OECD WORK ON

Biodiversity
and
ecosystems
OECD WORK ON

Biodiversity
and ecosystems
“We urgently need more ambitious and
effective policies to promote biodiversity
conservation and sustainable use.”
Simon Upton, Environment Director, OECD

2014
Contents
Biodiversity in the international context 6

Economic and policy analysis of biodiversity 8

Biodiversity indicators, valuation and assessment 8
Economic instruments, incentives and policies for biodiversity 10
Biodiversity finance, development and distributional issues 12

Sector-specific analysis 16
Biodiversity and Climate change 16
Biodiversity and Water 17
Biodiversity and Agriculture 17
Biodiversity and Fisheries 18
Biodiversity and Biotechnology 19

Publications and reports 24

www.oecd.org/env/biodiversity
Biodiversity is fundamental to sustaining life, supplying critical
ecosystem services such as food provisioning, water purification,
flood and drought control, nutrient cycling, and climate regulation.
These services are essential to support human well-being and
economic growth. Yet despite the significant economic, social and
cultural values of biodiversity and ecosystem services, biodiversity
worldwide is being lost, and in some areas at an accelerating rate.

4 . OECD WORK ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS

 The organisation for economic
co-operation and development

The OECD is a multi-disciplinary inter-

governmental organisation, tracing its roots
back to the post-World War II Marshall Plan.
Today, it comprises 34 member countries
committed to democratic government
and the market economy, with the major
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has been
emerging economies increasingly engaged in
working on the economics and policies related to biodiversity for more than two decades.
The OECD supports governments by providing the analytical foundation to develop policies the work. A unique forum, the OECD provides
that promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Such policies must be the analytical capacity and comparative
environmentally effective, economically efficient, and distributionally equitable. data to assist governments in evaluating
A central challenge in responding to biodiversity loss and degradation is the integration and exchanging policy experiences and to
and mainstreaming of biodiversity policy objectives into economic development strategies identify, recommend and promote cost-
and sectoral policies. effective policy practices.

In the wake of the economic crisis, the OECD is also looking at how measures that
governments are taking to spur economic growth can best be formulated so that they
support – or at least, do not work against – the objectives of moving towards a green, low-
carbon and biodiversity-rich economy. The OECD is in a unique position to assist countries
in putting biodiversity conservation and sustainable use policies on a solid economic
footing consistent with green growth. Work on biodiversity is underway across the OECD,
engaging government representatives from a wide range of ministries. This brochure
provides an overview of the recent and on-going OECD work on biodiversity.

OECD WORK ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS . 5

Biodiversity in the
international context
Biodiversity is defined as the “variability among living organisms from In 2002, parties to the CBD adopted a strategic plan “to achieve
all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity
ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this loss at the global, regional and national level as a contribution
includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems” to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth”
(CBD, 1992). (the 2010 target; Decision VI/26). This target was subsequently
endorsed by the World Summit on Sustainable Development
The three ultimate objectives of the 1992 UN Convention on and incorporated as a target under the Millennium
Biological Diversity (CBD) are: Development Goals. It is widely acknowledged however, that
1. the conservation of biological diversity; the 2010 biodiversity target was not met. Recognising the
2. the sustainable use of its components; importance of this global environment problem, the United
3. the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the Nations General Assembly declared 2011-20 the United Nations
utilisation of genetic resources. Decade on Biodiversity.

6 . OECD WORK ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS

USD 150-440 billion per year
The finance needs estimated for implementing the
twenty Aichi Biodiversity Targets.

The tenth meeting of the Conference of Parties (COP-10) to the CBD in

2010, held in Nagoya, Japan, led to the successful agreement on a revised
Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the Aichi Biodiversity
Targets. In addition, Parties adopted a Strategy for Resource Mobilisation,
a consolidated list of guidance to the financial mechanism, and an
international regime for Access and Benefits Sharing (i.e. for the
equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic
resources). CBD COP-11 in October 2012, in Hyderabad, India focused
on addressing implementation issues and established, for example, an
indicator framework to monitor progress on the implementation of the
Aichi Biodiversity Targets and the Strategy for Resource Mobilisation.
The OECD’s analysis supports the work of the CBD.

