C.R.P)

2. Onshore Terminal Area

 Trunk lines

 Pressure reduction station

 MEG reclamation plant

 TEG reclamation plant

 GTG power generation plant

 Hot oil heaters area

 ETP area

 Desalination plant

 CCR room
OFFSHORE TERMINAL AREA:
The 8,100km² KG-DWN-98 / l (KG-D6) block lies in the Krishna-Godavari basin of the Bay
of Bengal on India's east coast. The seabed slopes sharply causing water depths to vary
between 700m (2,297ft) and 1,700m (5,577ft).
The field is operated by Reliance Industries (90%) on behalf of Niko Resources (10%). Block
reserves have been put at 14,000bn cubic feet of gas and 140m barrels of oil.
The first three discoveries (Dhirubhai-1, Dhirubhai-2 and Dhirubhai-3) have estimated gas
reserves of approximately eight trillion cubic feet. In March2003 the deep-water rig Discover
534 discovered Dhirubhai-4, which has in-place gas volumes of 1,700 billion standard cubic
feet (bcf).
In February 2006 Reliance announced that it had encountered the thickest hydrocarbon
column to date, the MA-2 well (2km from the MA-1 discovery well) reaching a depth of
about 3.6km and penetrating a gross hydrocarbon column of 194m, which consisted of 170m
of gas / condensate (53°API) and 24m of oil (42°API).
The project is expected to eventually cost over $10bn. Production of crude oil from the
block's MA field started in September 2008 while gas production from the Dhirubhai-1 (D1)
and Dhirubhai-3 (D3) fields began in April 2009.
The initial rate of production from the MA field is 5,000bpd and reached 33,000bpd by May
2010. In July 2010 54 million cubic metres per day of natural gas was produced from the D1
and D3 fields. By 2011 the oil and gas peak production from KD-D6 is expected to reach
140,000bopd and 2.82 billion cubic feet per day.
Work at the KG-D6 field included the development of at least 18 production wells, with
subsea equipment, pipelines, a riser platform and an onshore terminal. In January 2006
Reliance awarded the overall EPCM contract for the project to US-based Bechtel.
This fast-track development involved one of the biggest and most complex underwater
installation campaigns ever. Aker Kvaerner Subsea was responsible for the complete subsea
production system in a $400m engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contract.
Because of the high flowrate potential the 55t trees have a 127mm and 178mm bore. The
subsea contract was based on 19 subsea trees tied into six six-slot production manifolds each
weighing 225t. The longest tieback is 6.4km. From these manifolds, production flows
through in-field pipelines to the 370t pipeline end manifold (PLEM). The longest manifold
tieback is 6.8km. The PLEM was designed to accept additional pipeline tie-ins.
The umbilical distribution hub weighs 170t and there are three 110t subsea distribution
assemblies. The 32 lengths of steel-tube umbilical total 101km, there is 57km of electric
power cable and a comprehensive subsea control system.
A pair of 10km 24in production lines link the PLEM to a control and riser platform (CRP)
located in 100m of water. Compression facilities will ease the anticipated reservoir pressures
drop up to three years after start-up. Gas exports will use three 24in lines running 25km from
the CRP platform to shore where the gas will be routed to the offshore terminal at Kakinada.
The MEG used to prevent hydrates will be reprocessed in a closed loop system provided by
Aker Kvaerner.
CRP:

The platform jacket was manufactured as part of an engineering, procurement, construction, and
installation contract by J Ray McDermott. The 9,015t jacket was built at J Ray's fabrication facility in
Morgan City, Louisiana, with the piles and topsides fabricated at the company's Jebel Ali facility in
the United Arab Emirates.

The jacket and cargo barge were loaded onto a fast transport vessel (FTV) at Pascagoula, Mississippi,
for a 46-day journey through the Suez Canal to the marine and fabrication base on Batam Island,
Indonesia. The jacket and cargo barge were then towed for approximately 12 days to India.

ONSHORE TERMINAL AREA:

The plant process will be done here. Reliance Industries Ltd (RIL)Onshore Gas Terminal
at Gadimoga, near Tallarevu Mandal, about 30 Km south of Kakinada in the state of Andhra Pradesh.
This is developed as a part of Project for Development of Gas discoveries in the deep water offshore
block KG-DWN-98/3(KGD6).

The gas from offshore is received at this world class onshore facility and delivered to the East West
Pipeline of Reliance Gas Transportation Infrastructure Ltd. (RGTIL)
PLANT PROCESS
Process:
 From the offshore terminal in the sea at about 100km depth and 0-30C the gas will be
obtained to CRP (Control Riser Platform) through 24’’ inch pipeline.
Due to the conditions of high pressure and low temperatures in the deep water wells
the hydrocarbons present in the well fluid might form hydrates.
These hydrates are frozen mixture of hydrocarbon and water with its physical form
varying from gelatinous to solid ice. Thus, they completely block pipelines and
vessels.
If the hydrate formation has already started and pipelines are not completely blocked
they may be removed by injecting Mono Ethylene Glycol into gas flow.
 The obtained gas is distributed into 3 pipelines of 18’’ inch with gases D1,D3 and MA
at MA at onshore terminal which is called PIG (Pressure Receiver/Launcher).
 Pressure of gas of 90 bar obtained is reduced to 8-9 bar on onshore at pressure
reduction station. The temperature is raised from 30C to 15-220C hot oil heaters for
the gas to flow in pipelines.
 After the pressure reduction, the mixture of gas and liquid particles are sent to slug
catchers where the gas and liquid are separated by using density property.
Under the influence of gravity, liquids will tend to settle on the bottom of the pipeline
while the gases occupy the top section of the pipeline.
Slug catcher is a vessel with sufficient buffer volume to store the largest slugs
expected from upstream system. The slug catcher is located between the outlet of the
pipeline and the processing equipment.
The main purpose of slug catchers is to separate the Rich MEG and any condensate
from the gas and provide temporary storage for any liquid slugs.
 From the slug catchers gas is sent to inlet gas heater and particles with impurity is sent
to Rich MEG flash drum.
 In the inlet gas heaters, the gas with moisture is heated by using hot oil heaters.
Remaining moisture in gas can also be removed by using TEG (Tri Ethylene Glycol)
regenerator skid.
 The gas from heater is sent into production separator and filter coalesce where
filtration of gas will be done.
 After filtration of gas it is sent into TEG contactor to remove if traces of moisture are
in the gas.
 Then gas is sent to Gas Dehydration Unit Outlet main field where the gas is
dehydrated and sent into outlet.
 At the outlet, there are 2 EWPL (East west pipe line) of 24 and 48 inches for the
transmission of Methane gas from Gadimoga to Gujarat through a pipeline of distance
1200km.
 Air compression for pressure maintenance will be one for every 200km.
 Some amount of gas from EWPL is utilized for GTG (Gas Turbine Generator) of 3
turbines which generate 29 MW power each.
 From GTG total of 9MW power supply is provided for whole plant. These are dual
fueled i.e., they can operate on diesel fuel in case of non-availability of gas fuel.
Heat recovery from turbine exhaust was selected as a potential heat source for
optimization of the hot oil circuit.
 From GTG waste gas can be removed and sent into hot oil heaters to maintain gas
temperature increased from 30C to 15-220C and remove the moisture from gas.
 From slug catchers, the impure or Rich MEG will be obtained into flash drums and
will be settled in MEG settling tanks.
 Rich MEG will be stored in 3 storage tanks.
 Impure particles from Rich MEG storage tanks can be separated by using Flash and
Lean (pure) MEG and is stored in tanks of Lean MEG.
 Lean MEG is boosted and injected by using injection pump to offshore to maintain
sudden change in temperature at offshore.

separators
 Fig: Circuit diagram of KGD6 Plant
.

. Gas turbine generator

Introduction
The gas turbine is the engine at the heart of the power plant that produces electric
current. Gas turbines are a type of internal combustion (IC) engine in which burning of an
air-fuel mixture produces hot gases that spin a turbine to produce power. It is the production
of hot gas during fuel combustion, not the fuel itself that the gives gas turbines the name. Gas
turbines can utilize a variety of fuels, including natural gas, fuel oils, and synthetic fuels.
Combustion occurs continuously in gas turbines, as opposed to reciprocating IC engines, in
which combustion occurs intermittently

Fig: SGT-700 industrial gas turbine

The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the steam power plant except that
the working fluid is air instead of water. Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor
that brings it to higher pressure. Energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and
igniting it so the combustion generates a high-temperature flow. This high-temperature high-
pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to the exhaust pressure, producing
a shaft work output in the process. The turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressor and
other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft. The energy that is
not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, so these have either a high
temperature or a high velocity. The purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that
the most desirable energy form is maximized. Gas turbines are used to
power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, pumps, gas compressors and tanks.
Theory of operation:

In an ideal gas turbine, gases undergo four thermodynamic processes:

an isentropic compression, an isobaric (constant pressure) combustion, an isentropic
expansion and heat rejection. Together, these make up the Brayton cycle.
 Fig: Brayton cycle

In a real gas turbine, mechanical energy is changed irreversibly (due to internal friction and
turbulence) into pressure and thermal energy when the gas is compressed (in either a
centrifugal or axial compressor). Heat is added in the combustion chamber and the specific
volume of the gas increases, accompanied by a slight loss in pressure. During expansion
through the stator and rotor passages in the turbine, irreversible energy transformation once
again occurs. Fresh air is taken in, in place of the heat rejection.

If the engine has a power turbine added to drive an industrial generator or a helicopter rotor,
the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible with only enough energy
left to overcome the pressure losses in the exhaust ducting and expel the exhaust.

