Lipids: C + H + O

- Little O, lots of H
- Formed of glycerol and fatty acids:
Triglyceride:

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Differences in structure:
Saturated: Fatty acids with all H atoms they can possible hold
Unsaturated: fatty acids with one (mono) or two or more (poly) double bonds
Most abundant monounsaturated is OLEIC ACID
Omega- 6 is 6 carbons and double bond

Omega 3 is 3 C and double bond

Essential fatty acids:

Linoneic (n-6)
Linolenic (n-3)

Phospholipids are great emulsifiers:

they have water soluble ends and a fat soluble end

• Saturated
Linked to increased risk od CVD as the more TG in blood the more LDL it needs to
carry TG around
• More LDL in blood – plaque build up – INCREASED CVD risk
Solid at room temp
Good baked products
Longer shelf life
Expensive (usually)
Flaky pie crusts, Creamy puddings
Recommendation is < 10%
Sources: ANIMAL FOODS

• Unsaturated
Liquid at room temp
Short shelf life  rancidity
Cannot be used in many commercial baked goods
Cheap to produce
• Trans (unsaturated)
Solid at room temp
Cheap to produce
Keep liquid oils from going rancid
Good baked products
Flaky pie crusts
Creamy puddings
Longer shelf life
• Monounsaturated:
Reduces LDL levels
Sources: olives and olive oil, canola oil, avocados, nuts
Recommendation: enjoy within kcal
One carbon double bond and its bent – which allows it to be liquid at room
temperature
  Polyunsaturated:
Recommendation: eat more than SFA
Omega-3
o Reduces inflammation
o Sources: fatty fish – salmon, trout, herring, mackerel,
flax seed, canola oil, walnut
Omega-6
o Reduced risk of CVD
o Sources: vegetable oils, corn oils, seed oils

HYDROGENATION:
Why are oils hydrogenated?
- Can be heated higher without smoking – higher smoke point
- Increases shelf life
- Contributes to flaky pie crusts and creamy puddings
- Tender, creamy, flaky
- Cheap
Proccess:
- At high temperatures, hydrogen is pumped into unsaturated fats
- Double bond breaks and some accept the H and become saturated
- Some don’t become saturated but reform as trans bond, which acts and
looks like a saturated
- Trans vs Cis: same structure but different geometric configuration
 - Cis is bent , trans is straight
- This difference create different physical and chemical properties

Interesterification:
- Treatment of a fat to get desirable blend without the health concerns.
May be just as harmful
- Examples
o Sex (testosterone, estrogen)
o Adrenal (cortisol)
o Vitamin D
o Cholesterol (only from animal origin foods)
o Plant sterols and stanols
o Naturally found in plant
Cholesterol:

Nutrient Profile:
• 9 kcal/g
• 1 teaspoon ≈ 40 kcal
• 1 tablespoon ≈ 120 kcal
• Varies by source, depends on lipid content
Ex: 1 tablespoon butter = 100 kcal
Ex: 1 tablespoon olive oil = 120 kcal
Ex: 1 tablespoon lard = 115 kcal
Ex: 1 tablespoon vegetable oil = 120 kcal
STRUCTURE OF TOPICS FOR STUDY PURPOSE:
• Oils: vegetable, canola (rapeseed), safflower,
sunflower, corn, olive, peanut, grape seed,
soybean, blended
• Spreads: butter, margarine, nut butters
• Plant sterols
• Rendered animal fat: lard and tallow
• Synthetic fats: sucrose polyester (Olestra)
• Fat replacers: CHO-based, pro-based, structured lipids