OECD WORK ON BIODIVERSITY IN THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT . 7

Economic and policy analysis USD 192 billion
The worldwide economic value of

of biodiversity pollination services provided by insect

pollinators, estimated in 2005

Biodiversity indicators, valuation fragmentation, as well as invasive alien species,

and assessment pollution (e.g. nitrogen deposition) and climate change.

Economic and policy analysis by the OECD focuses on Key priorities identified for biodiversity in the
the valuation of biodiversity, and the use of economic Outlook include adopting more ambitious policy
instruments, incentives and other policies to promote measures and scaling up private-sector engagement,
the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and mainstreaming biodiversity into other policy areas,
associated ecosystem services. reforming environmentally harmful subsidies, and
improving the quantity and quality of data to inform
Biodiversity indicators and economic valuation enable the biodiversity policy.
quantifiable assessment and comparison of biodiversity benefits
across space and time. This is essential for the design and In February 2013, the OECD organised a seminar, jointly with
implementation of effective biodiversity policies. The OECD’s France’s General Commission for Sustainable Development, on
work evaluates best practice in the use of biodiversity indicators The assessment of ecosystem services and its role in public
and valuation for policy, and regularly provides economic and policy-making. Highlighting examples of how valuation has
environmental analysis of biodiversity trends and outlooks, including been used in public policy, discussion at the seminar focused
modelling-based analysis. on how to strengthen the impact of ecosystem assessments.
A report on “The role of national ecosystem assessments in
The OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050: The Consequences of Inaction influencing policy making” is due in 2014.
(2012) focused on four environmental themes, identified as most
critical in previous OECD work, of which biodiversity is one. The main Current work underway at the OECD on biodiversity indicators
drivers of projected global biodiversity loss are land use change and is looking at types of policy response indicators that may
management (e.g. for pasture, food crops and bioenergy), commercial contribute to measuring progress towards Aichi Biodiversity
forestry, infrastructure development, habitat encroachment and Target 3 (on incentives) and Target 20 (on resource mobilisation).

8 . OECD WORK ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS

Effects of different pressures on terrestrial MSA: Baseline, 2010 to 2050 Other OECD work on biodiversity includes the
MSA (%) country-specific Environmental Performance
100 Reviews (EPRs). The EPRs examine actions
taken by countries to meet both domestic
objectives and international commitments,
including in the area of nature and
Infrastructure,
90 encroachment biodiversity management. Recent country
and fragmentation reviews with chapters on biodiversity include
Climate change Norway, Israel, Mexico, South Africa and
Columbia. Two reviews that are currently underway will also examine
Mean Species Abundance (MSA)

Nitrogen biodiversity: the review of Spain will have a biodiversity chapter

80
while the review of Poland will focus on forestry and biodiversity. In
Former land use addition, the review of Sweden, also underway, will include a chapter
on marine ecosystem services. These biodiversity chapters focus on
Forestry cost-effective ways to manage conservation and sustainable use, as
70 well as approaches to better integrate biodiversity and other policies,
Pasture e.g. for water management, agriculture, and forestry.
Key links:
Bioenergy www.oecd.org/env/biodiversity www.oecd.org/env/indicators
www.oecd.org/environment/outlookto2050 www.oecd.org/env/countryreviews
60
Food crop
Did you know...?
Remaining MSA
The Environmental Outlook projects that, without
0-50 renewed efforts to halt the loss of biodiversity,
2010 2030 2050
a further 10% of biodiversity (measured in
World
terrestrial Mean Species Abundance) will be lost
Source: OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050, OECD, 2012. by 2050, from 2010 levels.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888932570943