The smaller the engine, the higher the rotation rate of the shaft(s) must be to attain the
required blade tip speed. Blade-tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can be
obtained by the turbine and the compressor. This, in turn, limits the maximum power and
efficiency that can be obtained by the engine. In order for tip speed to remain constant, if the
diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the rotational speed must double. For example, large
jet engines operate around 10,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000 rpm.

Mechanically, gas turbines can be considerably less complex than internal combustion piston
engines. Simple turbines might have one main moving part, the compressor/shaft/turbine
rotor assembly, with other moving parts in the fuel system. However, the precision
manufacture required for components and the temperature resistant alloys necessary for high
efficiency often make the construction of a simple gas turbine more complicated than a piston
engine.

More advanced gas turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines) may have 2 or 3
shafts (spools), hundreds of compressor and turbine blades, movable stator blades, and
extensive external tubing for fuel, oil and air systems.

Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of design. They are hydrodynamic oil
bearings or oil-cooled rolling-element bearings. Foil bearings are used in some small
machines such as micro turbines and also have strong potential for use in small gas
turbines/auxiliary power units.
Types of gas turbine
1. Jet engines
2. Turboprop engines
3. Aeroderivative gas turbines
4. Amateur gas turbines
5. Auxiliary power units
6. Industrial gas turbines for power generation
7. Industrial gas turbines for mechanical drive
8. Compressed air energy storage
9. Turboshaft engines
10. Radial gas turbines
11. Scale jet engines
12. Microturbines

The gas turbine is made up of the following components:

1. An air intake
2. An air compressor
3. A combustor (combustion chamber)
4. A power turbine, which produces the power to drive the air compressor and the
output shaft.

Fig : schematic diagram of a gas turbine components

1. AIR INTAKE
Gas turbines ingest a large amount of ambient air during operation. Because of this, the
quality of the air entering the turbine is a significant factor in the performance and life of the
gas turbine. The filtration system protects the gas turbine from harmful debris in the ambient
air, which can lead to issues such as FOD, erosion, fouling, and corrosion. The selection of
the filtration system can be a daunting task, because there are many factors to consider. The
system should be selected based on the operational philosophy and goals for the turbine, the
contaminants present in the ambient air, and expected changes in the contaminants in the
future due to temporary emission sources or seasonal changes.
Components of an air intake filtration system
In order to protect the gas turbine from the variety of contaminants present in the ambient air,
several filtration devices are used. Each of the devices used in modern filtration systems are
discussed below
a) Weather Protection and Trash Screens

Weather louvers or hoods and trash screens are the most simplistic of the filtration
mechanisms, but they are important in order to reduce the amount of moisture and solid
contaminants, which enter the main filtration system. These are not classified as filters, but
they are part of the filtration system and provide assistance in removal of large objects or
contaminants carried in the flow stream.

Weather hoods are sheet metal coverings on the entrance of the filtration system (see
Figure 4). The opening of the hood is pointed downward so the ambient air must turn
upwards to flow into the inlet filtration system. The turning of the air is effective at
minimizing rain and snow penetration. Weather hoods and louvers are used on the majority
of inlet filtration systems, and they are essential for systems in areas with large amounts of
rainfall or snow. Weather hoods or another comparable weather protection system are
strongly recommended for all systems with high efficiency filter.

After the weather hood is a series of turning vanes called weather louvers, which redirect the
air so that it must turn. The weather louvers are also effective at minimizing water and snow
penetration. After the weather hood or louver is a trash or insect screen. Trash screens capture
large pieces of paper, cardboard, bags, and other objects. The screens also deflect birds,
leaves, and insects. Screens that are installed specifically for preventing insects entering the
filtration system are referred to as insect screens. These screens will have a finer grid than
trash screens. Weather hoods, louvers, trash screens, and insect screens are used on the
majority of filtration systems due to their inexpensive cost and construction, and negligible
pressure loss.

b) Anti-Icing Protection

Anti-icing protection is used in climates with freezing weather. Freezing climates with rain or
snow can cause icing of inlet components, which can result in physical damage to inlet ducts
or to the gas turbine compressor. This ice can also affect the performance of the gas turbine.
If ice forms on filter elements, then ice on those filters will be blocking the flow path, which
will cause the velocity at the other filters to increase. This causes a decrease in filtration
efficiency. Also, the filter elements with ice can be damaged. Figure 5 shows an example of
ice formation on filters due to cooling tower drift.

Heaters, compressor bleed air, or self-cleaning filters are often used in the inlet system in
frigid environments to prevent the build-up of ice on the inlet bell mouth or filter elements. It
should be noted that any location in the inlet system (even past the filter system) that creates
a pressure drop can potentially have ice formation. In some plant operations, the Inlet Guide
Vanes (IGVs) are used for flow control at part load operations. If the IGVs are partially
closed, then under the right weather conditions, ice build can occur at this location. In order
to prevent ice build-up in this situation, it may be necessary to limit the closer of the IGVs or
have provisions to heat the inlet air to avoid ice formation.

c) Inertial Separators

Inertial separation takes advantage of the physical principles of momentum, gravity,

centrifugal forces, and impingement, and the physical difference between phases to cause
particles to be moved out of the gas stream in such a way that they can be carried off or
drained. The higher momentum of the dust or water particles contained in the air stream
causes them to travel forward, while the air can be diverted to side ports and exit by a
different path than the dust. There are many types of inertial separators, but the ones
commonly used with gas turbine inlet filtration are vane and cyclone separators.

d) Moisture Coalescers

In environments with high concentration of liquid moisture in the air, coalescers are required
in order to remove the liquid moisture. The coalescer works by catching the small water
droplets in its fibers. As the particles are captured, they combine with other particles to make
larger water droplets. Coalescers are designed to allow the droplets to either drain down the
filter or be released back into the flow stream. If the larger drops are released, then they are
captured downstream by a separator.

e) Prefilters

The air has a mixture of large and small particles. If a one-stage high efficiency filter is used,
the build-up of large and small solid particles can quickly lead to increased pressure loss and
filter loading. Prefilters are used to increase the life of the downstream high efficiency filter
by capturing the larger solid particles. Therefore, the high efficiency filter only has to remove
the smaller particles from the air stream which increases the filter life. Prefilters normally
capture solid particles greater than 10 μm, but some prefilters will also capture the solid
particles in the 2 to 5 μm size range. These filters usually consist of large diameter synthetic
fiber in a disposable frame structure. Bag filters are also commonly used for prefilters. These
offer higher surface area that reduces the pressure loss across the filter. In many installations,
the prefilters can be exchanged without having to shut the engine down.

f) High-Efficiency Filters
As discussed above, there are filters for removing larger solid particles, which prevent
erosion and FOD. Smaller particles which lead to corrosion, fouling, and cooling passage
plugging, are removed with high efficiency filters. These types of filters have average
separations greater than 80 percent. Three common types of high efficiency filters are EPA,
HEPA, and ULPA. EPA and HEPA filters are defined as having a minimum efficiency of 85
percent and 99.95 percent, respectively, for all particles greater than or equal to 0.3 μm.
ULPA filters have a minimum efficiency of 99.9995 percent for particles the same size or
larger than 0.12 μm. Often, these names are used loosely with discussion of high efficiency
filtration. However, the majority of the high efficiency filters used in gas turbine inlet
filtration do not meet these requirements.

The high-efficiency filters used with gas turbines have pleated media that increase the surface
area. In order to achieve the high filtration efficiency, the flow through the filter fiber is
highly restricted which creates a high pressure loss, unless the face velocity is kept low. The
pleats help reduce this pressure loss. Initial pressure loss on high efficiency filters can be up
to 1 inH2O (250 Pa) with a final pressure loss in the range of 2.5 inH2O (625 Pa) for
rectangular filters and 4 inH2O (2000 Pa) for cartridge filters. The life of the filters is highly
influenced by other forms of filtration upstream. If there are stages of filtration to remove
larger solid articles and liquid moisture, then these filters will have a longer life. Minimal
filtration before high efficiency filters will lead to more frequent replacement or cleaning.
High efficiency filters are rated under various standards. The majority of filters used in gas
turbines are not classified as EPA, HEPA, or ULPA. The filters used in gas turbines are rated
with ASHRAE 52.2:2007 and EN 779:2002.

There are many different constructions of high efficiency type filters: rectangular,
cylindrical/cartridge, and bag filters. The rectangular high efficiency filters are constructed by
folding a continuous sheet of media into closely spaced pleats in a rectangular rigid frame.
Rectangular filters are depth loaded; therefore, once they reach the maximum allowable
pressure loss, they should be replaced. Two examples of rectangular high efficiency filters
are shown in Figure

Cartridge filters are also made up of closely spaced pleats, but they are in a circular fashion.
Air flows radially into the cartridge. They are installed in a horizontal or vertical fashion
(hanging downward). These types of filters can be depth or surface loaded. The surface
loaded filters are commonly used with a self-cleaning system, but not all of them are
designed for self-cleaning. Cartridge filters used in self-cleaning systems require a more
robust structural design in order to protect the filter fiber media during the reverse air pulses.
The more common structural support is a wire cage around the pleated media on the inside
and outside of the filter.

g) Self-Cleaning Filters

All of the filters with fiber-type media previously discussed are required to be replaced once
they reach the end of their usable life. In some environments, the amount of contaminants can
be excessive to the point where the filters previously discussed would have to be replaced
frequently to meet the filtration demand. A prime example of one of these environments is a
desert with sand storms. In the 1970s, the self-cleaning filtration system was developed for
the Middle East where gas turbines are subject to frequent sand storms. Since then, this
system has been continually developed and utilized for gas turbine inlet air filtration.