 Butter: water in oil emulsion, churned to reverse emulsion of cream

Reason why color is more yellow: Vitamin A, color becomes
more visible when fat is on the outside
 Plant Sterols: reduces risk of CVD
Ex.: Benecol, take control, healthy heart yogur, lifetime
low fat cheese, minute maid premium OJ, Nature Valley
Hearty granola bar
  Rendered animal fats:
o Rendering = heating whole fatty tissue into
purified fat products
o Lard, tallow
MANUFACTURING FATS / OILS:
Oils from plants (w/o heat):
Expeller pressed:
– cold pressing at high pressure
– creation of high pressure creates some heat (but not as much as hot pressing)
Cold pressed:
-Mechanically pressed:
- High quality oil - most flavor, but not as much is extracted
Olive oil – Extra virgin and Virgin Olive Oil – only from 1st cold pressing of olives
Hot pressing:
- Hot steam warms tissues to ~ 70 degreed C
- Not as good quality: presence of gums with the interaction between lipds and
water, off-flavor overtones, FFA
-Chemical solvents:
-cheapest
-loses nutrients and flavor; inexpensive commercial brands
-most non-olive oils
 FUNCTIONAL ROLES OF FATS
Color and appearance:
-Pigments (butter, milk)
-Oil coating (chicken, pastries, chocolate)
Satiety (feeling full)
-Take longer to digest than CHO
-Delay stomach emptying
Flavor:
-richness, unique taste/aromas
-Butter – butyric- so desirable – most margarines have butter flavoring added
Olive oil – Some chosen for neutral flavor

 Cooking medium: HEAT TRANSFER - CONDUCTION

- Transfer heat to foods without burning them
- Cooks food fast due to the high temperatures of which oil can
be heated
-
- Minimal: sautéing:
- Moderate: pan-frying
- Submersion: deep-frying
-
- Oils generally chosen for frying – except olive oil due to lower
smoking point
- Flavor, appearance, and smoke point of oil changes when
overused due to the water loss from foods being fried –
UNDESIRABLE
- Prevents foods from sticking
Deep frying is a dehydration process:
o Intense heat of the fat on the surface of food evaporates
water quickly into the cooking medium = prevents
burning on surface
o Water loss causes mass transfer within food = water
from inside towards surface to replace water loss –
where some escape the food = avoids burning on the
surface (surface is about 100 degrees Celsius, regardless
of oil temp)
o Water beneath surface helps conduct heat to inside of
food
o Oil is absorbed by food: maintain frying temp 175, don’t
cook too much food at the same time, right temp before
putting food in
- Oil enters food – although as little as possible should be
absorbed – controlled by the temperature and batter (more
sugar and fat in batter more absorption
- Crust is formed: crust is where fat/calories are

Texturizing:

Shortening Power: ability of fat to cover a large surface area to minimize the
contact between water and gluten during the mixing of batters and doughs
- = Softer, more tender
- Essential to pastries, pie crusts, biscuits, cakes
- ↑ saturation ↑ shortening power
- Separates starch and protein
- Melts into dough when heated = air space
- Smooth, creamy mouthfeel
- Lubricating
- Crisp texture = frying at high T
This is why pastries and pies are so flaky, and why butter and shortening are really
important for good pastry and pie crusts (high level of saturation  greater
shortening power). This is also why you get that melt-in-your mouth feel from
pies and pastries.
Emulsifiers:
- Liquid in liquid that are immiscible
- Oil in water: most common foods
- Water in oil: butter
- Examples: Diglycerides, monoglycerides, Phospholipids
-
Triglycerides themselves aren’t good emulsifiers, because there
are no water-soluble ends. Lipids that also have water-soluble
ends (like mono- and diglycerides, which have the OH groups on
the glycerol backbone, or phospholipids, which have the
phosphorus group) are the emulsifiers.

PROPERTIES:
Melting point: temperature at which fat goes from solid to liquid form
- Influenced by: CHAIN LENGTH & DEGREE OF UNSATURATION
-
- More saturated  higher melting point (think butter vs. veg
oil) (double bond creates a kink which makes it harder for FA
to fit together)
- Longer length  higher melting point (think coconut oil, with
short length SFA vs. lard, with longer length SFA) (more
attraction points between fatty acid molecules, so more
energy required to separate them)
 Long chain more likely to be solid at room
temperature, higher melting point
- Trans  higher melting point, cis  lower melting point
(bigger kink with cis than with trans)
 - Trans is more linear so it’s easier for molecules to approach
each other – crystallize – more energy to melt = higher melting
point
- Cis is bent so more difficult for molecule so lower m.p.
- LEAST STABLE: lowest melting point
- MOST STABLE: highest melting point