ECONOMIC AND POLICY ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY . 9

Economic instruments, incentives strengthened since its adoption. Aiming to support policy
and policies for biodiversity makers, the report provides an overview of what economic
instruments are more commonly used for particular policy
The local, regional, and global public objectives and across different areas, as well as when and
good benefits of biodiversity are often where economic instruments are less frequently applied, thus
undervalued in the market. This leads to identifying where further progress is needed.
excess biodiversity loss and degradation.
The OECD’s work analyses how market and government failures can A 2010 OECD publication, Paying for
be addressed through the use of cost-effective policy instruments Biodiversity: Enhancing the Cost-Effectiveness
to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, of Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES),
ecosystem services and other natural resources. identifies good practice in the design and
implementation of PES programmes so as to
The OECD’s long-standing work on economic instruments resulted enhance their environmental effectiveness
in the adoption, in 2004, of an OECD Council Recommendation on at a lower economic cost. Drawing on theory
the Use of Economic Instruments in Promoting the Conservation and more than 30 case studies worldwide, the
and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity. A 2008 report on the publication highlights lessons learned from
implementation of that Council Recommendation takes stock of existing programmes and insights on how to
the economic instruments that have been introduced or further make PES more environmentally and cost effective. An expert
workshop on this issue was convened in March 2010.

Did you know...?

There are more than 300 PES programmes
implemented worldwide and five national
PES programmes alone are channelling
more than USD 6.5 billion annually.

10 . OECD WORK ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS

The OECD is currently examining biodiversity offsets. Key questions
this work intends to address include:

l What are biodiversity offsets and how do they work?

l How do they compare relative to other instruments available for

biodiversity conservation and sustainable use, and how have
existing programmes fared to date?

l What are the key design and implementation features that

need to be considered to ensure that they are environmentally
effective, economically efficient, and distributionally equitable?

l What lessons and insights can be derived for good practice?

As part of this work, the OECD convened an international expert

workshop on Biodiversity Offsets: Examining Opportunities and
Challenges, on 6-7 November, 2013. The workshop brought together
governments, the private sector, IGOs and NGOs, as well as other
experts and practitioners, to exchange experiences and lessons
learned associated with biodiversity offset schemes. It examined the
technical and analytical issues related to their effective design and
implementation and aimed to derive insights on and examples of
good practice. Insights from the workshop will feed into the OECD
publication on biodiversity offsets (due in 2014).

Key links:
www.oecd.org/env/biodiversity/pes
www.oecd.org/env/biodiversity-offsets-workshop.htm

ECONOMIC AND POLICY ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY . 11

Biodiversity finance, development finance. The workshop aimed to foster an informal dialogue
and distributional issues on key opportunities and challenges associated with finance
mechanisms and to examine the technical and analytical issues
The conservation and sustainable use related to their effective design and implementation.
of biodiversity requires finance and
investment from the public and private An OECD publication, entitled Scaling-up
sector. OECD work considers how these Finance Mechanisms for Biodiversity, was
financial flows can be scaled-up, while enhancing the cost- released in 2013. The book considers
effectiveness of existing biodiversity financing. opportunities for scaling-up finance for
biodiversity from six so-called “innovative
In May 2012, a workshop on Finance Mechanisms for Biodiversity: financial mechanisms’’, as classified under the
Examining Opportunities and Challenges, was convened by the OECD, Convention on Biological Diversity:
World Bank, GEF, European Commission, together with Sweden
and India in Montreal, Canada. The workshop brought together l environmental fiscal reform;
participants from governments, experts and practitioners from
l payments for ecosystem services;
a wide range of countries to exchange views and experiences
with different types of finance mechanisms for biodiversity, and l biodiversity offsets;
to explore the most promising avenues for effectively scaling up
l markets for green products;

l biodiversity in climate change funding;

Did you know...? l biodiversity in international development finance.

There are more than 50 biodiversity offset

programmes in place around the world.
In 2011, these mobilised between USD 2.4
and 4 billion.