The self-cleaning system operates primarily with surface-loaded high-efficiency cartridge

filters. The surface loading allows for easy removal of the dust, which has accumulated with
reverse pulses of air. The pressure loss across each filter is continuously monitored. Once the
pressure loss reaches a certain level, the filter is cleaned with air pulses. The pressure of the
air pulses ranges from 80 to 100 psi (5.5 to 6.9 bar). The reverse jet of compressed air (or
pulse) occurs for a length of time between 100 and 200 ms. To avoid disturbing the flow and
to limit the need for compressed air, the system typically only pulses 10 percent of the
elements at a given time. With this type of cleaning, the filter can be brought back to near the
original condition .

h) Staged Filtration

Any gas turbine application typically needs more than one type of filter, and there are no
“universal filters” that will serve all needs. Therefore, two-stage or three-stage filtration
systems are used. In these designs, a prefilter or weather louver can be used first to remove
erosive contaminants, rain, and snow. The second may be a low-to-medium-performance
filter selected for the type of finer-sized particles present or a coalescer to remove liquids.
The third filter is usually a high-performance filter to remove smaller particles less than 2 μm
in size from the air. Shows a generalized view of a filtration arrangement. This arrangement
is not correct for all cases due to the fact that the filter stages are highly influenced by the
environment they are operating in.

Consequences of poor air intake ( inlet filtration) system:

When the quality of the air entering the gas turbine is not well controlled, there are several
consequences which can occur. Some of the most common degradation mechanisms are as
below including erosion, fouling, and corrosion.

a) Erosion

Erosion occurs when solid or liquid particles approximately 10 μm and larger impact rotating
or stationary surfaces in the gas turbine. The particles will impact the surface and remove tiny
particles of metal which eventually lead to changes in the geometry of the surface. This
change in geometry causes deviations in the air flow path, roughening of smooth surfaces,
alteration of clearances, and reduction of cross-sectional areas of metal components possibly
in high stressed regions. Erosion is a non-reversible process; therefore, the gas turbine
components must be replaced in order to regain their original condition. However, particles
of 10 μm and larger are easily removed by commercial filters.
b) Fouling

Fouling of compressor blades is an important mechanism leading to performance

deterioration in gas turbines over time. Fouling is caused by the adherence of particles to
airfoils and annulus surfaces. Particles that cause fouling are typically smaller than 2 to
10 μm. Smoke, oil mists, carbon, and sea salts are common examples. Fouling can be
controlled by an appropriate air filtration system and often reversed to some degree by
detergent washing of components. The adherence is impacted by oil or water mists. The
result is a build-up of material that causes increased surface roughness and to some degree
changes the shape of the airfoil (if the material build up forms thicker layers of deposits).
Fouling in turn causes a decrease in the performance of the gas turbine.

Commercial filters can remove the majority of particles that cause fouling. But there are
several submicron particles that are difficult to remove from the flow stream. The build-up of
particles not removed by the inlet filtration system is removed with the use of compressor
washing. This process recovers a larger portion of the compressor performance but cannot
bring the gas turbine back to its original condition.

c) Corrosion

When chemically reactive particles adhere to surfaces in the gas turbine, corrosion can occur.
Corrosion that occurs in the compressor section is referred to as “cold corrosion” and is due
to wet deposits of salts, acid, and aggressive gases such as chlorine and sulphides. Corrosion
in the combustor and turbine sections is called “hot corrosion.” It is also referred to as a high
temperature corrosion. Hot corrosion requires the interaction of the metal surface with
another chemical substance at elevated temperatures. Hot corrosion is a form of accelerated
oxidation that is produced by the chemical reaction between a component and molten salts
deposited on its surface. Hot corrosion comprises a complex series of chemical reactions,
making corrosion rates very difficult to predict. It is the accelerated oxidation of alloys
caused by the deposit of salts (e.g., Na2SO4). Type I or high temperature hot corrosion occurs
at a temperature range of 1346 to 1742°F (730 to 950°C). Type II or low temperature hot
corrosion occurs at a temperature range of 1022 to 1346°F (550 to 730°C). Some of the more
common forms of hot corrosion are sulfidation, nitridation, chlorination, carburization, and
vanadium, potassium, and lead hot corrosion. Sulfidation Hot Corrosion requires the
interaction of the metal surface with sodium sulphate or potassium sulphate, salts that can
form in gas turbines from the reaction of sulphur oxides, water, and sodium chloride (table
salt) or potassium chloride, respectively. It is usually divided into Type I and Type II hot
corrosion, and Type I hot corrosion takes place above the melting temperature of sodium
sulphate (1623°F (884°C)), while Type II occurs below this temperature. Hot corrosion is
caused by the diffusion of sulphur from the molten sodium sulphate into the metal substrate
which prevents the formation of the protective oxidation film and results in rapid removal of
surface metal. One should note that for hot corrosion to occur both sulphur and salt (e.g.,
sodium chloride or potassium chloride or chloride) have to be present in the very hot gas
stream in and downstream of the combustor. Sulphur and salt can come from the inlet air,
from the fuel, or water (if water is injected). The potassium hot corrosion mechanism is
similar to sulfidation but is less frequently observed in gas turbines, unless the fuel contains
significant quantities of potassium.

Corrosion is a non-reversible degradation mechanism. Therefore, corroded components must

be replaced in order to regain the original gas turbine performance. Corrosion also initiates or
advances other damage mechanisms in the gas turbine. For example, corrosion can intrude
into cracks or other material defects and accelerates crack propagation.

2. AIR COMPRESSOR
The compressor is responsible for providing the turbine with all the air it needs in an
efficient manner. In addition, it must supply this air at high static pressures.
There are three basic categories of gas turbine engine compressor
a) Axial flow compressor
b) Centrifugal compressor
c) Mixed flow compressor
In case of power generation, axial compressors are used in turbines which have capacity to
generate more than 5 MW.
a) Axial flow compressor

Description
Axial compressors consist of rotating and stationary components. A shaft drives a central
drum, retained by bearings, which has a number of annular airfoil rows attached usually in
pairs, one rotating and one stationary attached to a stationary tubular casing. A pair of
rotating and stationary airfoils is called a stage. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or
rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as stators or vanes, convert the
increased rotational kinetic energy into static pressure through diffusion and redirect the flow
direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades of the next stage. The cross-sectional
area between rotor drum and casing is reduced in the flow direction to maintain an
optimum Mach number using variable geometry as the fluid is compressed.
Working
As the fluid enters and leaves in the axial direction, the centrifugal component in the energy
equation does not come into play. Here the compression is fully based on diffusing action of
the passages.The diffusing action in stator converts absolute kinetic head of the fluid into rise
in pressure. The relative kinetic head in the energy equation is a term that exists only because
of the rotation of the rotor. The rotor reduces the relative kinetic head of the fluid and adds it
to the absolute kinetic head of the fluid i.e., the impact of the rotor on the fluid particles
increases its velocity (absolute) and thereby reduces the relative velocity between the fluid
and the rotor. In short, the rotor increases the absolute velocity of the fluid and the stator
converts this into pressure rise. Designing the rotor passage with a diffusing capability can
produce a pressure rise in addition to its normal functioning. This produces greater pressure
rise per stage which constitutes a stator and a rotor together. This is the reaction principle
in turbomachines. If 50% of the pressure rise in a stage is obtained at the rotor section, it is
said to have a 50% reaction
Design
The increase in pressure produced by a single stage is limited by the relative velocity between
the rotor and the fluid, and the turning and diffusion capabilities of the airfoils. A typical
stage in a commercial compressor will produce a pressure increase of between 15% and 60%
(pressure ratios of 1.15–1.6) at design conditions with a polytropic efficiency in the region of
90–95%. To achieve different pressure ratios, axial compressors are designed with different
numbers of stages and rotational speeds. As a rule of thumb, we can assume that each stage in
a given compressor has the same temperature rise (Delta T). Therefore, at the entry,
temperature (Tstage) to each stage must increase progressively through the compressor and
the ratio (Delta T)/(Tstage) entry must decrease, thus implying a progressive reduction in
stage pressure ratio through the unit. Hence the rear stage develops a significantly lower
pressure ratio than the first stage. Higher stage pressure ratios are also possible if the relative
velocity between fluid and rotors is supersonic, but this is achieved at the expense of
efficiency and operability. Such compressors, with stage pressure ratios of over 2, are only
used where minimizing the compressor size, weight or complexity is critical, such as in
military jets. The airfoil profiles are optimized and matched for specific velocities and
turning. Although compressors can be run at other conditions with different flows, speeds, or
pressure ratios, this can result in an efficiency penalty or even a partial or complete
breakdown in flow (known as compressor stall and pressure surge respectively). Thus, a
practical limit on the number of stages, and the overall pressure ratio, comes from the
interaction of the different stages when required to work away from the design conditions.
These “off-design” conditions can be mitigated to a certain extent by providing some
flexibility in the compressor. This is achieved normally through the use of adjustable stators
or with valves that can bleed fluid from the main flow between stages (inter-stage bleed).
Modern jet engines use a series of compressors, running at different speeds; to supply air at
around 40:1 pressure ratio for combustion with sufficient flexibility for all flight conditions.
3. COMBUSTOR (COMBUSION CHMABER)
A combustor is a component or area of a gas turbine, ramjet,
or scramjet engine where combustion takes place. It is also known as a burner, combustion
chamber or flame holder. In a gas turbine engine, the combustor or combustion chamber is
fed high pressure air by the compression system. The combustor then heats this air at constant
pressure. After heating, air passes from the combustor through the nozzle guide vanes to the
turbine. In the case of a ramjet or scramjet engines, the air is directly fed to the nozzle.

A combustor must contain and maintain stable combustion despite very high air flow rates.
To do so combustors are carefully designed to first mix and ignite the air and fuel, and then
mix in more air to complete the combustion process. Combustors play a crucial role in
determining many of an engine's operating characteristics, such as fuel efficiency, levels of
emissions and transient response (the response to changing conditions such a fuel flow and
air speed).