DETERIORATION OF FATS:
 Oxidative Rancidity:
- Development of off flavors and odors in fats as a result
of the uptake of oxygen and the formation of peroxides,
hydroperoxides, and other compounds
- Causes: heat, light, certain metals, oxygen
Oxidation reaction keeps generating additional free radicals
Antioxidants donate a H atom from their own molecule to react either with a free
radical of a fatty acid or to a peroxide that has already formed.
The antioxidant’s H atom given to the free radical results in the return to the
original fatty acid.
If the antioxidant’s H atom unites with the peroxide, a stable hydrogen peroxide
forms.
In either of the previous cases, a fairly stable molecule is formed and the
autocatalytic reaction is blocked.
Examples:
Synthetic: TBHQ (Good for heated and non-heated oils) BHA (good for animal
fats), BHT (good for animal fats, but not oils) & propyl gallate (PG) (synergistic
with either BHA and BHT).
Prevention: store in cool dark environment; limit oxygen exposure, synthetic
antioxidants (above); avoid heat
Hydrolytic rancidity:
 - LIPOLYSIS: Action of lipase or heat causes the uptake of
a water molecule and liberation of FFA and glycerol
- Happens in deep frying where temp is hot and wet food
in in hot fat
- Meat and dairy products – TG undergo lipolysis as well
- Prevention: storage (no heat), lipase inactivation, dry
food before frying
Polymerization:
- FFA formed from lipolysis undergo additional
modification when subjected to intense heat for a long
period of time
- FFA form polymers of various lengths and sizes
- Larger polymers – more viscous and darker the oil
- Polymers: darken oil, increase viscosity, lower smoke
point, cause foaming, foods absorb more oil
- Prevention: same as above
Flavor reversion:
- Oxidation of little amount of linoleic and linolenic acid
- Result: beany or fishy odor and flavor
- Affects: soybean, rapeseed, and fish oils

REDUCING FAT
• Is this a good goal? Reducing fat does not necessarily improve the nutrient
profile and will affect flavor.
• Questions to ask:
What kind of fat is being used in the first place (If it’s a good choice, why replace
it?)
What is the fat being replaced with? (Sugar? Other refined CHOs?)
How is the quality of the food affected? (Only a little is different, or a lot? Will I
eat more to compensate for reduced quality?)
Can I just eat less of the real thing?
50% less fat usually means 85% of calories!
• In cooking
Moist-heat and dry-heat preparation methods
Sautéing and stir-frying instead of pan-frying and deep-frying
• In recipes
Know the contributors, and use less: meat, dairy products, fats and oils, avocado,
coconut, olives, nuts, seeds
Fruit purees for ½ of fat
Single crust instead of double crust
Change the condiments

Fat replacers:
Gels are good fat replacers
o Carbohydrate-based
- Starch combined other ingredients such as gums
- Can cook with it!
- fibers, gums, pectin, cellulose, starches (bind with water,
impart some texture, mouthfeel)
- Examples: (know this) Stellar, Oatrim, Rice trin 3
complete.

o Protein-based
- Milk (whey) or egg proteins, isolated soy proteins
- Simplesse – know this
 - Can’t cook with it
-
o Lipid-based (chemically modified lipids)
- Extenders (dilute)
- Reduces absorption of A and E
- Side effects: diarrhea, cramps, gas
- Example: synthetic fat Sucrose Polyester
 Cross between CHO and Fat
 Molecule that can not be digested (0 cal)
 PROS! Know this:
1- it is a good fat replacers - taste and feel
2- no calories available to us
3- binds fat-soluble vitamins

- Other example: STRUCTURED LIPIDS

 Salatrim, Caprenin
 5 kcal/g
 Bind with fat soluble vitamins ADEK