12 . OECD WORK ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS

Drawing on literature and more than 40 case studies worldwide, the The distributional implications of biodiversity policies (which can
publication addresses the following questions: create both winners and loser) are also critical, as are the linkages
between biodiversity and development. Though biodiversity policies
l What are these finance mechanisms and how do they work?
can create significant public benefits and contribute to social well-
l How much finance have they mobilised and what potential is being, their implementation often benefits different groups to a
there to scale this up? greater or lesser degree. The source of these so-called distributive
effects lies in the policies’ objectives, and the choice and
l What are the key design and implementation issues –
implementation of policy instruments. Distributive effects influence
including environmental and social safeguards – that need
the viability of biodiversity policies. Significant negative impacts
to be addressed so that governments can help ensure these
on specific groups can lead to policies being derailed, even if they
mechanisms are environmentally effective, economically
make a large number of people better off. With sufficient planning,
efficient, and distributionally equitable?
however, potential problems can be identified and addressed.

Combining analysis and a wealth of case studies,

the 2008 OECD publication, People and Biodiversity
Policies: Impacts, Issues and Strategies for Policy
Action offers concepts and tools for addressing
distributive issues within a biodiversity policy
context. It aims to help policy makers put
together strategies for anticipating distributive
impacts across different groups; and for selecting
processes and instruments that manage
distributive impacts without compromising
conservation and sustainable use objectives.

ECONOMIC AND POLICY ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY . 13

Natural capital constitutes a quarter of total wealth in low-income Trends in biodiversity-related aid, two-year averages
countries. OECD’s 2008 book, Natural Resources and Pro-Poor Growth: 2006-2011, bilateral commitments, USD billion, constant 2011 prices
The Economics and Politics, demonstrates that natural resources can 7.0 6%
contribute to growth, employment, exports and fiscal revenues. It
emphasises the need to focus on the political challenges of natural
resource management for long-term pro-poor economic growth, by 6.0
5%
encouraging policies for the sustainable management of resources.

The OECD tracks bilateral aid in support of biodiversity. The 5.0

4%

Share of total ODA (%)

developed countries that signed the three Rio Conventions in
1992 committed themselves to assist developing countries in

USD billions
4.0
the implementation of these Conventions. Since 1998 the OECD
Development Assistance Committee1 (DAC) has monitored 3%
aid targeting the objectives of the Rio Conventions through its 3.0
“Creditor Reporting System” using the so called “Rio markers”
including the Rio marker on biodiversity. Biodiversity-related 2%
aid is defined as activities that promote at least one of the three 2.0
objectives of the CBD.
1%
1.0

Did you know...?

0.0 0%
2006-07 2008-09 2010-11
Roughly half of the aid that DAC
members commit to biodiversity every Significant Principal Biodiversity-related
year targets agriculture, forestry, fishing, share of total ODA
Source: OECD DAC Statistics (2013)
rural development, and water supply and
1. T he OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) is an international forum of many of the largest funders of
sanitation. aid. It comprises 29 members; 28 donor governments plus the European Union. The World Bank, IMF and UNDP
participate as observers.

14 . OECD WORK ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS

New work has recently begun to review and improve the Rio markers into Development Co-operation”. It outlines 30 key actions that
in environment and development finance statistics. The overarching international donors can take towards halting the loss of biodiversity
goal is to ensure that DAC methodologies and data remain the and associated ecosystems.
reference for the international community in measuring official
development assistance (ODA) and other non-export credit other The OECD is currently developing a paper on “Biodiversity and
official flows related to climate change, biodiversity, desertification Development Co-operation” (due in 2014). This will review key statistics
and other environmental concerns. This will be achieved through and characteristics of ODA to biodiversity in partner developing
improving communications and outreach on the Rio markers, countries, assessing its alignment with the needs and priorities of
reviewing options to improve the quality and robustness of the Rio partner countries. The frameworks, strategies and mechanisms that
markers and their implementation, and increasing transparency and donor agencies use to mainstream biodiversity into development
accountability in reporting against the Rio Conventions (UNFCCC, CBD, planning in partner countries and into development co-operation
UNCCD). activities will also be examined. Furthermore, the paper will look
at mechanisms to effectively manage the synergies and trade-offs
In 2010, the OECD DAC developed and endorsed a Policy Statement involved in the development-biodiversity nexus, and to monitor and
on “Integrating Biodiversity and Associated Ecosystem Services evaluate the impacts of their biodiversity projects and programmes.