Components of combustor

Fig: components of a combustor

Case

The case is the outer shell of the combustor, and is a fairly simple structure. The casing
generally requires little maintenance. The case is protected from thermal loads by the air
flowing in it, so thermal performance is of limited concern. However, the casing serves as a
pressure vessel that must withstand the difference between the high pressures inside the
combustor and the lower pressure outside. That mechanical (rather than thermal) load is a
driving design factor in the case.
Diffuser

The purpose of the diffuser is to slow the high speed, highly compressed, air from
the compressor to a velocity optimal for the combustor. Reducing the velocity results in an
unavoidable loss in total pressure, so one of the design challenges is to limit the loss of
pressure as much as possible. Furthermore, the diffuser must be designed to limit the flow
distortion as much as possible by avoiding flow effects like boundary layer separation. Like
most other gas turbine engine components, the diffuser is designed to be as short and light as
possible.

Liner

The liner contains the combustion process and introduces the various airflows (intermediate,
dilution, and cooling, see Air flow paths below) into the combustion zone. The liner must be
designed and built to withstand extended high temperature cycles. For that reason liners tend
to be made from super alloys like Hastelloy X. Furthermore, even though high performance
alloys are used, the liners must be cooled with air flow. Some combustors also make use
of thermal barrier coatings. However, air cooling is still required. In general, there are two
main types of liner cooling; film cooling and transpiration cooling. Film cooling works by
injecting (by one of several methods) cool air from outside of the liner to just inside of the
liner. This creates a thin film of cool air that protects the liner, reducing the temperature at the
liner from around 1800 kelvins (K) to around 830 K, for example. The other type of liner
cooling, transpiration cooling, is a more modern approach that uses a porous material for the
liner. The porous liner allows a small amount of cooling air to pass through it, providing
cooling benefits similar to film cooling. The two primary differences are in the resulting
temperature profile of the liner and the amount of cooling air required. Transpiration cooling
results in a much more even temperature profile, as the cooling air is uniformly introduced
through pores. Film cooling air is generally introduced through slats or louvers, resulting in
an uneven profile where it is cooler at the slat and warmer between the slats. More
importantly, transpiration cooling uses much less cooling air (on the order of 10% of total
airflow, rather than 20-50% for film cooling). Using less air for cooling allows more to be
used for combustion, which is more and more important for high performance, high thrust
engines.

Snout

The snout is an extension of the dome (see below) that acts as an air splitter, separating the
primary air from the secondary air flows (intermediate, dilution, and cooling air; see Air flow
paths below).

Dome / swirler

The dome and swirler are the part of the combustor that the primary air (see Air flow
paths below) flows through as it enters the combustion zone. Their role is to
generate turbulence in the flow to rapidly mix the air with fuel. Early combustors tended to
use bluff body domes (rather than swirlers), which used a simple plate to create wake
turbulence to mix the fuel and air. Most modern designs, however, are swirl stabilized (use
swirlers). The swirler establishes a local low-pressure zone that forces some of the
combustion products to recirculate, creating the high turbulence. However, the higher the
turbulence, the higher the pressure loss will be for the combustor, so the dome and swirler
must be carefully designed so as not to generate more turbulence than is needed to
sufficiently mix the fuel and air.

Fuel injector

The fuel injector is responsible for introducing fuel to the combustion zone and, along with
the swirler (above), is responsible for mixing the fuel and air. There are four primary types of
fuel injectors; pressure-atomizing, air blast, vaporizing, and premix/prevaporizing injectors.
Pressure atomizing fuel injectors rely on high fuel pressures (as much as 3,400 kilopascals
(500 psi)) to atomize the fuel. This type of fuel injector has the advantage of being very
simple, but it has several disadvantages. The fuel system must be robust enough to withstand
such high pressures, and the fuel tends to be heterogeneously atomized, resulting in
incomplete or uneven combustion which has more pollutants and smoke.

The second type of fuel injector is the air blast injector. This injector "blasts" a sheet of fuel
with a stream of air, atomizing the fuel into homogeneous droplets. This type of fuel injector
led to the first smokeless combustors. The air used is just same amount of the primary air
(see Air flow paths below) that is diverted through the injector, rather than the swirler. This
type of injector also requires lower fuel pressures than the pressure atomizing type.

The vaporizing fuel injector, the third type, is similar to the air blast injector in that primary
air is mixed with the fuel as it is injected into the combustion zone. However, the fuel-air
mixture travels through a tube within the combustion zone. Heat from the combustion zone is
transferred to the fuel-air mixture, vaporizing some of the fuel (mixing it better) before it is
combusted. This method allows the fuel to be combusted with less thermal radiation, which
helps protect the liner. However, the vaporizer tube may have serious durability problems
with low fuel flow within it (the fuel inside of the tube protects the tube from the combustion
heat).

The premixing/prevaporizing injectors work by mixing or vaporizing the fuel before it

reaches the combustion zone. This method allows the fuel to be very uniformly mixed with
the air, reducing emissions from the engine. One disadvantage of this method is that fuel may
auto-ignite or otherwise combust before the fuel-air mixture reaches the combustion zone. If
this happens the combustor can be seriously damaged.

Igniter

Most igniters in gas turbine applications are electrical spark igniters, similar to automotive
spark plugs. The igniter needs to be in the combustion zone where the fuel and air are already
mixed, but it needs to be far enough upstream so that it is not damaged by the combustion
itself. Once the combustion is initially started by the igniter, it is self-sustaining and the
igniter is no longer used. In can-annular and annular combustors (see Types of
combustors below), the flame can propagate from one combustion zone to another, so igniters
are not needed at each one. In some systems ignition-assist techniques are used. One such
method is oxygen injection, where oxygen is fed to the ignition area, helping the fuel easily
combust. This is particularly useful in some aircraft applications where the engine may have
to restart at high altitude.
Air flow paths in a combustor

Fig: air flow paths in a combustor

Primary air

This is the main combustion air. It is highly compressed air from the high-pressure
compressor (often decelerated via the diffuser) that is fed through the main channels in the
dome of the combustor and the first set of liner holes. This air is mixed with fuel, and then
combusted.

Intermediate air

Intermediate air is the air injected into the combustion zone through the second set of liner
holes (primary air goes through the first set). This air completes the reaction processes,
cooling the air down and diluting the high concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO)
and hydrogen (H2).

Dilution air

Dilution air is airflow injected through holes in the liner at the end of the combustion
chamber to help cool the air to before it reaches the turbine stages. The air is carefully used to
produce the uniform temperature profile desired in the combustor. However, as turbine blade
technology improves, allowing them to withstand higher temperatures, dilution air is used
less, allowing the use of more combustion air.

Cooling air

Cooling air is airflow that is injected through small holes in the liner to generate a layer (film)
of cool air to protect the liner from the combustion temperatures. The implementation of
cooling air has to be carefully designed so it does not directly interact with the combustion air
and process. In some cases, as much as 50% of the inlet air is used as cooling air. There are
several different methods of injecting this cooling air, and the method can influence the
temperature profile that the liner is exposed to

Types of combustor

Today three main configurations exist: can, annular and cannular

1) Can

Can combustors are self-contained cylindrical combustion chambers. Each "can" has its own
fuel injector, igniter, liner, and casing. The primary air from the compressor is guided into
each individual can, where it is decelerated, mixed with fuel, and then ignited. The secondary
air also comes from the compressor, where it is fed outside of the liner (inside of which is
where the combustion is taking place). The secondary air is then fed, usually through slits in
the liner, into the combustion zone to cool the liner via thin film cooling.

In most applications, multiple cans are arranged around the central axis of the engine, and
their shared exhaust is fed to the turbine(s). Can type combustors were most widely used in
early gas turbine engines, owing to their ease of design and testing (one can test a single can,
rather than have to test the whole system). Can type combustors are easy to maintain, as only
a single can needs to be removed, rather than the whole combustion section. Most modern
gas turbine engines (particularly for aircraft applications) do not use can combustors, as they
often weigh more than alternatives. Additionally, the pressure drop across the can is generally
higher than other combustors (on the order of 7%). Most modern engines that use can
combustors are turboshafts featuring centrifugal compressors.

2) Cannular

The next type of combustor is the cannular combustor; the term is a portmanteau of "can
annular". Like the can type combustor, can annular combustors have discrete combustion
zones contained in separate liners with their own fuel injectors. Unlike the can combustor, all
the combustion zones share a common ring (annulus) casing. Each combustion zone no
longer has to serve as a pressure vessel. The combustion zones can also "communicate" with
each other via liner holes or connecting tubes that allow some air to flow circumferentially.
The exit flow from the cannular combustor generally has a more uniform temperature profile,
which is better for the turbine section. It also eliminates the need for each chamber to have its
own igniter. Once the fire is lit in one or two cans, it can easily spread to and ignite the
others. This type of combustor is also lighter than the can type, and has a lower pressure drop
(on the order of 6%). However, a cannular combustor can be more difficult to maintain than a
can combustor. An example of a gas turbine engine utilizing a cannular combustor is
the General Electric J79 The Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce Tay turbofans use
this type of combustor as well.

3) Annular

The final, and most commonly used type of combustor is the fully annular combustor.
Annular combustors do away with the separate combustion zones and simply have a
continuous liner and casing in a ring (the annulus). There are many advantages to annular
combustors, including more uniform combustion, shorter size (therefore lighter), and less
surface area. Additionally, annular combustors tend to have very uniform exit temperatures.
They also have the lowest pressure drop of the three designs (on the order of 5%). The
annular design is also simpler, although testing generally requires a full-size test rig. An
engine that uses an annular combustor is the CFM International CFM56. Most modern
engines use annular combustors; likewise, most combustor research and development focuses
on improving this type.

4) Double annular combustor

One variation on the standard annular combustor is the double annular combustor (DAC).
Like an annular combustor, the DAC is a continuous ring without separate combustion zones
around the radius. The difference is that the combustor has two combustion zones around the
ring; a pilot zone and a main zone. The pilot zone acts like that of a single annular combustor,
and is the only zone operating at low power levels. At high power levels, the main zone is
used as well, increasing air and mass flow through the combustor. GE's implementation of
this type of combustor focuses on reducing NOx and CO2 emissions. A good diagram of a
DAC is available from Purdue. Extending the same principles as the double annular
combustor, triple annular and "multiple annular" combustors have been proposed and even
patented.

EMISSIONS

One of the driving factors in modern gas turbine design is reducing emissions, and the
combustor is the primary contributor to a gas turbine's emissions. Generally speaking, there
are five major types of emissions from gas turbine engines: smoke, carbon
dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC), and nitrogen
oxides (NOx).

Smoke is primarily mitigated by more evenly mixing the fuel with air. As discussed in the
fuel injector section above, modern fuel injectors (such as airblast fuel injectors) evenly
atomize the fuel and eliminate local pockets of high fuel concentration. Most modern engines
use these types of fuel injectors and are essentially smokeless.

Carbon dioxide is a product of the combustion process, and it is primarily mitigated by

reducing fuel usage. On average, 1 kg of jet fuel burned produces 3.2 kg of CO2. Carbon
dioxide emissions will continue to drop as manufacturers make gas turbine engines more
efficient.

Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related.
UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly
produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC
content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions
are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for
CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses
on CO emissions.

Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation.

CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a
relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly
quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor
has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion
chamber).

Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO,
it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high
pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in
an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions
require the combination of several methods.

4) TURBINE

The turbine converts the gaseous energy of the air/burned fuel mixture out of the combustor
into mechanical energy to drive the compressor, driven accessories, and, through a reduction
gear, the propeller.
The turbine converts gaseous energy into mechanical energy by expanding the hot, high-
pressure gases to a lower temperature and pressure.

Each stage of the turbine consists of a row of stationary vanes followed by a row of rotating
blades. This is the reverse of the order in the compressor. In the compressor energy is added
to the gas by the rotor blades, then converted to static pressure by the stator vanes. In the
turbine, the stator vanes increase gas velocity, and then the rotor blades extract energy.

The vanes and blades are airfoils that provide for a smooth flow of the gases. As the airstream
enters the turbine section from the combustion section, it is accelerated through the first stage
stator vanes. The stator vanes (also called nozzles) form convergent ducts that convert the
gaseous heat and pressure energy into higher velocity gas flow (Pi). In addition to
accelerating the gas, the vanes "turn" the flow to direct it into the rotor blades at the optimum
angle.

As the mass of the high velocity gas flows across the turbine blades, the gaseous energy is
converted to mechanical energy. Velocity, temperature, and pressure of the gas are sacrificed
in order to rotate the turbine to generate shaft power. Figure below represents one stage of the
turbine and the characteristics of the gases as it flows through the stage.

The efficiency of the turbine is determined by how well it extracts mechanical energy from
the hot, high-velocity gasses. Since air flows from a high-pressure zone to a low-pressure
zone, this task is accomplished fairly easily. The use of properly positioned airfoils allows a
smooth flow and expansion of gases through the blades and vanes of the turbine.

All the air must flow across the airfoils to achieve maximum efficiency in the turbine. In
order to ensure this, seals are used at the base of the vanes to minimize gas flow around the
vanes instead of through the intended gas path.
GAS TURBINE CLASSIFICATION

a) classification by
direction of flow
1. Radial
2. Centrifugal
3. Centripetal
4. Axial

b) classification by inlet
flow field
1. Turbines with
homogeneous
inlet flow field
2. Turbines with non-homogeneous inlet flow field
Fig: parts of centrifugal gas
turbine.

c) classification by number of stages

1. Single stage
2. Dual stage
3. Triple stage
4. Multi stage

d) classification by number of spools

1. Single spool turbines
2. Dual spool turbines
3. Triple spool turbines

e) classification by reaction of stage

1. Impulse stage
2. Impulse/Reaction (Reaction) stage

BASIC PARAMETERS

a) Flow rate
a. Depends on construction 0,5-
300kg.s-1
b) Thermal gradient
a. Max. 30kJ.kg-1on one stage
c) Temperature before turbine
a. Non-cooled turbines max.
1000°C
b. Cooled turbines 1200°C and
more
d) RPM (Revolutions per minute)
 a. Depends on construction 5-90.103 min-1
e) Reliability
a. Means reliability of blades. At present days in modern engines
b. its approximately 10000 hours.
f) efficiency
a. Single stage turbines 0,82-0,90
b. Multi stage turbines 0,88-0,94 fig: evolution of
temperature parameters
g) Cooling air
a. Depend on intensity of cooling (approximately 5% from flow
b. rate)

LOSSES IN GAS TURBINE

a) Profile losses
a. in stator and rotor as well
b. These losses are generated as soon as gas flow around vanes/blades.
b) Friction losses (boundary layer)
c) Shock phenomenas
d) Wakes (high angle of atack)
e) Profile losses are higher in rotor
f) Secondary losses
a. Generated by pair-wakes (induced drag)
b. Losses in redial spaces between rotor blade and turbine case
g) Other losses
a) Losses in bearings
b) Friction of disks

AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
LUBRICATION

The lubricating requirements for the gas turbine power plant are furnished by a common
forced-feed lubrication system. This lubrication system, complete with tank, pumps, coolers,
filters, valves and various control and protection devices, furnishes normal lubrication and
absorption of heat rejection load of the gas turbine. Lubricating fluid is circulated to the three
main turbine bearings, generator bearings, and to the turbine accessory gear and fuel pump.
Also, lubricating fluid is supplied to the starting means torque converter for use as hydraulic
fluid as well as for lubrication. Additionally, a portion of the pressurized fluid is diverted and
filtered again for use by hydraulic control devices as control fluid.

Major system components include:

1. Lube reservoir in the accessory base;
2. Main lube pump (shaft driven from the accessory gear);
3. Auxiliary lube pump and emergency lube pump;
4. Pressure relief valve VR-1 in the main pump discharge;
5. Lube fluid heat exchanger;
6. Lube filters;
7. Bearing header pressure regulator VPR-2-1.
Lube fluid temperatures are indicated on the thermocouples which may be located in the
bearing header, bearing drains, and the oil tank. For turbine starting, a maximum of 800 SSU
is specified for reliable operation of the control system and for bearing lubrication. A
thermocouple, LT_OT-1A, prevents turbine start-up if the temperature of the lubricant is
lower than the switch setting (only if applicable).

Lubricating fluid for the main, auxiliary and emergency pumps is supplied from the reservoir,
while lubricating fluid used for control is supplied from the bearing header. This lubricant
must be regulated to the proper, predetermined pressure to meet the requirements of the main
bearings and the accessory lube system, as well as the hydraulic control and trip circuits.

Regulating devices are shown on the Lube System Schematic Diagram Figure LS-1. All
lubricating fluid is filtered and cooled before being piped to the bearing header.

The reservoir for the lubrication system is the 3300-gallon (i.e. 12 491 l) tank which is
fabricated as an integral part of the accessory base. Lubricating fluid is pumped from the
reservoir by the main shaft driven pump (part of the accessory gear) or auxiliary or
emergency Pumps at a pressure of 25 psi (i.e. 1.75 bar) to the bearing header, the accessory
gear and the hydraulic supply system. After lubricating the bearings, the lubricant flows back
through various drain lines to the lube reservoir.

All lubricant pumped from the lube reservoir to the bearing header flows through the lube
fluid heat exchanger(s) to remove excess heat and then through the cartridge type filters
providing five-micron filtration. The dual heat exchangers are connected in parallel.

Filtration of all lube oil is accomplished by a 5 micron, pleated paper filter installed in the
lube system just after the lube oil heat exchanger. Two filters are used with a transfer valve
installed between the filters to direct oil flow through either filter and into the lube oil
header.

Lubricating Oil Pumps

Lubrication to the bearing

header is supplied by three
lube pumps:

1-The main lube supply pump

is a positive displacement type
pump mounted in and driven
by the accessory gear.

2 -The auxiliary lube supply

pump is a submerged
centrifugal pump driven by an
A.C. motor.

3 -The emergency lube supply

pump is a submerged
centrifugal pump driven by a D.C. motor.

Main Lube Pump

The main lube pump is built into the inboard wall of the lower half casing of the accessory
gear. It is driven by a splined quill shaft from the lower drive gear. The output pressure to the
lubrication system is limited by a back-pressure valve to maintain system pressure.
Auxiliary Lube Pump
The auxiliary lube pump is a submerged centrifugal type pump driven by an A.C. motor. It
provides lubricant pressure during start-up and shut-down of the gas turbine when the main
pump cannot supply sufficient pressure for safe operation. Operation of this pump is as
follows:

The auxiliary lube pump is controlled by a low lube oil pressure alarm switch (63 QA-2).
This low-pressure level alarm causes the auxiliary pump to run under low lube oil pressure
conditions as is the case during start-up or shut down of the gas turbine when the main pump,
driven by the accessory drive device, does not supply sufficient pressure. At turbine start-up,
the A.C. pump starts automatically when the master control switch on the turbine control
panel is turned to the START position.

The auxiliary pump continues to operate until the turbine reaches approximately 95 per cent
of operational speed.

At this point, the auxiliary (cooldown) lube pump shuts down and system pressure is supplied
by the shaft-driven, main lube pump.