Key links:
www.oecd.org/env/biodiversity/people
www.oecd.org/dac/stats
www.oecd.org/dac/environment

ECONOMIC AND POLICY ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY . 15

Sector-specific
analysis
Many of the drivers of biodiversity loss and degradation are A 2009 OECD working paper on “Promoting
determined by decisions that are made outside the domain of Biodiversity Co-Benefits in Reducing Emissions
environment ministries. Better policy coherence is needed at both from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
the national and international level to help mainstream biodiversity (REDD)” examines how biodiversity co-benefits
into cross-sectoral policies. OECD work examines linkages between in REDD can be enhanced, both at the design
biodiversity and climate change, water, agriculture and fisheries, as and implementation level. It discusses potential
well as biotechnology. biodiversity implications of different REDD
design options that have been put forward in
Biodiversity and Climate Change the international climate change negotiations
and examines how the creation of additional
Biodiversity and climate change are biodiversity-specific incentives could be used to complement a REDD
intrinsically linked. Climate change will mechanism, so as to target biodiversity benefits directly.
have significant impacts on biological
diversity (e.g., shifting the distributional This paper built on discussion at an OECD expert workshop on
location of some ecosystems as well as altering their composition, Capturing the Carbon and Biodiversity Benefits for Reducing Deforestation:
including via impacts on invasive species) and thus will also affect Linkages, Synergies and Limitations, held in March 2008.
the quantity and quality of the services provided by ecosystems. It
is therefore essential to recognise the role of biodiversity in climate Previous work at the OECD has examined the implications of climate
change mitigation and adaptation strategies, through, inter alia, change and adaptation opportunities in critical ecosystems such as
carbon sequestration such as REDD-plus and ecosystem-based Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and the Sundarbans in Bangladesh.
adaptation, while taking action to minimise the adverse effects to
biodiversity as a result of climate change. Key links:
www.oecd.org/env/biodiversity
www.oecd.org/env/cc/redd
www.oecd.org/env/cc/adaptation.htm

16 . OECD WORK ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS

Biodiversity and water Biodiversity and agriculture

Water management and biodiversity are Agriculture is the major land and water user
closely intertwined. The OECD book Water in OECD and non-OECD countries. As such
Security for Better Lives (2013) identifies the it heavily impacts on biodiversity. The OECD
resilience of freshwater systems as one of Compendium of Agri-environmental Indicators
the four water-related risks that need to be (2013) shows that despite improvements
managed. It argues that setting acceptable levels of water risk should be in environmental performance of agriculture
the result of well-informed policy choices which take trade-offs with other during the last decade, the results for
related security objectives, including biodiversity, into account. The book biodiversity are more mixed.
explores how biodiversity policy can enhance water security.
Although agriculture plays a relatively minor
OECD work on the financing of water resources management has role in most OECD countries in terms of its
analysed, among other issues, how ecosystem management can be contribution to GDP and employment, a wide
considered and funded as a water management tool, alongside water range of government policies provide significant
infrastructure and water governance needs, in national water policy support in many OECD countries. Support to
and practice. The OECD publication A Framework for Financing Water farmers in OECD countries has fallen in the
Resources Management (2012) acknowledges biodiversity and ecosystem last two decades as measured by the percentage Producer Support
conservation as a direct benefit of improved water management. Estimate (PSE), from 30% of farmers’ total receipts in 1995-97 on
average to 19% in 2010-12. In total it amounted to an estimated
According to the 2010 OECD publication Sustainable Management of Water USD 253 billion on average per year in 2010-12. Such policies can have
Resources in Agriculture, over-exploitation of water resources by agriculture important effects on biodiversity associated with agricultural activities.
in certain areas is damaging ecosystems by reducing water flows below
minimum levels in rivers, lakes and wetlands, which is also detrimental to Over recent decades, as a consequence of policy reform in many
recreational, fishing and cultural uses of these ecosystems. OECD countries, there has been some shift away from production-
linked support (decoupling) which has thus enabled the sector
Key link: www.oecd.org/water to respond to a greater extent to market signals, with potentially
positive implications for biodiversity. Nevertheless, production-linked