During the turbine starting sequence, the pump starts when the start signal is given. The
control circuit is through the pressure level of pressure switch 63 QA-2. The pump will run
until the turbine operating speed is reached (operating speed relay 14 HS picks up), even
though the lube oil header is at rated pressure and the discharge pressure level (63 QA-2) is
above alarm level setting.

When the turbine is on the shut-down sequence, this pressure transmitter will signal for the
auxiliary pump to start running when the lube oil header pressure falls to the point at which
pressure level alarm setting is reached.
Emergency Lube Pump
The emergency lube pump is a D.C., motor-driven pump, of the submerged centrifugal type.
This pump supplies lube oil to the main bearing header during an emergency shutdown In the
event the auxiliary pump has been forced out of service because of loss of A.C. power, or for
other reasons. It operates as follows:

This pump is started automatically by the action of pressure transmitter 96 QA-2 whenever
the lube pressure in the main bearing header falls below the pressure switch set ting.

Should the auxiliary pump fail during the shut-down sequence, because of an A.C. power
failure or any other cause, the emergency lube pump will be started automatically by the
action of low lube oil pressure transmitter 96 QA-2 and continue to run until the turbine shaft
comes to rest.
GOVERNING SYSTEMS FOR GAS TURBINES
In all power systems, the requirement is that the steady state speed deviation, and hence
frequency, is kept small for incremental changes in power demand, even if these power
increments are quite large – 20%, for example.

There are two main methods used for speed governing gas turbines,
a) Droop governing.
b) Isochronous governing.

Droop governing requires a steady state error in speed to create the necessary feedback
control of the fuel value. ‘Droop’ means that a fall in shaft speed (and hence generator
electrical frequency) will occur as load is increased. It is customary that a droop of about 4%
should occur when 100% load is applied. Droop governing provides the simplest method of
sharing load between groups of generators connected to the same power system
.
In control theory terminology, this action is called ‘proportional control’. This method of
governing is the one most commonly used in power systems because it provides a reasonably
accurate load sharing capability between groups of generators.

Isochronous governing causes the steady state speed error to become zero, thereby producing
a constant speed at the shaft and a constant frequency for the power system. Isochronous
governing is also a form of ‘integral control’. This method is best suited to a power system
that is supplied by one generator. This type of power system has very limited application.
However, there are situations where one isochronously governed generator can operate in
parallel with one or more droop-governed generators. The droop-governed generators will
each have a fixed amount of power assigned to them for the particular system frequency. This
is achieved by adjusting their set points. As the demand on the whole system changes,
positively or negatively, the isochronously governed generator will take up or reject these
changes, and the steady state frequency will remain constant. This hybrid type of load sharing
is seldom used in the oil industry.

Accurate power sharing and constant speed control can be obtained by using a specially
designed controller. This controller incorporates load measurement of each generator,
measurement of common system frequency and a sub-system to reduce the power
mismatches of each generator to zero. The controller regularly or even continuously trims the
speed set points of each gas turbine to maintain zero mismatches. A slowly operating
integrator can be superimposed onto these set points to adjust them simultaneously so that the
frequency is kept constant. This is a form of ‘proportional integral’ control.

The basic control system of most gas turbine generator systems is shown in Figure.
Where
ω = shaft speed
ωref = reference speed
Pe = electrical power at the generator shaft
Pm = mechanical output power of the gas turbine
Pa = accelerating power
Pf = friction and windage power

APPLICATIONS of GAS TURBINE:

Gas turbines are often used on ships, locomotives, helicopters, tanks, and to a lesser extent,
on cars, buses, and motorcycles.
A key advantage of jets and turboprops for aeroplane propulsion - their superior performance
at high altitude compared to piston engines, particularly naturally aspirated ones - is
irrelevant in most automobile applications. Their power-to-weight advantage, though less
critical than for aircraft, is still important.
Gas turbines offer a high-powered engine in a very small and light package. However, they
are not as responsive and efficient as small piston engines over the wide range of RPMs and
powers needed in vehicle applications. In series hybrid vehicles, as the driving electric
motors are mechanically detached from the electricity generating engine, the responsiveness,
poor performance at low speed and low efficiency at low output problems are much less
important. The turbine can be run at optimum speed for its power output, and batteries
and ultracapacitors can supply power as needed, with the engine cycled on and off to run it
only at high efficiency. The emergence of the continuously variable transmission may also
alleviate the responsiveness problem.
Turbines have historically been more expensive to produce than piston engines, though this is
partly because piston engines have been mass-produced in huge quantities for decades, while
small gas turbine engines are rarities; however, turbines are mass-produced in the closely
related form of the turbocharger.
The turbocharger is basically a compact and simple free shaft radial gas turbine which is
driven by the piston engine's exhaust gas. The centripetal turbine wheel drives a centrifugal
compressor wheel through a common rotating shaft. This wheel supercharges the engine air
intake to a degree that can be controlled by means of a wastegate or by dynamically
modifying the turbine housing's geometry (as in a VGT turbocharger). It mainly serves as a
power recovery device which converts a great deal of otherwise wasted thermal and kinetic
energy into engine boost.
Turbo-compound engines (actually employed on some trucks) are fitted with blow down
turbines which are similar in design and appearance to a turbocharger except for the turbine
shaft being mechanically or hydraulically connected to the engine's crankshaft instead of to a
centrifugal compressor, thus providing additional power instead of boost. While the
turbocharger is a pressure turbine, a power recovery turbine is a velocity one.
Passenger road vehicles (cars, bikes, and buses)
A number of experiments have been conducted with gas turbine powered automobiles, the
largest by Chrysler. More recently, there has been some interest in the use of turbine engines
for hybrid electric cars. For instance, a consortium led by micro gas turbine company Bladon
Jets has secured investment from the Technology Strategy Board to develop an Ultra
Lightweight Range Extender (ULRE) for next generation electric vehicles. The objective of
the consortium, which includes luxury car maker Jaguar Land Rover and leading electrical
machine company SR Drives, is to produce the world’s first commercially viable - and
environmentally friendly - gas turbine generator designed specifically for automotive
applications.
The common turbocharger for gasoline or diesel engines is also a turbine derivative.

Concept cars

The 1950 Rover JET1

The first serious investigation of using a gas turbine in cars was in 1946 when two engineers,
Robert Kafka and Robert Engerstein of Carney Associates, a New York engineering firm,
came up with the concept where a unique compact turbine engine design would provide
power for a rear wheel drive car. After an article appeared in Popular Science, there was no
further work, beyond the paper stage.
In 1950, designer F.R. Bell and Chief Engineer Maurice Wilks from British car
manufacturers Rover unveiled the first car powered with a gas turbine engine. The two-
seater JET1 had the engine positioned behind the seats, air intake grilles on either side of the
car, and exhaust outlets on the top of the tail. During tests, the car reached top speeds of
140 km/h (87 mph), at a turbine speed of 50,000 rpm. The car ran on petrol, paraffin
(kerosene) or diesel oil, but fuel consumption problems proved insurmountable for a
production car. It is on display at the London Science Museum.
A French turbine powered car, the Socema-Gregoire, was displayed at the October 1952 Paris
Auto Show. It was designed by the French engineer Jean-Albert Grégoire.

GM Firebird I
The first turbine powered car built in the US was the GM Firebird I which began evaluations
in 1953. While photos of the Firebird I may suggest that the jet turbine's thrust propelled the
car like an aircraft, the turbine in fact drove the rear wheels. The Firebird 1 was never meant
as a serious commercial passenger car and was solely built for testing & evaluation as well as
public relation purposes.

Engine compartment of a Chrysler 1963 Turbine car

Starting in 1954 with a modified Plymouth,[46] the American car
manufacturer Chrysler demonstrated several prototype gas turbine-powered cars from the
early 1950s through the early 1980s. Chrysler built fifty Chrysler Turbine Cars in 1963 and
conducted the only consumer trial of gas turbine-powered cars. Each of their turbines
employed a unique rotating recuperator, referred to as a regenerator that increased efficiency.
In 1954 FIAT unveiled a concept car with a turbine engine, called Fiat Turbine. This vehicle,
looking like an aircraft with wheels, used a unique combination of both jet thrust and the
engine driving the wheels. Speeds of 282 km/h (175 mph) were claimed.
The original General Motors Firebird was a series of concept cars developed for the 1953,
1956 and 1959 Motorama auto shows, powered by gas turbines.
As a result of the U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970, research was funded to
developing automotive gas turbine technology.[49]Design concepts and vehicles were
conducted by Chrysler, General Motors, Ford (in collaboration with AiResearch),
and American Motors (in conjunction with Williams Research).[50] Long-term tests were
conducted evaluate comparable cost efficiency. Several AMC Hornets were powered by a
small Williams regenerative gas turbines weighing 250 lb (113 kg) and producing 80 hp
(60 kW; 81 PS) at 4450 rpm.
Toyota demonstrated several gas turbine powered concept cars, such as the Century gas
turbine hybrid in 1975, the Sports 800 Gas Turbine Hybrid in 1979 and the GTV in 1985. No
production vehicles were made. The GT24 engine was exhibited in 1977 without a vehicle.
In the early 1990s Volvo introduced the Volvo Environmental Concept Car(ECC) which was
a gas turbine powered hybrid car.
In 1993 General Motors introduced the first commercial gas turbine powered hybrid
vehicle—as a limited production run of the EV-1 series hybrid. A Williams
International 40 kW turbine drove an alternator which powered the battery-
electric powertrain. The turbine design included a recuperator. Later on in 2006 GM went
into the Eco Jet concept car project with Jay Leno.
At the 2010 Paris Motor Show Jaguar demonstrated its Jaguar C-X75 concept car. This
electrically powered supercar has a top speed of 204 mph (328 km/h) and can go from 0 to
62 mph (0 to 100 km/h) in 3.4 seconds. It uses Lithium-ion batteries to power 4 electric
motors which combine to produce some 780 bhp. It will do 68 miles (109 km) on a single
charge of the batteries, but in addition it uses a pair of Bladon Micro Gas Turbines to re-
charge the batteries extending the range to 560 miles (900 km).
Racing cars
The first race car (in concept only) fitted with a turbine was in 1955 by a US Air Force group
as a hobby project with a turbine loaned them by Boeing and a race car owned by Firestone
Tire & Rubber company. The first race car fitted with a turbine for the goal of actual racing
was by Rover and the BRM Formula One team joined forces to produce the Rover-BRM, a
gas turbine powered coupe, which entered the 1963 24 Hours of Le Mans, driven by Graham
Hill and Richie Ginther. It averaged 107.8 mph (173.5 km/h) and had a top speed of 142 mph
(229 km/h). American Ray Heppenstall joined Howmet Corporation and McKee Engineering
together to develop their own gas turbine sports car in 1968, the Howmet TX, which ran
several American and European events, including two wins, and also participated in the 1968
24 Hours of Le Mans. The cars used Continental gas turbines, which eventually set
six FIA land speed records for turbine-powered cars.
For open wheel racing, 1967's revolutionary STP-Paxton Turbocar fielded by racing and
entrepreneurial legend Andy Granatelli and driven by Parnelli Jones nearly won
the Indianapolis 500; the Pratt & Whitney ST6B-62 powered turbine car was almost a lap
ahead of the second place car when a gearbox bearing failed just three laps from the finish
line. The next year the STP Lotus 56 turbine car won the Indianapolis 500 pole position even
though new rules restricted the air intake dramatically. In 1971 Lotus principal Colin
Chapman introduced the Lotus 56B F1 car, powered by a Pratt & Whitney STN 6/76 gas
turbine. Chapman had a reputation of building radical championship-winning cars, but had to
abandon the project because there were too many problems with turbo lag.
Buses
The arrival of the Capstone Microturbine has led to several hybrid bus designs, starting with
HEV-1 by AVS of Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1999, and closely followed by Ebus and ISE
Research in California, and Design Line Corporation in New Zealand (and later the United
States). AVS turbine hybrids were plagued with reliability and quality control problems,
resulting in liquidation of AVS in 2003. The most successful design by Design line is now
operated in 5 cities in 6 countries, with over 30 buses in operation worldwide, and order for
several hundred being delivered to Baltimore, and NYC.
Brescia Italy is using serial hybrid buses powered by microturbines on routes through the
historical sections of the city.
Motorcycles
The MTT Turbine Superbike appeared in 2000 (hence the designation of Y2K Superbike by
MTT) and is the first production motorcycle powered by a turbine engine - specifically, a
Rolls-Royce Allison model 250 turboshaft engine, producing about 283 kW (380 bhp).
Speed-tested to 365 km/h or 227 mph (according to some stories, the testing team ran out of
road during the test), it holds the Guinness World Record for most powerful production
motorcycle and most expensive production motorcycle, with a price tag of US$185,000.
Trains
Main articles: Gas turbine-electric locomotive and Gas turbine train
Several locomotive classes have been powered by gas turbines, the most recent incarnation
being Bombardier's JetTrain.
Tanks

Marines from 1st Tank Battalion load a Honeywell AGT1500 multi-fuel turbine back into an
M1 Abrams tank at Camp Coyote, Kuwait, February 2003
The German Army's development division, the Heereswaffenamt (Army Ordnance Board),
studied a number of gas turbine engines for use in tanks starting in mid-1944. The first gas
turbine engines used for armoured fighting vehicle GT 101 was installed in the Panther
tank. The second use of a gas turbine in an armoured fighting vehicle was in 1954 when a
unit, PU2979, specifically developed for tanks by C. A. Parsons & Co., was installed and
trialled in a British Conqueror tank. The Stridsvagn 103 was developed in the 1950s and was
the first mass-produced main battle tank to use a turbine engine. Since then, gas turbine
engines have been used as APUs in some tanks and as main powerplants in Soviet/Russian T-
80s and U.S. M1 Abrams tanks, among others. They are lighter and smaller than diesels at the
same sustained power output but the models installed to date are less fuel efficient than the
equivalent diesel, especially at idle, requiring more fuel to achieve the same combat range.
Successive models of M1 have addressed this problem with battery packs or secondary
generators to power the tank's systems while stationary, saving fuel by reducing the need to
idle the main turbine. T-80s can mount three large external fuel drums to extend their range.
Russia has stopped production of the T-80 in favour of the diesel-powered T-90 (based on
the T-72), while Ukraine has developed the diesel-powered T-80UD and T-84 with nearly the
power of the gas-turbine tank. The French Leclerc MBT's diesel powerplant features the
"Hyperbar" hybrid supercharging system, where the engine's turbocharger is completely
replaced with a small gas turbine which also works as an assisted diesel exhaust turbocharger,
enabling engine RPM-independent boost level control and a higher peak boost pressure to be
reached (than with ordinary turbochargers). This system allows a smaller displacement and
lighter engine to be used as the tank's powerplant and effectively removes turbo lag. This
special gas turbine/turbocharger can also work independently from the main engine as an
ordinary APU.
A turbine is theoretically more reliable and easier to maintain than a piston engine, since it
has a simpler construction with fewer moving parts but in practice turbine parts experience a
higher wear rate due to their higher working speeds. The turbine blades are highly sensitive to
dust and fine sand, so that in desert operations air filters have to be fitted and changed several
times daily. An improperly fitted filter, or a bullet or shell fragment that punctures the filter,
can damage the engine. Piston engines (especially if turbocharged) also need well-maintained
filters, but they are more resilient if the filter does fail.
Like most modern diesel engines used in tanks, gas turbines are usually multi-fuel engines.
Marine applications
Naval

The Gas turbine from MGB 2009

Gas turbines are used in many naval vessels, where they are valued for their high power-to-
weight ratio and their ships' resulting acceleration and ability to get underway quickly.
The first gas-turbine-powered naval vessel was the Royal Navy's Motor Gun Boat MGB
2009 (formerly MGB 509) converted in 1947. Metropolitan-Vickers fitted their F2/3 jet
engine with a power turbine. The Steam Gun Boat Grey Goose was converted to Rolls-Royce
gas turbines in 1952 and operated as such from 1953. The Bold class Fast Patrol Boats Bold
Pioneer and Bold Pathfinder built in 1953 were the first ships created specifically for gas
turbine propulsion.
The first large scale, partially gas-turbine powered ships were the Royal Navy's Type
81 (Tribal class) frigates with combined steam and gas powerplants. The
first, HMS Ashanti was commissioned in 1961.
The German Navy launched the first Köln-class frigate in 1961 with 2 Brown, Boveri &
Cie gas turbines in the world's first combined diesel and gas propulsion system.
The Danish Navy had 6 Søløven-class torpedo boats (the export version of the British Brave
class fast patrol boat) in service from 1965 to 1990, which had 3 Bristol Proteus (later RR
Proteus) Marine Gas Turbines rated at 9,510 kW (12,750 shp) combined, plus two General
Motors Diesel engines, rated at 340 kW (460 shp), for better fuel economy at slower
speeds. And they also produced 10 Willemoes Class Torpedo / Guided Missile boats (in
service from 1974 to 2000) which had 3 Rolls Royce Marine Proteus Gas Turbines also rated
at 9,510 kW (12,750 shp), same as the Søløven-class boats, and 2 General Motors Diesel
Engines, rated at 600 kW (800 shp), also for improved fuel economy at slow speeds.
The Swedish Navy produced 6 Spica-class torpedo boats between 1966 and 1967 powered by
3 Bristol Siddeley Proteus 1282 turbines, each delivering 3,210 kW (4,300 shp). They were
later joined by 12 upgraded Norrköping class ships, still with the same engines. With their aft
torpedo tubes replaced by antishipping missiles they served as missile boats until the last was
retired in 2005
The Finnish Navy commissioned two Turunmaa-class corvettes, Turunmaa and Karjala, in
1968. They were equipped with one 16,410 kW (22,000 shp) Rolls-Royce Olympus TM1 gas
turbine and three Wärtsilä marine diesels for slower speeds. They were the fastest vessels in
the Finnish Navy; they regularly achieved speeds of 35 knots, and 37.3 knots during sea
trials. The Turunmaas were paid off in 2002. Karjala is today a museum ship in Turku,
and Turunmaa serves as a floating machine shop and training ship for Katakana Polytechnical
College.
The next series of major naval vessels were the four Canadian Iroquois-class helicopter
carrying destroyers first commissioned in 1972. They used 2 ft-4 main propulsion engines,
2 ft-12 cruise engines and 3 Solar Saturn 750 kW generators.