SECTOR-SPECIFIC ANALYSIS . 17
support still predominates. The effect of policies and policy reform Biodiversity and fisheries
on biodiversity is, however, complex and varies across and within
countries. Policies to subsidise inputs (such as water) or outputs The oceans are home to an extraordinarily
(such as price support) can maintain or increase production above rich and diverse marine life. The marine
what would otherwise be the case, using greater amounts of inputs environment is under pressure from a
that have harmful environmental effects. This can contribute to variety of ocean activities as well as climate
loss of biodiversity as well as water pollution from greater use of change. Maintaining a healthy level of
fertilisers and pesticides (and from manure application causing marine biodiversity helps ensure the oceans will remain a productive
nutrient run-off due to higher numbers of livestock), soil erosion, food source and a provider of other valuable ecosystem services.
and increased greenhouse gas emissions. In some regions however Fisheries and aquaculture are an important source of nutrition and
such policies can maintain extensive production, traditional farming livelihoods for many coastal communities, but putting these sectors
systems and practices that are associated with the preservation of on a sustainable footing has been a challenge.
environmentally sensitive land or valued ecosystems and biodiversity.
The OECD has been helping to tackle the economic, social and
Not all forms of agricultural support are environmentally-harmful, environmental challenges facing fisheries and aquaculture for many
and some support measures are targeted to the achievement years. Two reports, “The Economics of Rebuilding Fisheries: Workshop
of specific environmental objectives, including biodiversity. Proceedings” (from a workshop in Rhode Island, May 2009) and
Some support, for example, pays for research and development, “Rebuilding Fisheries: The Way Forward” (2012), provide evidence-based
information and advice, food inspection services or the provision guidelines for economists, biologists, fisheries managers and policy
by farmers of non-marketed environmental services, such as makers on how to best rebuild depleted fisheries. On the basis of this
biodiversity, flood and drought control, sinks for greenhouse gases work, the OECD’s Council, in April 2012, agreed to a Recommendation
and carbon storage. In some countries, income support is conditional on Principles and Guidelines for the Design and Implementation of
on the respect of environmental and other regulations. Plans for Rebuilding Fisheries.

Key links:
www.oecd.org/agriculture/env/indicators Released in 2013, The OECD Handbook for Fisheries Managers illustrates
www.oecd.org/agriculture/agriculturalpoliciesandsupport/ how to design and implement policies to maximise the economic
producerandconsumersupportestimatesdatabase.htm
and social value of the fisheries while conserving marine biodiversity
and habitats. Future work is aimed at demonstrating how the OECD’s

18 . OECD WORK ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS

green growth principles can help the fisheries and aquaculture agricultural species, trees, micro-organisms, as well as introduced
sectors to be a source of sustainable economic growth – in particular traits, aims to provide practical tools for national authorities
by increasing efficiency, reducing waste and improving governance. when dealing with environmental risk and safety assessment. In
consultation with the FAO and the CBD Secretariat on biosafety
Key link: www.oecd.org/fisheries
clearing-house activities, the OECD has developed a database on
biotech products in which varieties authorised for release to the
Biodiversity and biotechnology environment are described.