An LM2500 gas turbine on USS Ford

The first U.S. gas-turbine powered ship was the U.S. Coast Guard's Point Thatcher, a cutter
commissioned in 1961 that was powered by two 750 kW (1,000 shp) turbines utilizing
controllable-pitch propellers.[67] The larger Hamilton-class High Endurance Cutters, was the
first class of larger cutters to utilize gas turbines, the first of which (USCGC Hamilton) was
commissioned in 1967. Since then, they have powered the U.S. Navy's Oliver Hazard Perry-
class frigates, Spruance and Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, and Ticonderoga-class guided
missile cruisers. USS Makin Island, a modified Wasp-class amphibious assault ship, is to be
the Navy's first amphibious assault ship powered by gas turbines. The marine gas turbine
operates in a more corrosive atmosphere due to presence of sea salt in air and fuel and use of
cheaper fuels.
Civilian maritime
Up to the late 1940s much of the progress on marine gas turbines all over the world took
place in design offices and engine builder's workshops and development work was led by the
British Royal Navy and other Navies. While interest in the gas turbine for marine purposes,
both naval and mercantile, continued to increase, the lack of availability of the results of
operating experience on early gas turbine projects limited the number of new ventures on
seagoing commercial vessels being embarked upon. In 1951, the Diesel-electric oil
tanker Auris, 12,290 Deadweight tonnage (DWT) was used to obtain operating experience
with a main propulsion gas turbine under service conditions at sea and so became the first
ocean-going merchant ship to be powered by a gas turbine. Built by Hawthorn
Leslie at Hebburn-on-Tyne, UK, in accordance with plans and specifications drawn up by
the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company and launched on the UK's Princess Elizabeth's 21st
birthday in 1947, the ship was designed with an engine room layout that would allow for the
experimental use of heavy fuel in one of its high-speed engines, as well as the future
substitution of one of its diesel engines by a gas turbine. The Auris operated commercially as
a tanker for three-and-a-half years with a diesel-electric propulsion unit as originally
commissioned, but in 1951 one of its four 824 kW (1,105 bhp) diesel engines – which were
known as "Faith", "Hope", "Charity" and "Prudence" - was replaced by the world’s first
marine gas turbine engine, a 890 kW (1,200 bhp) open-cycle gas turbo-alternator built by
British Thomson-Houston Company in Rugby. Following successful sea trials off the
Northumbrian coast, the Auris set sail from Hebburn-on-Tyne in October 1951 bound
for Port Arthur in the US and then Curacao in the southern Caribbean returning
to Avonmouth after 44 days at sea, successfully completing her historic trans-Atlantic
crossing. During this time at sea the gas turbine burnt diesel fuel and operated without an
involuntary stop or mechanical difficulty of any kind. She subsequently visited Swansea,
Hull, Rotterdam, Oslo and Southampton covering a total of 13,211 nautical miles.
The Auris then had all of its power plants replaced with a 3,910 kW (5,250 shp) directly
coupled gas turbine to become the first civilian ship to operate solely on gas turbine power.
Despite the success of this early experimental voyage the gas turbine was not to replace the
diesel engine as the propulsion plant for large merchant ships. At constant cruising speeds the
diesel engine simply had no peer in the vital area of fuel economy. The gas turbine did have
more success in Royal Navy ships and the other naval fleets of the world where sudden and
rapid changes of speed are required by warships in action.
The United States Maritime Commission were looking for options to update WWII Liberty
ships, and heavy-duty gas turbines were one of those selected. In 1956 the John Sergeant was
lengthened and equipped with a General Electric 4,900 kW (6,600 shp) HD gas turbine with
exhaust-gas regeneration, reduction gearing and a variable-pitch propeller. It operated for
9,700 hours using residual fuel(Bunker C) for 7,000 hours. Fuel efficiency was on a par with
steam propulsion at 0.318 kg/kW (0.523 lb/hp) per hour, and power output was higher than
expected at 5,603 kW (7,514 shp) due to the ambient temperature of the North Sea route
being lower than the design temperature of the gas turbine. This gave the ship a speed
capability of 18 knots, up from 11 knots with the original power plant, and well in excess of
the 15 knot targeted. The ship made its first transatlantic crossing with an average speed of
16.8 knots, in spite of some rough weather along the way. Suitable Bunker C fuel was only
available at limited ports because the quality of the fuel was of a critical nature. The fuel oil
also had to be treated on board to reduce contaminants and this was a labour-intensive
process that was not suitable for automation at the time. Ultimately, the variable-pitch
propeller, which was of a new and untested design, ended the trial, as three consecutive
annual inspections revealed stress-cracking. This did not reflect poorly on the marine-
propulsion gas-turbine concept though, and the trial was a success overall. The success of this
trial opened the way for more development by GE on the use of HD gas turbines for marine
use with heavy fuels. The John Sergeant was scrapped in 1972 at Portsmouth PA.

Boeing Jetfoil 929-100-007 Urzela of TurboJET

Boeing launched its first passenger-carrying waterjet-propelled hydrofoil Boeing 929, in
April 1974. Those ships were powered by two Allison 501-KF gas turbines.
Between 1971 and 1981, Seatrain Lines operated a scheduled container service between ports
on the eastern seaboard of the United States and ports in northwest Europe across the North
Atlantic with four container ships of 26,000 tonnes DWT. Those ships were powered by
twin Pratt & Whitney gas turbines of the FT 4 series. The four ships in the class were
named Euroliner, Eurofreighter, Asialiner and Asiafreighter. Following the
dramatic Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) price increases of the
mid-1970s, operations were constrained by rising fuel costs. Some modification of the engine
systems on those ships was undertaken to permit the burning of a lower grade of fuel
(i.e., marine diesel). Reduction of fuel costs was successful using a different untested fuel in a
marine gas turbine but maintenance costs increased with the fuel change. After 1981 the ships
were sold and refitted with, what at the time, was more economical diesel-fuelled engines but
the increased engine size reduced cargo space.
The first passenger ferry to use a gas turbine was the GTS Finnjet, built in 1977 and powered
by two Pratt & Whitney FT 4C-1 DLF turbines, generating 55,000 kW (74,000 shp) and
propelling the ship to a speed of 31 knots. However, the Finnjet also illustrated the
shortcomings of gas turbine propulsion in commercial craft, as high fuel prices made
operating her unprofitable. After four years of service additional diesel engines were installed
on the ship to reduce running costs during the off-season. The Finnjet was also the first ship
with a Combined diesel-electric and gas propulsion. Another example of commercial usage
of gas turbines in a passenger ship is Stena Line's HSS class fastcraft ferries. HSS 1500-
class Stena Explorer, Stena Voyager and Stena Discovery vessels use combined gas and
gas setups of twin GE LM2500 plus GE LM1600 power for a total of 68,000 kW
(91,000 shp). The slightly smaller HSS 900-class Stena Carisma, uses twin ABB–
STAL (sv) GT35 turbines rated at 34,000 kW (46,000 shp) gross. The Stena Discovery was
withdrawn from service in 2007, another victim of too high fuel costs.
In July 2000 the Millennium became the first cruise ship to be propelled by gas turbines, in
a Combined Gas and Steam Turbine configuration. The liner RMS Queen Mary 2 uses
a Combined Diesel and Gas Turbine configuration.
In marine racing applications, the 2010 C5000 Mystic catamaran Miss GEICO uses two
Lycoming T-55 turbines for its power system.
ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY
Gas turbine technology has steadily advanced since its inception and continues to evolve.
Development is actively producing both smaller gas turbines and more powerful and efficient
engines. Aiding in these advances are computer based design (specifically CFD and finite
element analysis) and the development of advanced materials: Base materials with superior
high temperature strength (e.g., single-crystal super alloys that exhibit yield strength
anomaly) or thermal barrier coatings that protect the structural material from ever-higher
temperatures. These advances allow higher compression ratios and turbine inlet temperatures,
more efficient combustion and better cooling of engine parts.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has contributed to substantial improvements in the
performance and efficiency of Gas Turbine engine components through enhanced
understanding of the complex viscous flow and heat transfer phenomena involved. For this
reason, CFD is one of the key computational tool used in Design & development of
gas turbine engines.
The simple-cycle efficiencies of early gas turbines were practically doubled by incorporating
inter-cooling, regeneration (or recuperation), and reheating. These improvements, of course,
come at the expense of increased initial and operation costs, and they cannot be justified
unless the decrease in fuel costs offsets the increase in other costs. The relatively low fuel
prices, the general desire in the industry to minimize installation costs, and the tremendous
increase in the simple-cycle efficiency to about 40 percent left little desire for opting for these
modifications.
On the emissions side, the challenge is to increase turbine inlet temperatures while at the
same time reducing peak flame temperature in order to achieve lower NOx emissions and
meet the latest emission regulations. In May 2011, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries achieved a
turbine inlet temperature of 1,600 °C on a 320 megawatt gas turbine, and 460 MW in gas
turbine combined-cycle power generation applications in which gross thermal
efficiency exceeds 60%.
Compliant foil bearings were commercially introduced to gas turbines in the 1990s. These
can withstand over a hundred thousand start/stop cycles and have eliminated the need for an
oil system. The application of microelectronics and power switching technology have enabled
the development of commercially viable electricity generation by micro turbines for
distribution and vehicle propulsion.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES
The following are advantages and disadvantages of gas-turbine engines.
Advantages
Very high power-to-weight ratio, compared to reciprocating engines
Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating
Smooth rotation of the main shaft produces far less vibration than a reciprocating engine
Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines results in lower maintenance cost and higher
reliability/availability over its service life.
Greater reliability, particularly in applications where sustained high-power output is required
Waste heat is dissipated almost entirely in the exhaust. This results in a high temperature
exhaust stream that is very usable for boiling water in a combined cycle, or for cogeneration
Lower peak combustion pressures than reciprocating engines in general
High shaft speeds in smaller "free turbine units" although larger gas turbines employed in
power generation operate at synchronous speeds.
Low lubricating oil cost and consumption
Can run on a wide variety of fuels
Very low toxic emissions of CO and HC due to excess air, complete combustion and no
"quench" of the flame on cold surfaces
Disadvantages
Core engine costs can be high due to use of exotic materials.
Less efficient than reciprocating engines at idle speed
Longer startup than reciprocating engines
Less responsive to changes in power demand compared with reciprocating engines
Characteristic whine can be hard to suppress

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the gas turbine represents a cost-effective resource for the Balance-of-Plant in
the fuel cell system, because of its energy conversion performance and the availability as off-
the-shelf equipment.