The basis for the improvement of crop plants and agricultural

Modern biotechnology offers a wide range
animals depends upon access to a wide range of genetic resources.
of new products in the fields of industry,
The loss of biodiversity could compromise the potential to obtain
health and agriculture. Agricultural
improved varieties which could adapt to changing conditions.
applications, as well as those for forestry
Biodiversity conservation is therefore crucial for the efficiency of
and animal breeding, can lead to the
future breeding work.
use of new varieties with traits which
offer improvements in yield or, for example, the decreased use of Key link: www.oecd.org/biotrack
pesticides through pest resistance. Drought-tolerant varieties are
becoming available for major crops such as maize. In the future,
other traits such as flood resistance, soil salinity tolerance, or carbon
assimilation could play a role in the adaptation to climate change Did you know...?
and the reduction of agriculture’s environmental footprint.
Sugarcane was the first drought-tolerant
However these innovations – new varieties of plants, animals or variety developed by Indonesian public
micro-organisms – should only be used after taking into account research and should be grown beginning in
their potential negative impacts on the environment, including 2014. Wheat and poplar trees are also among
biodiversity. Such biosafety concerns are recognised and many the promising species studied for genetic
countries have a system in place to ensure environmental safety, improvements of their resistance to abiotic
especially with respect to transgenic crops. The Series of “OECD stress, including water scarcity.
Consensus Documents” developed on the biology of major

SECTOR-SPECIFIC ANALYSIS . 19
Publications and Reports

Bagnoli, P., T. Goeschl and E. Kovacs (2008), People and Biodiversity Policies: OECD (2010), Paying for Biodiversity: Enhancing the Cost-Effectiveness of
Impacts, Issues and Strategies for Policy Action, OECD Publishing, Payments for Ecosystem Services, OECD Publishing,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264034341-en. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264090279-en.
Karousakis, K. (2009), “Promoting Biodiversity Co-Benefits in REDD” OECD (2010), Sustainable Management of Water Resources in Agriculture,
OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 11. OECD Publishing, OECD Studies on Water, OECD Publishing,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/220188577008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264083578-en.
OECD (2013), Scaling-up Finance Mechanisms for Biodiversity, OECD (2010), Policy Statement on Integrating Biodiversity and Associated
OECD Publishing, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264193833-en. Ecosystem Services into Development Co-operation,
OECD (2013), OECD DAC statistics Biodiversity-related Aid: http://www.oecd. http://www.oecd.org/dac/environment-development/46024461.pdf.
org/dac/stats/documentupload/Biodiversity-related%20aid%20Flyer%20 OECD (2009), Natural Resources and Pro-Poor Growth: The Economics and
-%20December%202013_FINAL.pdf. Politics, DAC Guidelines and Reference Series, OECD Publishing,
OECD (2013), The OECD Handbook for Fisheries Managers: Principles and http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264122246-en.
Practice for Policy Design, OECD Publishing, OECD (2008), Environmental Performance of Agriculture in OECD Countries
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264191150-en. since 1990, OECD Publishing, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264040854-en.
OECD (2012), Illegal Trade in Environmentally Sensitive Goods, OECD (2008), Environmental Performance of Agriculture at a Glance,
OECD Publishing, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264174328-en. OECD Publishing, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264046788-en.
OECD (2012), OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050: The Consequences of OECD (2008), “Report on Implementation of the 2004 Council Recommendation
Inaction, OECD Publishing, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264122246-en. on the Use of Economic Instruments in Promoting the Conservation and
OECD (2011), OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Norway 2011, Sustainable Use of Biodiversity”, [ENV/EPOC/GSP/BIO(2008)1/FINAL].
OECD Publishing, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264098473-en. OECD (2004), Council Recommendation on “The Use of Economic Instruments
OECD (2011), OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Israel 2011, in Promoting the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity”,
OECD Publishing, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264117563-en. [C(2004)81].

www.oecd.org/env/biodiversity
env.contact@oecd.org